• The development of self-understanding in adolescence

involves a number of theories about the self, identity,

and personality.

• Theories about the self give way for the identification of

which characteristics of the self are relevant and the
understanding of these characteristics are related to
each other.
 Foster discourse on the different conceptualizations o
identity based on different sociocultural context
(Santrock, 2002)
• This chapter outlines the psychological theories that
influence the way people understand the self.
• Understanding the self is the highest when the different
parts of the self become integrative.
• William James suggests that the self is divided into
two categories:
1. I-Self
 Refers to the self that knows who he or she is also called
the Thinking Self.
 Reflects the soul of a person or the mind which is also
called the Pure Ego.
2. ME-SELF
 The empirical self which refers to the person’s personal
experiences and is further divided into subcategories:
1. The Material Self – attributed to an individual’s physical attributes
and material possessions that contributes to one’s self-image.

2. Social Self – refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social
situations.

3. Spiritual Self – refers to the most intimate and important part of the
self that includes the person’s purpose, core values, conscience, and
moral behavior. James believes that the path to understanding the
spiritual self requires introspection.
• Another aspect of self-understanding that is
important in adolescent years focuses on self-concept
This refers to the image of oneself.

• Psychologist Carl Rogers defines the self as a flexible

and changing perception of personal identity.

The self is the center of experience (Rathus, 2017)

• He suggests that the self develops from interactions
with significant people and awareness of one’s own
characteristics and level of functioning.

• According to Rogers, human beings are always striving

for self-fulfillment or self-actualization.

• When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety

may arise.
• Central to achieving self-actualization is the
development of self-concept.
• Roger suggests two components of self-concept:
1. Real Self – consists of all the ideas, including the awaren
of what one is and what one can do.

2. Ideal Self – is the person’s conception of what one shoul

or what one aspires to be which includes one’s goals an
ambitions in life.
• In Roger’s view, the closer the ideal self to the real
self, the more fulfilled and happier the individual
becomes but when the ideal self is far from the real
self, the person becomes unhappy and dissatisfied
(Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, Bem & Nolen-Hoeksema,
2009)
Self-understanding in adolescents also includes
conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified and
true or false.

The construction of multiple selves varies across

different interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and
relationships.
Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable
task among adolescents. These challenges contribute
heavily to the young person’s struggle for a unified
self.
The task of integrating one’s multiple selves naturally
causes concern. Given the enormous challenges of
self-integration, it is important that adolescents
are supported in their effort to create a consistent,
coherent, or unified theory of the self (Santrock, 2002)
• Winnicott has found that the self is composed of
the true self and false self.
 • Albert Bandura (2001) posits that humans, through their
agency are perceived as proactive agents of experiences.

• Agency embodies the endowments, belief system,

self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures
and functions through which personal influence is
exercised, rather than reside as a discrete entity.
• The core features of agency enable people to play a part in
their self-development, adaptation and self-renewal.
• The main features of human agency:
1. Intentionally – refers to acts done intentionally.
Intentions center on plans of action with the
anticipation of possible outcomes.

2. Forethought – enables the person to anticipate the

likely consequences of prospective actions. Through
the exercise of forethought, people are guided in their
actions in the anticipation of future events.
3. Self-Reactiveness – involves making choices and
choosing appropriate courses of action as well as
motivating and regulating them.

4. Self-Reflectiveness – gives the person the ability to

reflect upon and the adequacy of his or her thoughts
and actions.
• People are not only agents of action but also
self-examiners of their own functioning.

Efficacy Beliefs are the foundation of human agency.

Also play a central role in self-regulation which is the
ability of an individual to control his or her behavior
without having to rely on others for help.
• Self-Efficacy refers to the individuals’ belief that he
or she is capable to perform a task which influences
whether he or she will think pessimistically or
optimistically and in ways that are self-enhancing or
self-hindering.
• Carl Jung’s theory of the self is the concept of archetypes.

• Archetypes are the universal models after which roles are

patterned.

• It represents the hidden potential of the psyche, or total

personality.

• Jung suggests that the psyche continues to develop throughout

life, but the psych starts to show a definite form and content
during adolescence.
• According to him, archetypes reside in the personal unconscious
(forgotten experiences) that is common to human beings, known
as the collective unconscious.

• For Jung there are 4 major archetypes:

1. Persona – refers to social roles that individuals present to
others.
2. Shadow – refers to the repressed thoughts that are socially
unacceptable. This archetype is often considered as the dark
side of the psyche.
3. Animus/Anima – anima is the feminine side of the male
psyche while the animus is the masculine side of the female
psyche.
4. Self – the self is the central archetype that unites all parts of
 • According to Sigmund Freud, the dynamic forces within the self
are many and in inevitable conflict.

• He argues that the mind is composed of 3 structures through

which personality is formed:
1. Id – refers to the component of the personality characterized
by its need to satisfy basic urges and desires.
2. Ego – refers to the I and operates on the reality principle and
controls the id.
3. Superego – refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of
one’s conduct.
• It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego
is the angel, and ego is the person in the middle. The id, ego, and
superego are often in conflict with each other. .

• Freud uses the term “ego strength” to refer to the ego’s ability
to resolve the conflict between the three structures. If this
constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality problems
may arise.
In Freud’s view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series
of stage. Freud calls these psychosexual stages of developmen
that progress through five stages.
1. Oral stage – lasts from birth to the first year of life. During
this stage, babies derived pleasure from oral activities like
sucking or biting.

2. Anal stage – occurs around the second year of life. During this
stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination of body
wastes. Through toilet training, the child learns the basic rules
of society.
3. Phallic stage – usually occurs around ages 3 and 6. Children
during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching,
fondling, or displaying their genitals. These behaviors are
likely motivated by curiosity about the differences between
the anatomy of man and woman.

4. Latency stage – lasts from 7 to 12 years of age. At this stage,

sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied
with school.

5. Genital stage – starts from adolescence to adulthood. During

this stage, pleasure is again derived from genital area and
individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual
• In Erik Erikson's theory, adolescence is a period of identity
development.
• Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that requires
adolescents to distance themselves from strong expectations
and definitions imposed by parents and other family members.

• To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the

self that is authentic which is anchored on the meaning of his or
her goals for the future sense of having hold of one's destiny in
an effort to reach goals that are personally meaningful
(Newman and Newman, 2009)
• Some of the way’s adolescents try to establish their identity is
through status symbols such as having "state-of-the-art"
mobile phones, designer bags and clothes, and other material
possessions.

• The ego is the positive force that contributes to identity

formation and lays the foundation for certain strengths and
virtues in life such as hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity,
love care and wisdom.
• Erikson's theory proposes that individuals go through eight
psychosocial stages of development:
Trust versus mistrust

• Occurring in the first year of life.

• According to Erikson, child will develop
trust if he or she is properly cared for.
If the child is not well-cared for, mistrust
is likely to develop.
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

• Occurring during the first three years of life

• Autonomy means independence of thought and
confidence to think and act for oneself
• Children begin to assert their independence of thought
during this stage.
• Erikson states that if parents allow their children to
explore, they will become more confident and secure in
their own abilities.
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

• If children are overly protected, they may become

overly dependent on their parents and feel a sense
of shame or doubt in their own abilities.
• Erikson believes that this stage has important
implications in the development of independence and
identity during adolescence.
Initiative Versus Guilt

• Occurring around 3 to 5 years of age

• During this period, developing a sense of responsibility
among children lead to the development of initiative.
• A child who is made to feel irresponsible might develop
feelings of guilt.
Industry Versus Inferiority

• Occurring around elementary school years

• During this stage, children face the task of developing
knowledge and skills usually taught in schools.
• When children are encouraged in their efforts, they
will develop a sense of industry.
• Children who receive little or no encouragement
from parents and teachers will doubt their own
abilities and are likely to develop inferiority.
Identity Formation Versus Identity Confusion

• Takes place during adolescence

• At this stage, adolescents face the task of finding out
who they are, what they are, and what they want in life.
• If parents provide proper support, adolescents will
develop positive identity.
• If they are not adequately supported, they will feel
insecure and identity confusion will likely develop.
Intimacy Versus Isolation

• Occurs during early adulthood when people explore

personal relationships.
• Erikson believes it is vital that people develop
intimate relationships with others.
• Those who are successful in this stage will likely
form relationships that are stable and successful.
• Inability to develop intimate relationships during
this stage will lead to mistrust and isolation.
Generativity versus stagnation

• Occurs during middle adulthood

• Generativity involves a person's desire to contribute
to the world by teaching, leading and guiding the nex
generation and doing activities that will benefit the
community.
• Those who fail to attain this generativity will feel
worthless.
Generativity versus stagnation
• occurs during old age
• focused on self-reflection in one's life
• At this stage, individuals reflect on the
important events of their lives.
• If they are satisfied and proud of their
accomplishments, they will feel a sense of
integrity.
• Those who are unsuccessful in this stage
will feel that their life has been wasted and
will experience regrets and despair.