INTRODUCTION TO

BIOLOGY
THE CELL : BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Guided By: Presented By:

prof. Javeriya Mam Sanjay Devale

CELL
 It is the smallest unit of living matter.
 The cells were first described by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 The nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in the year 1831.
 They are also capable of transforming into different types of cells, a specialization
called as cell differentiation.
 The cells have a few things in common such as having cell membrane,
deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA), cytoplasm, and ribosome but they are different with
regard to structure, shape, and functions.
CELL THEORY

 The observation of Hooke and others led to the development of cell theory.
 All living things and organisms are made up of cells and their products.
Multicellular organisms (example: humans) are composed of many cells
while unicellular organisms (example: bacteria) are composed of only one
cell.
 Cells are the basic building units of life. They are the smallest structures
capable of surviving on their own.
 New cells arise from the pre-existing cells by division. For example, new
cells arise from cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an
organism is produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell.
Types of cell

1.Prokaryotic cell : The type of cells that do not have a well-defined nucleus and no
membrane-bound organelles are known as prokaryotic cells. Ex : Bacterial cell.
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell
 The size of a prokaryotic cell can range between 0.2 to 10 microns.
 The absence of clearly-defined membrane-limited organelles such as Golgi complex and mitochondria.
 Histone proteins that are essential for the formation of chromosomes in the eukaryotic cells are absent.
 The mitotic apparatus and the nucleolus are absent.
 The cell membrane below the cell wall is produced into the cytoplasm and acts as the mitochondrial
membrane to carry respiratory enzymes.

REPRODUCTION IN PROKARYOTES:

 Recombination : conjugation, transformation , transduction

 Asexual reproduction : Binary Fission , budding , fragmentation
2. Eukaryotic cell : Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and
organelles . Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells .They are classified
under the kingdom Eukaryota.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
• The cell has mitochondria.
• Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
• A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
• The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
• The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.
FUNCTIONS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

 The functions of a eukaryotic cell are responsible for the healthy shape and functioning of
all living things.
 Production of food and energy.
 Growth.
 Development.
 Reproduction.
 Regulation of cell growth and death.
Plant cell Animal cell
PLANT CELL TYPES
 Collenchyma Cells
 Sclerenchyma Cells
 Parenchyma Cells
 Xylem Cells
 Phloem Cells

ANIMAL CELL TYPES

 Skin Cells :Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells
 Muscle Cells :Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells
 Blood Cells :Leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelet
 Nerve Cells :Schwann cell, glial cells etc
 Fat Cells :Adipocytes
FUNCTION OF PLANT CELL

 Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant cells, and therefore these are
known as the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the process that occurs in
the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process by which plants prepare their food
utilizing sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Energy is produced in the form of ATP
in the process.

FUNCTION OF ANIMAL CELL

 Animal cells perform multiple functions essential for the survival and adaptation of
organisms. Important functions of animal cells are: Mitochondria present in the
animal cell produce energy through cellular respiration, that is, ATP the energy
currency of the cell. The plasma membrane of the animal cell regulates the entry and
exit of substances and maintains cellular homeostasis
STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
 Stem cells are unspecialized cells having the ability of self-renewal through
cell division for long period. These stem cells have the potential to develop
into specialized cells such as blood cells, muscle cells, neurons, myocytes,
bone cells, hepatocytes etc.
IMPORTANCE OF STEM CELLS
 Stem cells can replicate indefinitely so they are serving as internal repair system
for body to replace dead or damaged cells.
 When a stem cell divides, one of the daughter cells has to remain unspecialized
(like a parent stem cell) and the another daughter cell has become specialized cell
type such as brain cell, blood cell under certain physiological condition.

SOURCES OF STEM CELLS

Embryonic stem cells : zygote is developed which undergoes series of cell division,
and produces blastocyst. In early blastocyst stage (5-7 days), a group of
approximately 30 cells called inner cell mass (ICM) is surrounded by an outer layer .
which provides nutrient to the embryo and develops into a large part of the placenta.
Adult stem cells: Adult stem cells are tissue-specific, undifferentiated cells found in
differentiated tissues or organs including brain, bone marrow, peripheral blood,
blood vessels, skeletal muscle , skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian epithelium, and
testes . Their main role is to play in tissue repair and tissue maintenance.
Adult type stem cells can be derived from various pregnancy-related tissues such as
umbilical cords, placentas, and amniotic fluids.
APPLICATIONS OF STEM CELLS
 Stem cells technology has a broad range of applications:
1. Therapeutic cloning
2. Regenerative medicine
3. Gene therapy
BIOMOLECULES
 A biomolecule is a chemical compound found in living organisms. These include
chemicals that are composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus. Biomolecules are the building blocks of life and perform
important functions in living organisms.
 There are four major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic
acids and Lipids.

LIPIDS
 Lipids are a group of diverse macromolecules consisting of fatty acids and their
derivatives that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 Lipids occur naturally in living beings like plants, animals, and microorganisms
that form various components like cell membranes, hormones, and energy storage
molecules.
 These are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS
 Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.
 Pure fats and oils are colourless , odourless, and tasteless.
 They are energy-rich organic molecules
 Insoluble in water
 Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
 No ionic charges
 Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty acids.
 Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids.

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
 Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes.
 Cholesterol acts as a precursor to fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamin D and
hormones.
 Lipids are also activators of enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase, β-
hydroxybutyric dehydrogenase, and stearyl CoA desaturase.Functions of Lipids.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acid.
 In a live cell, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two forms
of nucleic acids.
 In 1969, Friedrich Miescher discovered both DNA and RNA.
 Nucleic acids are macromolecules that are found in every living cell, either alone or in
conjunction with other substances.
 The nitrogenous bases are made up of one or two heterocyclic rings that include
nitrogen atoms. Adenine (A), guanine (G), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and thymine (5-
methyl uracil) are the five bases (T).
 Nucleosides: Sugar + Base.
 Nucleotides are made up of three parts: base, sugar, and phosphate.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACID

 Nucleic acids are genetic material for all living cells.
 Nucleic acids play a role in protein production, either directly or indirectly.
FUNCTIONS OF DNA AND RNA
DNA:In most living creatures, DNA serves as the genetic material. It transmits genetic
information from generation to generation and from cell to cell.
Its primary functions are:
 Keeping genetic records
 Protein synthesis control
 Identifying genetic code
 Metabolic activity, evolution, heredity, and differentiation are all directly influenced by
this protein.
 It is a stable molecule that can store more complex information for longer.
RNA:RNA of various forms is engaged in a variety of biological processes.
 Make it easier for DNA to be translated into proteins.
 In protein production, it acts as an adaptor molecule.
 Between the DNA and the ribosomes, it acts as a messenger.
 All living cells are the carriers of genetic information
CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or
ketones) that also contain several hydroxyl groups. It may also include their derivatives
which produce such compounds on hydrolysis. They are the most abundant organic
molecules in nature and are also referred to as “saccharides”. The carbohydrates which
are soluble in water and sweet in taste are called “sugars”.

PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Physical properties:
 Stereoisomerism –Compound shaving the same structural formula but they differ in
spatial configuration. Example: Glucose.
 Optical Activity – It is the rotation of plane-polarized light forming (+) glucose and (-)
glucose.
 Diastereo isomers – It the configurational changes with regard to C2, C3, or C4 in
glucose.Example: Mannose, galactose.
 Annomerism second carbon atom in ketoses.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
 Osazone formation
 Benedict’s test
 Oxidation
 Reduction to alcohols

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Living organisms use carbohydrates as accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions.Serve
as energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates. It is stored as glycogen in animals
and starch in plants.
 They form structural and protective components, like in the cell wall of plants and
microorganisms. Structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria (peptidoglycan or
murein), plants (cellulose), and animals (chitin).
 Serve as energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates. It is stored as glycogen in
animals and starch in plants.
 Also, they help in the modulation of the immune system.
PROTEINS
 Proteins are macromolecules made up of monomers called amino acids. Amino acids are the
building block of all proteins.
 A protein is a macronutrient that is present in all living beings and is directly involved in
various metabolic pathways.
 Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids, and the property of a protein molecule is a
function of the amino acids present.
 Amino acids in proteins are linked together by peptide bonds that are formed between the
NH2 group of one amino acid to the COOH group of another amino acid.
 Proteins are also termed polypeptides, as they are long chains of amino acids connected by
peptide bonds.

PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
 Solubility in Water
 Denaturation and Renaturation
 Coagulation
 Isoelectric point

 Physical agents: Heat, radiation, pH
 Chemical agents: Urea solution which forms new hydrogen bonds in the protein, organic
solvents, detergents.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
 The nucleoproteins serve as carriers of genetic characters and hence govern the
inheritance of traits.
 Proteins also perform transport functions .
 Blood plasma has multiple soluble proteins that can be used for the treatment of shock
produced by severe injuries and operations.
 Peptides from humans called defensins are antibiotic in nature.
 Many proteins act as catalysts that enhance the rate of chemical reactions in various
metabolic pathways.
 Many proteins act as catalysts that enhance the rate of chemical reactions in various
metabolic pathways.
ENZYMES
 Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.
 The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform
different processes.
 The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a
molecule and is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct
molecules, which are known as products.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
 Enzymes are very specific in their action.
 Enzymes are very sensitive to heat
 Enzymes are sensitive to inhibitors.

Cofactors:Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A

cofactor is essential for the functioning of an enzyme.
 Prosthetic groups
 Coenzyme
 Metal ions
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

 Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
 They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by
the body.
 Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
 Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.

Examples of enzymes:
1.Beverages
2. Food Products
3. Drug Action
Enzyme Classification
VITAMINS
 Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in
small quantities for proper metabolic function.
TYPES OF VITAMINS
Vitamin A-Night blindness and Keratomalacia
Vitamin B1-Beriberi and WernickeKorsakoff syndrome.
Vitamin B2-Inflammation of the lips.
Vitamin B3-Pellagra, which can cause diarrhea, and intestinal upset.
Vitamin B5-Paresthesia
Vitamin B6-Anemia and Peripheral Neuropathy.
Vitamin B7-Dermatitis or Inflammation of the intestines.
Vitamin B9-During pregnancy, this can affect the nervous system of the fetus.
Vitamin B12-Neurological Problems
Vitamin C-Scurvy
Vitamin D-Rickets and Osteomalacia
Vitamin E-Hemolytic anemia in newborns. This condition destroys blood cells.
Vitamin K-Unusual susceptibility to bleeding, or bleeding diathesis.
HORMONES
 Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules that stream
through the bloodstream.
 The importance of hormones in the proper functioning of the human body is immense .
They control the functions of organs and influence their growth, reproduction and sexual
characteristics.
Our body contains two different kinds of glands:
 Endocrine Glands: These glands, such as the pituitary and adrenal glands, do not have
ducts and deliver their secretions through the blood straight to the site of action.
 Exocrine Glands: These glands have ducts by which their secretions are transported.
Example : sweat and liver.

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES
 Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
 Growth and development.
 Maintaining body temperature.
 Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction
PROPERTIES OF HORMONES
 They have a low molecular weight; thus, they can easily pass through capillaries.
 The importance of hormones is that they are non-antigenic. They are organic catalysts .
Hormones act as coenzymes of other enzymes in the human body.
 They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
 A significant characteristic of hormones is that, after their function is over, they are readily
destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
 Hormonal activities are not hereditary.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HORMONES
 Endocrine cells release hormones into the body.
 They are not stored beforehand and are only secreted in minute amounts when necessary.
 Circulating in bodily fluids, hormones are chemical messengers.
 Unlike enzymes, hormones do not catalyse any reactions.
 The majority of the time, hormones have long-lasting impacts such as altered behaviour ,
growth, etc.