Chapter 2

Database Environment
Chapter 2 - Objectives

Purpose of three-level database architecture.

Contents of external, conceptual, and internal levels.
Purpose of external/conceptual and
conceptual/internal mappings.
Meaning of logical and physical data independence.
Distinction between DDL and DML.
A classification of data models.

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Chapter 2 - Objectives
Purpose/importance of conceptual modeling.
Typical functions and services a DBMS
should provide.
Function and importance of system catalog.
Software components of a DBMS.
Meaning of client–server architecture and
advantages of this type of architecture for a
DBMS.
Function and uses of Transaction Processing
Monitors.
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Objectives of Three-Level
Architecture
All users should be able to access same
data.

A user’s view is immune to changes made

in other views.

Users should not need to know physical

database storage details.

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Objectives of Three-Level
Architecture
DBA should be able to change database
storage structures without affecting the
users’ views.

Internal structure of database should be

unaffected by changes to physical aspects
of storage.

DBA should be able to change conceptual

structure of database without affecting all
users.
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 The Three-Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

 The ANSI-SPARC Architecture, often referred to as

the three-schema architecture, is a conceptual
framework for database management systems
(DBMS).

 It was developed by the American National

Standards Institute Standards Planning And
Requirements Committee (ANSI-SPARC) in the late
1970s.

 The architecture provides a clear separation

between the user interface, the logical view, and
the physical storage of data in a database system
The three main components of the ANSI-SPARC
Architecture are:

1.External Schema (User View):

 This schema represents how the data is

viewed by the end users or applications.

 It defines the views or user interfaces that

different users or applications see.

 The external schema is specific to each user or

application and focuses on their particular
data requirements.
2. Conceptual Schema (Logical View):

The conceptual schema represents the logical

structure of the entire database.

It provides an abstract view of the data model

without concerning itself with how the data is
physically stored or accessed.

The conceptual schema is independent of the

specific DBMS implementation and serves as a
bridge between the external and internal
schemas.
3. Internal Schema (Physical Storage
View):

The internal schema describes how data is

stored, indexed, and accessed at the physical
level.

It defines the storage structures, access

paths, and techniques for efficient retrieval
and modification of data.

The internal schema is specific to the

underlying hardware and storage
mechanisms
Key features and benefits of the ANSI-SPARC Architecture
include:

Data Independence: The architecture provides a clear

separation between different levels, allowing changes in one
level (e.g., physical storage) to be made without affecting the
other levels (e.g., user interfaces).

Modularity: Each schema level can be modified

independently, promoting flexibility in adapting to changing
requirements.
ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture

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ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
External Level
Users’ view of the database.
Describes that part of database that is
relevant to a particular user.

Conceptual Level
Community view of the database.
Describes what data is stored in database
and relationships among the data.

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ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
Internal Level
Physical representation of the database on
the computer.
Describes how the data is stored in the
database.

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Differences between Three
Levels of ANSI-SPARC
Architecture

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Data Independence
Logical Data Independence
Refers to immunity of external schemas to
changes in conceptual schema.
Conceptual schema changes (e.g.
addition/removal of entities).
Should not require changes to external
schema or rewrites of application programs.

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Data Independence
Physical Data Independence
Refers to immunity of conceptual schema to
changes in the internal schema.
Internal schema changes (e.g. using different
file organizations, storage structures/devices).
Should not require change to conceptual or
external schemas.

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Data Independence and the
ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture

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Database Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL is used to describe and name entities (tables),

attributes (columns), and relationships between entities

plus any associated integrity and security constraints.

DDL (Data Definition Language) is a subset of SQL

(Structured Query Language) that allows database
administrators (DBAs) or users to define and manage
the structure of a database.

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Here's how DDL achieves this:

1. Creating Tables (Entities):

The CREATE TABLE statement in DDL is used to define entities,

which are essentially tables in a relational database. This
statement allows users to specify the table name, columns
(attributes), and their data types.

CREATE TABLE
Employees ( EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50),
DepartmentID INT,
FOREIGN KEY (DepartmentID) REFERENCES Departments(DepartmentID) );
In this example, a table named Employees is created with columns
Employee ID, FirstName, Last Name, and Department ID.
Relationships between tables can be established using foreign key
constraints.
2. Defining Attributes (Columns):

The columns in a table represent attributes. DDL allows users to

specify the name, data type, and constraints for each column.
CREATE TABLE
Products ( ProductID INT PRIMARY KEY,
ProductName VARCHAR(100),
Price DECIMAL(10, 2),
InStock INT );
In this example, the Products table has attributes like ProductID,
ProductName, Price, and InStock, each with its specified data type.

3. Establishing Relationships:

DDL allows users to define relationships between entities using foreign key
constraints. This is crucial for maintaining data integrity and enforcing
referential integrity rules.

CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CustomerID INT,
OrderDate DATE,
FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES
Customers(CustomerID) );
 Here, the Orders table has a foreign key constraint (CustomerID) that
references the CustomerID column in the Customers table.

Creating Indexes:

DDL allows the creation of indexes on columns to improve query

performance. Indexes can be created on single or multiple columns .

CREATE INDEX idx_EmployeeLastName ON Employees(LastName);

This statement creates an index on the LastName column in the Employees
table.
Database Languages
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Provides basic data manipulation operations
on data held in the database.
Procedural DML
allows user to tell system exactly how to
manipulate data.
Non-Procedural DML
allows user to state what data is needed
rather than how it is to be retrieved.
Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

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Data Model
Integrated collection of concepts for
describing data, relationships between
data, and constraints on the data in an
organization.

Data Model comprises:

a structural part;
a manipulative part;
possibly a set of integrity rules.

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Data Model
Purpose
To represent data in an understandable way.

Categories of data models include:

Object-based
Record-based
Physical.

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Data Models
Object-Based Data Models
Entity-Relationship
Semantic
Functional
Object-Oriented.

Record-Based Data Models

Relational Data Model
Network Data Model
Hierarchical Data Model.

Physical Data Models

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Relational Data Model

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Network Data Model

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Hierarchical Data Model

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Conceptual Modeling
Conceptual schema is the core of a system
supporting all user views.
Should be complete and accurate
representation of an organization’s data
requirements.

Conceptual modeling is process of

developing a model of information use that
is independent of implementation details.
Result is a conceptual data model.
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Functions of a DBMS
Data Storage, Retrieval, and Update.

A User-Accessible Catalog.

Transaction Support.

Concurrency Control Services.

Recovery Services.
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Functions of a DBMS
Authorization Services.

Support for Data Communication.

Integrity Services.

Services to Promote Data Independence.

Utility Services.
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System Catalog
Repository of information (metadata)
describing the data in the database.
One of the fundamental components of
DBMS.
Typically stores:
names, types, and sizes of data items;
constraints on the data;
names of authorized users;
data items accessible by a user and the type of
access;
usage statistics.

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Components of a DBMS

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Components of Database
Manager

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Multi-User DBMS
Architectures
Teleprocessing

File-server

Client-server

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Teleprocessing
Traditional architecture.
Single mainframe with a number of
terminals attached.
Trend is now towards downsizing.

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File-Server
File-server is connected to several
workstations across a network.

Database resides on file-server.

DBMS and applications run on each

workstation.

Disadvantages include:
Significant network traffic.
Copy of DBMS on each workstation.
Concurrency, recovery and integrity control more
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complex.
File-Server Architecture

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Traditional Two-Tier Client-Server
Client (tier 1) manages user interface and
runs applications.
Server (tier 2) holds database and DBMS.

Advantages include:
wider access to existing databases;
increased performance;
possible reduction in hardware costs;
reduction in communication costs;
increased consistency.

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Traditional Two-Tier Client-
Server

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Traditional Two-Tier Client-
Server

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Three-Tier Client-Server
Client side presented two problems
preventing true scalability:
‘Fat’ client, requiring considerable resources on
client’s computer to run effectively.
Significant client side administration overhead.

By 1995, three layers proposed, each

potentially running on a different platform.

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Three-Tier Client-Server
Advantages:
‘Thin’ client, requiring less expensive hardware.
Application maintenance centralized.
Easier to modify or replace one tier without affecting
others.
Separating business logic from database functions
makes it easier to implement load balancing.
Maps quite naturally to Web environment.

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Three-Tier Client-Server

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Transaction Processing
Monitors
Program that controls data transfer
between clients and servers in order to
provide a consistent environment,
particularly for Online Transaction
Processing (OLTP).

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TPM as middle tier of 3-tier client-
server

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