Lipid metabolism -

overview
 Dr.Shota
Oxidation of Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are an important source of

energy
Oxidation is the process where energy is
produced by degradation of fatty acids
There are several types of fatty acids
oxidation.
(1) β- oxidation of fatty acid
(2) α- oxidation of fatty acids
(3) ω- oxidation of fatty acids
 β- oxidation of fatty acid
Beta-oxidation is the process by which fatty acids, in the
form of Acyl-CoA molecules, are broken down in
mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to generate Acetyl-CoA –
enters TCA cycle
It occurs in many tissues including liver kidney and heart.
Fatty acids oxidation doesn't occur in the brain, as fatty acid
can't be taken up by that organ.
Stages
 The beta oxidation of fatty acids involve
three stages:
1. Activation of fatty acids in the cytosol
2. Transport of activated fatty acids into mitochondria
(carnitine shuttle)
3. Beta oxidation proper in the mitochondrial matrix
1) Activation of FA:

This proceeds by FA thiokinase (acyl COA synthetase)

present in cytosol
Thiokinase requires ATP, COA SH, Mg++. The product
of this reaction is FA acyl COA and water.
2- Transport of fatty acyl CoA from cytosol into
mitochondria: ( rate-limiting step)
Long chain acyl CoA traverses the inner
mitochondrial membrane with a special transport
mechanism called Carnitine shuttle.

The cytosol

The matrix
2-Transport of acyl CoA into the mitochondria
(rate-limiting step)
1. Acyl groups from acyl COA is transferred to carnitine
to form acyl carnitine catalyzed by carnitine
acyltransferase I, in the outer mitochondrial
membrane.
2. Acylcarnitine is then shuttled across the inner
mitochondrial membrane by a translocase enzyme.
3. The acyl group is transferred back to CoA in matrix by
carnitine acyl transferase II.
4. Finally, carnitine is returned to the cytosolic side by
translocase, in exchange for an incoming acyl carnitine.
3. Proper of β – oxidation in the mitochondrial matrix
There are 4 steps in β C– oxidation
Step I – Oxidation by FAD linked dehydrogenase
Step II – Hydration by Hydratase
Step III – Oxidation by NAD linked dehydrogenase
Step IV – Thiolytic clevage Thiolase
The first reaction is the oxidation of acyl CoA by an
acyl CoA dehyrogenase to give α-β unsaturarted acyl
CoA (enoyl CoA).
FAD is the hydrogen acceptor.
The second reaction is the hydration of the double
bond to β-hydroxyacyl CoA (p-hydroxyacyl CoA).
The third reaction is the oxidation of β-hydroxyacyl
CoA to produce β-Ketoacyl CoA a NAD-dependent
reaction.
The fourth reaction is cleavage of the two carbon
fragment by splitting the bond between α and β
carbons
By thiolase enzyme.
energetics
FADH2 - 1.5 ATP
NADH2 - 2.5 ATP
Each cycle 4 ATP
Palmitic acid – 7 cycles - 7 x 4 = 28
Acetyl CoA - 8 x 10 ATP – 80
Activation energy loss – 2 ATP
Net energy- 108 – 2 = 106 ATP
Regulation
The availability of fatty acids influences beta
oxidation.
Glucagon by activating hormone sensitive lipase
increases FFA level in blood
Insulin inhibits Beta oxidation by inhibiting this
enzyme.
Malonyl CoA inhibits CAT-1 activity.
 Cholesterol biosynthesis
Location of pathway
1.The pathway is located in the
cytosol
2.Raw material Acetyl-CoA.
3.Most cells can make cholesterol,
but liver is most active.
Stages
1 - Synthesis of mevalonate
2. Synthesis of isopentenyl units
3. Synthesis of squalene
4.Synthesis of lanosterol
5. Synthesis of cholesterol
 Cholesterol Biosynthesis:
Formation of Mevalonate
Liver is primary site of cholesterol biosynthesis

Thiolase
2 CH3COSCoA CH3COCH2COSCoA CH3COSCoA
Acetoacetyl CoA
HMG CoA
Synthase

OH OH
HMGCoA
reductase
HO2C-CH2-C-CH2CH2OH HO2C-CH2-C-CH2COSCoA

CH3 CoASH CH3

3R-Mevalonic acid -Hydroxy--methyl-

Key control step
glutaryl CoA (HMG CoA)
in cholesterol
biosynthesis
 HMG-CoA
Reductase

HMG-CoA reductase
1. integral membrane protein in the ER
2. carries out an irreversible reaction
3. is an important regulatory enzyme in cholesterol synthesis
Inhibitors of
HMG-CoA
Reductase
Cholesterol Biosynthesis:
Processing of Mevalonate
OH OH
-
O2C-CH2-C-CH2CH2OH 2 Steps -O C-CH -C-CH CH OPOP
2 2 2 2
CH3
ATP CH3
Mevalonate
5-Pyrophospho-
mevalonate

- CO2
- H2 O
CH3 Isomerase
CH3-C=CH2CH2OPOP CH2=C-CH2CH2OPOP
Dimethylallyl Isopentenyl
CH3
pyrophosphate pyrophosphate
Cholesterol Synthesis:
Cholesterol Biosynthesis:
Isoprenoid Condensation
Dimethylallyl Tail
pyrophosphate Head to tail
OPOP
Condensation Head Tail
OPOP
Head OPOP
Tail Geranyl transferase
H
Isopentenyl
Head Pyrophosphate (IPP)
Geranyl
Pyrophosphate (GPP)
Isoprenes
Geranyl Head to tail
Tail to tail transferase condensation
condensation of IPP and GPP
of 2 FPPs

Squalene OPOP
Squalene synthase
Head Tail
Farnesyl
Pyrophosphate (FPP)
Regulation of
Cholesterol
Production
Transformations of
Cholesterol: Bile Salts
HO
CH3 CH3
CO2-
CH3 CH3

HO HO OH
H

Cholesterol Cholic acid

CH3
R = CH2SO3- Taurocholate
CONHCH
2R
R = CO2- Glycocholate

Detergents
Transformations of Cholesterol:
Steroid Hormones
OH

O
CH3 HO OH
O

CH3

O
HO
O
Cholesterol Cortisol
Progesterone
OH

OH

OH

HO Testosterone
CH 2

Estradiol Vitamin D
HO OH
Factors affecting serum cholesterol
Role of Fatty acids

Effect of high fructose intake on blood lipids

Hypercholesterolemia occurs in diabetes mellitus,

Hypothyroidism, Obstructive jaundice, Familial
hypercholesterolemia.
Hereditary factor -In familial
hypercholesterolemia, due to LDL receptor defect,
LDL cholesterol uptake is reduced

Hypolipidemic drugs
 Statins - competitive inhibitors of HMG CoA-
reductase.

Clofibrate It enhances fecal excretion of

cholesterol and bile acids and also increases the
peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids in liver.
Cholestyramine This increases their excretion
bile acids in the stools.

Clofibrates, gemfibrosil lower plasma TGL by

decreasing VLDL .Activate lipoprotein lipase.

Probucol increases the catabolism of LDL. It also

has antioxidant properties

Nicotinic acid reduces lipolysis and inhibits

VLDL production.
Ketogenesis
Acetoacetate, beta hydroxy butyrate and acetone
In the liver mitochondria.
Two molecules of acetyl CoA condense to form acatoacetyl CoA
by thiolase or acetoacetyl CoA synthase .

Step two: Acetoacetyl CoA condenses with another molecule

of acetyl CoA to form 3-Hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA
(HMG-CoA) by HMG-CoA synthase enzyme.

Step three: HMG-CoA lyase cleaves HMG - CoA to

acetoacetate and acetyl CoA.

Step four: Acetoacetate is the primary ketone body.

It is reduced to beta hydroxy butyrate by beta-hydroxy butyrate
dehydrogenase using NADH+H+ as coenzyme.

Acetoacetate undergoes non enzymatic spontaneous

decarboxylation to acetone.
Fate of ketone
3-hydroxy bodies
butyrate is the predominant ketone body
present in blood and urine in ketosis.
Liver cannot utilize ketone bodies
It lacks the particular enzyme- the CoA – transferase
or thiophorase.
Peripheral tissues utilize them.- Succinyl CoA –
acetoacetate CoA transferase or thiophorase
Succinyl CoA + acetoacetate – succinate + acetacetyl
CoA
Regulation
If there is increase of lipolysis, there is increase of
ketogenesis.
 Insulin inhibits ketogenesis
Glucagon and norepinephrine promotes .
In diabetes mellitus , due to insulin deficiency, ketosis
occurs.
Starvation – increase of ketogenesis
Chylomicrons

 Dietary lipid absorbed in the small intestine is incorporated into

chylomicrons which reach systemic circulation via lymphatics,
thoracic duct .
 In circulation , by the action of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) ,
chylomicrons on releasing fatty acids and glycerol become smaller
in size known as chylomciron remnants.
 The remnants are removed in the liver by receptor mediated
endocytosis.
 Insulin increases LPL activity
 In type I hyperlipoproteinemia , there is a defect in LPL leading to
fasting chylomicronemia . VLDL is also increased
 Hepatomegaly, eruptive xanthoma, lipemia retinalis and abdominal
pain are characteristic features
Treatment

Fat diet containing short and medium chain fatty

acids
High carbohydrates diet will induce VLDL synthesis
and it is to be limited
When fasting serum kept in fridge for 24 hrs, a creamy
layer on top due to chylomicrons appear and on
electrophoresis, a band at the point of application is
seen.
VLDL Very low density lipoproteins

They are involved in the transport of triacyglcyerol,

cholesterol produced in the liver.
LPL acts on it and releases fatty acids and glycerol on
hydrolysis of TGL
VLDL becomes IDL that contain apo B100 & apo E
Part of IDL is taken up liver via Apo B100, E receptor
Part of IDL releases TGL, apo E and becomes LDL-a
cholesterol rich, apo B100 containing lipoprotein.
Low density lipoprotein (LDL)

LDL transports cholesterol from liver to extra hepatic

tissues. LDL concentration positively correlates with
cardiovascular disease
LDL is taken up by LDL receptors mainly present in
liver, adrenal cortex and extra hepatic tissues .
Familial hypercholesterolemia

Type II a-hyperlipoproteinemia
It is due to LDL receptor defect
Serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol are increased
where as TGL is normal on electrophoresis, beta-band
is increased
Tuberous xanthoma, atherosclerosis and early CAD.
Low cholesterol high PUFA diet and drugs such as
HMG CoA reductase inhibitors ,bile acid binding
resin are given.
High density lipoprotein

It is synthesized and secreted from both liver and

intestine.
Nascent HDL is discoid, phospholipid bilayer
containing apo A and free cholesterol.
Plasma enzyme LCAT (Lecithin cholesterol acyl
transferase) by activator Apo A1 bind to the disk and
esterifies cholesterol.
Non-polar cholesteryl ester forms the core and HDL
becomes spherical .
Lipid profile (Reference range)

Total serum cholesterol : 140 – 200 mg/dL

Serum LDL cholesterol – less than 100mg/dl

Serum triglycerides - 50- 150 mg/dL (Less than

100 mg/dL is optimal)

Serum HDL cholesterol - 40- 70 mg/dL

HDL Less than 40 mg/dL in men and less than 50
mg/dL in women increases the risk of heart
disease.
HDL more than 60 mg/dl decreases the risk of
heart disease.

LDL/HDL ratio – less than 3 is cardio protective

and more than 5 increases the risk.

Total cholesterol/ HDL ratio should be less than

5:1 . Ideal is 3.5:1.
Thank you