04 Source Models

CME 464 –
Chemical Process
Safety
Dr. Ioannis Zuburtikudis

Industrial Core Sector
• Energy & Power
• Petroleum, Gas and Chemical
• Metals, Minerals and Steel
• Cement
• Coal
• Defence Production
• Telecom & IT
• Automobiles
• Textile
• And many more

Industrial Domain
• Storage (Raw Material - Solid, Liquid,
Gases)
• Process Plant & Machinery
• Utilities ( Power, Steam,

Nitrogen etc.)
• Finished Product
• People (Operation, Maintenance and

Supporting Staff)
Industrial Accidents
“Industrial Accidents are caused by chemical, mechanical, civil,

electrical, or other process failures due to accident, negligence or
incompetence, in an industrial plant which may spill over to the
areas outside the plant causing damage to life and property.”
Major Threats
• Fire
• Explosion
• Toxic release
• Poisoning
• Combinations of the above

• Electrical failure
• Cutting and welding
• Open flame
• Carelessness
• Poor housekeeping
• Smoking
• Sabotage
PROBABLE CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
• Process deviations i.e pressure, temperature & flow.
• Parameters with regard to the state of the substance i.e.,
solid, liquid or gas, proximity to other toxic substances.
• Runaway reaction.
• Hardware failure, resulting in large-scale spills of toxic
substances.
• Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE) on the
chemicals during transportation.
COMPOUNDING OF EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTS
• Meteorology of the area, wind speed and direction, rate of precipitation,
toxicity/quantity of chemical released, population in the reach of release,
probability of formation of lethal mixtures and other industrial activities in
vicinity.
Impact of Industrial
Accidents
Industrial Accidents
Living Organisms Environment Propert

y
Immediate, Short-term
and Long-term Effects
Humans Livestock Plants Soil and Water Bodies Atmosphere
Death, Injury, Disease and Disability Pollution

Major Consequences
 Loss of life / injuries

 Impact on livestock
 Damage to Flora/fauna
 Environmental Impact (air, soil,water)
 Financial losses to industry.
FILXBOROUGH, 01.06.1974, UK
MEXICO CITY, 19.11.1984,
GASOLENE TANK FIRE-
South East Asia 2000
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
• Worst industrial disaster in history
• 2,000 people died on immediate
aftermath
• Another 13,000 died in next fifteen years
• 10-15 persons dying every month
• 520,000 diagnosed chemicals in blood
causing different health complications
• 120,000 people still suffering from
• Cancer
• Tuberculosis
• Partial or complete blindness,
• Post traumatic stress disorders,
• Menstrual irregularities
• Rise in spontaneous abortion and stillbirth
IOC JAIPUR - 2009
slide 17 Uran Plant

IOC JAIPUR - 2009
ENVIRONMENT !!!
Oil Rig Explosion
What could have prevented
these losses?
Source Models in Chemical
Plant
• Most accidents in chemical plants result in spills of toxic,
flammable and explosive materials.
• Accidents begin with an incident, which usually results in the

loss of containment of material from the process.
• The material has hazardous properties that might include toxic

properties and energy content.
Typical incidents might include the rupture or break of
a pipeline, a hole in a tank or pipe, runaway reaction or
fire external to the vessel.
Once the incident is known, source models are

selected to describe how materials are discharged
from the process.
What are source models?
 Constructed from fundamental/empirical equation representing the physicochemical process occurring during
release of materials.
 Sometimes, the original models are modified to fit the specific situation
 Only can be applied once the incident has been identified
 Provides technical information;
 Rate of discharge
 Total quantity discharged (or total time of discharge)
 State of discharge (solid, liquid, or vapor or a combination)
 Dispersion Model – to describe how the material is transported downwind and dispersed to some
concentration levels.
 Fire & Explosion Model – to convert the source model information into energy hazard potentials (eg. Thermal
radiation, explosion overpressure etc.)
 Effect Model – to evaluate potential loss/damage on people, properties and environment
Frequently, the results are only estimates and where uncertainty exists, the parameters should be
selected to maximize the release rate and quantity for conservative design
Mode of Release
Wide aperture release Limited aperture release
-Releasing a substantial amount of Slow release of material that causing
material in a short time non immediate effect to upstream
-Large hole developing in a process
unit
Example: overpressure explosion, Example: leaks in flanges, valves and

explosion of a storage tank pumps; ruptured pipes, cracks and
relief system
Source Models
• Flow of liquid through a hole

• Flow of liquid through a hole in tank
• Flow of liquids through pipes
• Flow of gases or vapor through holes
• Flashing liquids
• Liquid pool evaporation or boiling
Flow of Liquid Through a
Hole
Discharge Coefficient Value
Event Co
Sharp-edged orifices, Re > 30,000 0.61
Well-rounded nozzle ~1.0

Short section pipe attached to a vessel 0.81
(L:D  3)
Unknown/uncertain 1.0
Problem 1
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Eq. 4.19
Eq. 4.20
Problem 2
Part 2
Flow of Liquids through
Pipes
For incompressible liquids through pipes, the mechanical
energy balance gives:
The frictional loss term, F includes loss of mechanical energy

due to friction, and includes loss due to flow through lengths of
pipes, fittings, pipe entrances and exits. for each frictional device
a loss term of the following form is used:
For fluids flowing through pipes the excess head loss, K f
4 fL
Kf 
d
f fanning friction factor, dimensionless

L flow path length
d flow path diameter
2 methods for determination of Kf
Computational method based on Fanning friction factor
2-K method
Fanning friction factor
Event Formula
Laminar flow
16
f 
Re
Turbulent flow in rough pipes
1  d
4 log 3.7 
Smooth pipes, Re < 100,000
f  
f 0.079 Re  1/ 4
Figure 4.7 f vs. NRe
2-K Method
Excess Head Loss, Kf
K1 1
K f   K  (1  )
Re IDinches
K1 & K ∞ 2-K constants for loss coefficient, dimensionless

IDinches internal diameter of the flow path in inches
K1
Pipe entrances/exit K f   K
Re
• Discharge coefficient, Co for liquid flow through a hole;
1
Co 
1  K f
• For a simple hole in a tank with no pipe connections and fittings, the
friction is caused only by the entrance and exit effects of the hole.
• For Re > 10,000, Kf entrance = 0.5 and, Kf exit = 1.0, thus ∑Kf = 1.5.
Solve the equation of Co you will get, Co = 0.63 which is
closer to the value of 0.61 that we used before.
K values continued from previous slide…..
Problem
Compute the pressure in the pipe
at the location shown in Figure.
The flow rate through the pipe is
10,000 L/h. The pipe is commercial
steel pipe with an internal
diameter of 50mm. The liquid in
the pipe is crude oil with a density
of 928 kg/m3 and a viscosity of
0.004 kg/m.s. The tank is vented to
the atmosphere.
Flow of Gases/Vapors
through Holes
Flow of Gases/Vapors
through Holes
• Throttling and free expansion (isentropic process)
• Free expansion process
• Assume negligible potential energy
changes and no shaft work
Choked
Pressure
Choked Pressure
• For maximum flow rate through the hole, differentiate Qm
w.r. to P/Po and equate it zero.
• The corresponding maximum pressure for which Qm is
maximum is called choked pressure Pchoked.
Choking flow
• For ideal gases, Pchoked is a function of γ (gamma)
alone.
For choked flows, use Co = 1 otherwise use 0.61

Problem
Flashing Liquids
• Liquids stored under pressure above their BP
temperature has the potential to cause flashing when
leaks occur.
• Flashing occurs so rapidly that the process can be
assumed to be adiabatic.
• The excess energy contained in the superheated liquid
vaporizes the liquid and lowers the temperature to a
new boiling point.
• m – mass of the original liquid, Cp- heat capacity of the
liquid, To- temperature of liquid before depressurization,
Tb- depressurized boiling point of the liquid
• Excess energy contained in the superheated liquid is:
The mass of the liquid vaporized mv is:
A more general expression is given by:

(a) (b)
Flashing Liquids Mass Flow
Rate
• For short fluid path length of the release (through a hole in a
thin-walled container), nonequilibrium conditions exists, the
liquid does not have time to flash, fluid flashes external to the
hole. You can use the equations of incompressible fluid flow
through holes.
• If the fluid path length of release is greater than 10 cm (through
a pipe or thick-walled container, equilibrium flashing conditions
are achieved and the flow is choked. For fluids stored under a
pressure greater than its saturation pressure, the mass flow rate
Qm is given by:
• For flashing liquids stored under a pressure P = Psat,
Liquid Pool Evaporation or
Boiling
Heat flux from the ground
The rate of boiling

Realistic and Worst-
Case Releases
• Estimate the vaporization rate resulting from heating from the ground at
10 s after the instantaneous spill of 1500 m3 of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
into a rectangular concrete dike of dimensions 7 m by 10 m.
αs = 4.16 x 10-7 m2/s

ks = 0.92 W/m.K
Tliq = 109 K
Tsoil = 293 K
∆Hv = 498 kJ/kg at 109 K

04 Source Models

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CME 464 –

Dr. Ioannis Zuburtikudis

• Petroleum, Gas and Chemical

• Metals, Minerals and Steel

• And many more

• Process Plant & Machinery

• Utilities ( Power, Steam,

• People (Operation, Maintenance and

“Industrial Accidents are caused by chemical, mechanical, civil,

• Combinations of the above

• Meteorology of the area, wind speed and direction, rate of precipitation,

toxicity/quantity of chemical released, population in the reach of release,

probability of formation of lethal mixtures and other industrial activities in

Living Organisms Environment Propert

Humans Livestock Plants Soil and Water Bodies Atmosphere

Death, Injury, Disease and Disability Pollution

 Loss of life / injuries

slide 17 Uran Plant

• Accidents begin with an incident, which usually results in the

• The material has hazardous properties that might include toxic

Once the incident is known, source models are

Example: overpressure explosion, Example: leaks in flanges, valves and

• Flow of liquid through a hole

Well-rounded nozzle ~1.0

The frictional loss term, F includes loss of mechanical energy

f fanning friction factor, dimensionless

K1 & K ∞ 2-K constants for loss coefficient, dimensionless

For choked flows, use Co = 1 otherwise use 0.61

The mass of the liquid vaporized mv is:

A more general expression is given by:

Heat flux from the ground

The rate of boiling

αs = 4.16 x 10-7 m2/s

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