Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.

com

J R Army Med Corps 2001; 147: 28 -40

Blast Injuries: Biophysics, Pathophysiology and

Management Principles
CL Horrocks

“The blast wave is a shot without a bullet, a detonation. A shock wave (blast wave) is
slash without a sword. It is present generated in the surrounding air and
everywhere within its range. Blast would be resulting variations in air pressure set in
as dreaded a weapon as chemical warfare, if motion the mass movement of air (the
its range, when explosives are used were not dynamic overpressure or blast wind). The
limited to small areas. However it would be shock wave, the dynamic overpressure and
premature to believe that this situation will thermal energy are the underlying
always remain the same.” phenomena which contribute to blast
Theodor Benzinger 1950 injuries.
By convention, blast injuries are classified
Introduction according to the mechanism by which they
Explosions are physical, chemical or nuclear are produced (Table 1).
reactions that involve the rapid release of
considerable amounts of energy. Their Table 1. Classification of Blast Injuries.
deleterious effects on living organisms are Type of Blast Injury Mechanism
embodied by the term blast injury. PRIMARY Interaction of the blast wave
The incidence of injuries resulting from with the body. Gas containing
explosions has increased throughout the structures (ear, lungs, gastro-
twentieth century. This has been caused in intestinal tract) are particularly
part by industrial expansion. More at risk.
significant has been the proliferation of SECONDARY Bomb fragments and other
projectiles energised by the
explosive weapons and their increased use explosion cause penetrating and
world-wide. Injuries caused by explosions are non-penetrating wounds. Any
not confined to the battlefield. The part of the body may be
International Committee of the Red Cross affected.
has estimated that throughout 70 countries, TERTIARY Displacement of the body (or of
at least 2,000 people (predominantly its constituent parts).This
mechanism contributes to the
civilians) are killed or injured every month by
traumatic amputation of limbs.
anti-personnel mines. From 1990 to 1995, Structural collapse of buildings,
15,700 criminal bombing incidents were e.g. crush injuries.
recorded in the United States by the Federal QUATERNARY A miscellaneous collection of all
Bureau of Investigation (FBI).These resulted other mechanisms such as:
in the deaths of 355 persons and injuries to Flash burns (superficial burns
3176. Explosions caused by industrial to exposed skin caused by the
radiant and convective heat of
accidents and terrorist devices are the explosion).
infrequent, but unpredictable events in Methaemoglobinaemia due to
developed countries. Therefore, civilian poisoning by dinitrobenzene or
doctors may be required to deal with large potassium perchlorate
(components of WWI
numbers of blast injured subjects with little munitions) (Laure 1993).
warning in chaotic and difficult Acute septicaemic melioidosis
circumstances. An understanding of the due to inhalation of soil
mechanisms of these injuries and their particles contaminated with
management is useful to all physicians. Pseudomonas pseudomallei
(Wang et al 1993).
Explosions and the injuries caused by them
Lt Col C L Horrocks Explosions are associated with a
are the subjects of this paper. high incidence of psychological
FRCS (ORL-HNS)
sequelae in injured and
RAMC
Explosions uninjured survivors.
Dept of Terrorist devices and military ordnance
Otorhinolaryngology A detailed discussion of the generation and
typically contain high explosives. A high
Southampton explosive (e.g. trinitrotoluene, gelignite, propagation of blast waves and their
University Hospitals Semtex) is a compound (solid or fluid) which interaction with structures is given elsewhere
NHS Trust,
Southampton General
can undergo an intense exothermic reaction, in this volume (Cullis). An overview is
Hospital, releasing large amounts of energy very presented below.
Tremona Road, quickly. This process propagates at The variation in blast wave pressure with
Southampton, supersonic speeds (approximately 5000 m/s-) time, at a fixed point in space (the
Hants, SO16 6DY radially from the explosive and is termed Friedlander relationship) describes the
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 29

physical properties of the blast wave

(Iremonger 1997). At the time of arrival of
the shock-front, the pressure increases
effectively instantaneously to a maximum
(peak overpressure), from which it falls
exponentially to sub-atmospheric levels and
returns to the ambient pressure (Figure 1).

Table 2. Explosive Devices.

Type Pattern of Injury

CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS All types of blast injury may occur, but

e.g. grenades, aerial bombs, mortar penetrating injuries from multiple
bombs, rockets. fragments predominate. Primary
fragments are derived from the Fig 1. Idealised blast overpressure waveform.
munition, preformed within the shell or
from the casing when the munition The biological effects of the blast wave
explodes. Other materials (building
debris, vehicle components) energised depend on the peak overpressure and the
by the blast form secondary fragments. positive phase duration. This pressure time
relationship represents an ideal free field
TERRORIST DEVICES Although the reported incidence of blast wave in air. In practice, environmental
Vary from a few to several hundred primary blast injuries varies from 1% features such as buildings and walls within
kilograms of explosive. (Hill 1979) - 76% (Katz et al 1989), enclosed spaces reflect the incident wave
serious primary blast injury is
uncommon and secondary and tertiary generating complex overpressures.
injuries predominate. Mortality is low In air, the intensity of the blast wave
(up to 5%) unless the device is large, decreases rapidly as the blast wave expands
explodes in a confined space or there is and its radius of effect is smaller than that of
structural collapse. Less than 50% of
those presenting to hospital will require
fragments set in motion by the blast.
admission. Therefore primary blast injuries in the open
tend to be confined to the relative proximity
ANTIPERSONNEL MINES Patterns of injury include: of the epicentre and are less common than
Common in developing countries. Traumatic amputation of foot or leg due ballistic (secondary) injuries. A casualty close
Indiscriminate in action. Tend to maim to standing on a buried “point enough to an explosion to sustain serious
adults, but may kill (particularly detonating” mine. As little as 5 kg weight
children). is required to detonate some of these primary injuries will commonly have lethal
devices. Mine fragments, grass, soil, parts secondary and tertiary injuries. The majority
of shoe and foot are blown upwards with of survivors of an explosion will have
substantial proximal tissue damage and sustained secondary or tertiary injuries, the
contamination.
A more random distribution of
management of which follows conventional
penetrating injuries caused by fragment principles. Military ordnance and terrorist
mines triggered near victim by a tripwire. devices are specifically designed to injure by
Severe upper limb and facial and ocular generating fragments on detonation and
injuries due to handling of a mine. therefore maximise casualties (Table 2 and
Table 3). These secondary injuries must be
ENHANCED-BLAST MUNITIONS Designed to injure by primary blast
e.g. fuel-air explosives (a distributed effect rather than by fragmentation.
treated systematically.
energy source such as a vapour). Used by Soviet forces in Afghanistan. Primary blast injuries particularly affect
gas-containing structures. Solid organs
including the skin are more resistant to the
Table 3.Terrorist Devices. blast wave. Therefore in pure primary blast
Type Pattern of Injury injury, a patient may display little external
evidence of trauma. This situation is best
CAR BOMBS Traumatic amputation of lower limbs illustrated in cases of immersion blast where
Typically 1 – 3 kg of commercial associated with severe soft tissue damage
explosive positioned under the floor of and often containing fragments of metal water propagates the shock wave effectively,
the car directly beneath the driver’s seat. and vehicle upholstery. but inhibits the movement of projectiles.
Underwater explosions generate a large
BARE CHARGES Primary blast injuries and ballistic volume of energetic gaseous products
e.g. Booby traps. injuries due to secondary fragments are (underwater bubble) and a shockwave which
Small improvised devices (<10kg) characteristic.
detonated remotely by wire or radio signal.
is propagated into the surrounding water.
This is reflected as a negative pressure wave
LORRY OR VAN BOMBS Crush injuries from secondary damage at the water surface, which is disrupted
Large devices (>40 kg). Detonation to buildings. forming a dome of minute water droplets
results in formation of large secondary (spall). The reflected tension wave interacts
missiles (from the body of the vehicle).
Extensive penetrating injuries and gross
with the compressive shock wave and
disruption of the body. accelerates its decay. An individual treading
water at the time of an underwater explosion
CULVERT BOMBS Gross disruption and disintegration of will therefore experience a higher impulse
Very large devices designed to disrupt the body. (the integral of pressure over time) on the
passing vehicles. Vehicle may be lower portion of the body because the
displaced and victims ejected.
reflected tension wave (cut-off wave) arrives
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

30 Blast Injuries

later. Regions of the body which are deeper injuries occur in close proximity to the region
in the water are more severely affected by the of body wall deformation and are generally
blast wave. It is however a misconception due to local shear. Indirect injuries are
that abdominal injuries predominate in caused by transmitted stress or shear waves
exposure to underwater blast irrespective of and occur at locations spatially separated
depth. Individuals at risk of immersion blast from the site of body wall displacement.
are therefore safer floating on the surface of Primary blast injuries belong to both groups
the water rather than treading water in an - there may be contusion in parenchyma
upright position. associated with the body wall, but also
Under particular circumstances there may centrally .
be a higher incidence of serious primary blast Interaction of the blast wave with the body
injury: wall generates two types of waves (Cooper et
al 1989):
• In enclosed spaces (vehicles or buildings)
where reflection of the blast wave
StressWaves
augments the total blast load;
These are longitudinal pressure waves like
• Where the victim is close to the explosion;
• In individuals wearing body armour which sound. They travel at or slightly faster than
confers protection against fragments, but the speed of sound, but differ from sound
not the blast wave; because of their high amplitude and velocity.
• With large explosions; Shock waves are a special form of high
• With fuel-air explosives and other types of pressure stress wave, with an effectively
enhanced blast munitions (Dearden in this instantaneous wavefront, which travel
volume). through a medium at speeds greater than the
speed of sound in that medium. Stress waves
Primary blast injuries are unfamiliar to have a number of properties which help
most physicians; this review concentrates on explain their effects on tissues:
this group of injuries. • They generate high local forces with small,
but rapid distortions. Pathophysiological
The Biophysics of Primary Blast effects are at the microvascular level; gross
Injury lacerations are not typical.
Primary blast injuries are caused by the • They affect organs with marked differences
interaction of the blast wave with the body in physical properties (acoustic
and are therefore a type of non-penetrating impedance) and therefore particularly
trauma. Non-penetrating injuries from involve those which contain gas.
impact may be direct or indirect. Direct • Reflection and reinforcement occurs at
interfaces causing augmentation of
pressures far from the site of body impact
(stress concentration).
The coupling of stress waves through the
thoracic and abdominal walls is responsible
for blast lung and primary blast injury of the
small bowel respectively. Stress waves
probably injure tissues in a number of ways:
• Pressure differentials across delicate
structures such as alveolar septa.
• When a stress wave encounters an interface
between two media of different physical
properties, for example when it attempts to
propagate from bowel wall tissues into the
gas filled lumen, a component of the
compressive stress wave is reflected back at
the interface as a tension wave. Most
materials are weaker in tension than
compression and disruption at the
interface (tissue damage) may result.
• A stress wave may compress a gas-
containing structure such as an alveolus or
bowel segment (implosion); subsequent
expansion damages the wall of the
structure.

ShearWaves
These are long duration, low velocity,
transverse waves, resulting from deformation
of the body wall and compression of the
visceral structures. Asynchronous
Fig 2. Primary blast injury to pig lung. movements of tissues of differing inertia
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 31

haemorrhages (Zuckerman 1940).

Experiments on rats subjected to blast
revealed increased pinocytosis, blebbing and
ballooning in pulmonary capillary endothelial
and Type I epithelial cells on electron
microscopy. Loss of structure or enlargement
were occasionally noted in the lamellated
bodies of Type II epithelial cells (Brown et al
1993). These ultrastructural features
occurred not only in association with changes
which were evident on light microscopy, but
also in apparently normal regions of lung
parenchyma. i.e. there may be patients in
whom clinical and radiological evidence of
blast lung is absent, at least initially, but who
have sustained lung injury. The natural
history of these lesions is unknown and it
remains open to speculation whether they
Fig 3. “Rib” markings in human lung injured by blast wave. predispose to the development of adult
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
cause tearing of structures from their
attachments and shearing of solid organs. Pathophysiology
Shear waves are probably responsible for Pulmonary function in blast lung bears
primary blast injury of solid abdominal similarities to that in other types of non-
viscera, mesenteries and the large bowel. penetrating lung injury. Haemorrhage into
alveoli and focal pulmonary oedema cause a
The Respiratory Tract ventilation perfusion mismatch (with
The Lung increased intrapulmonary shunt), and
(Pulmonary Primary Blast Injury; Blast Lung) reduced lung compliance, resulting in
Early mortality and severe morbidity due to hypoxia and increased work of breathing
primary blast injury are determined by the (Cohn 1997).
severity of damage to the lungs. Anecdotal reports from the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries have described
Pathology individuals dying immediately following blast
The blast wave disrupts inter-alveolar septa, exposure and in whom little evidence of
the principal effect of which is haemorrhage external injury was apparent. These
into the alveoli and bronchioles. Depending observations have led to the concept that the
on the blast load, this varies from scattered blast wave causes an acute cardiovascular
petechiae to large confluent haemorrhages and respiratory response. Experimental work
involving the whole lung (Figure 2). on animals subjected to thoracic blast has
Lacerations of the parenchyma are a feature demonstrated a reflex triad of apnoea,
in severely affected lungs. Certain regions of bradycardia and hypotension (Guy et al
the lung are consistently more severely 1998). It is thought that this triad is mediated
involved, for example lung in proximity to by pulmonary afferent C-fibre receptors
the mediastinum (particularly the azygos (formerly J-receptors), located in alveolar
lobe) and in the costophrenic angles.There is interstitial spaces close to pulmonary
also a predilection for the lateral lung capillaries. An increase in pulmonary
surfaces in contact with the intercostal spaces interstitial pressure or volume (due to
giving rise to the erroneously described ‘rib pulmonary haemorrhage or oedema) could
markings’ (Figure 3). It has been proposed distort and therefore stimulate pulmonary C-
that concentration of stress waves due to fibres. Alternatively serotonin (released from
reflection and augmentation within the platelets in blast damaged lung) might
thorax explains this unequal distribution. stimulate pulmonary afferent C-fibres.
When alveoli rupture near to the lung Pulmonary C-fibres are thought to be
surface, subpleural cysts form. Tearing of the unmyelinated parasympathetic afferents
visceral pleura will result in a pneumothorax transmitted in the vagus to the nucleus of the
or haemopneumothorax (if the underlying solitary tract. It is likely that this reflex
lung is lacerated). Traumatic alveolo-venous operates in humans, but the degree to which
fistulae permit the entry of air into it contributes to early morbidity and death
pulmonary venules and the formation of has not been established.
systemic air emboli.
On light microscopy, pulmonary capillaries Clinical Features of Blast Lung
are seen to be dilated (for reasons that are The diagnosis of blast lung is made clinically
not understood). There may be separation of and confirmed by chest X-ray. The clinical
alveolar tissue from bronchovascular features are summarised in Table 4. Some
elements with bleeding into the connective case reports have suggested that blast lung
tissues which surround these, forming ring may not manifest until 24 - 48 hours after
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

32 Blast Injuries

blast exposure (Coppel 1976). More the battlefield, basic life support is not
commonly, patients with pulmonary primary currently endorsed for treatment at point of
blast injury have clinical and radiological wounding. In the majority of cases, apnoeic
evidence of blast lung on admission (Caseby casualties will already be dead unless the
et al 1976; Leibovici et al 1999). potential rescuer was present at the time of
wounding and was uninjured.
Table 4. Clinical Features of Blast Lung.
Symptons Dyspnoea Circulation With Control Of External
Cough (dry to productive with frothy Haemorrhage
sputum) The cardiovascular status must be assessed.
Haemoptysis
Chest pain or discomfort (typically
Significant external haemorrhage should be
retrosternal) controlled by the application of direct
pressure. Two widebore (14 - 16G)
Signs Tachypnoea
Cyanosis
intravenous cannulae should be inserted and
Reduced breath sounds and dullness to intravenous fluid administered judiciously.
percussion Patients with blast lung may be at risk from
Coarse crepitations, rhonchi injudicious fluid replacement, which should
Features of pneumothorax or therefore be closely monitored.
haemopneumothorax
Subcutaneous emphysema
Retrosternal crunch (pneumomediastinum) Disability
Retinal artery emboli A rapid neurological assessment must be
performed in order to determine the level of
MANAGEMENT consciousness, pupillary size and reactions.
Neurological abnormalities may be due to
Initial Management arterial air emboli. It can be difficult to assess
Initial management follows conventional the level of consciousness in a patient
guidelines. deafened by blast.

Airway Maintainance With Cervical Spine Exposure

Control Exposed patients with multiple injuries are at
The airway should be assessed to determine risk of developing hypothermia and care
patency, cleared and maintained. The jaw should be taken after removing the patient’s
thrust or chin lift manoeuvre may be clothing. A brief assessment should be made
sufficient in some patients. In the to exclude any injury which is immediately
unconscious patient with an absent gag reflex life threatening.
an oropharyngeal airway can be used. If the
patient is conscious an oropharyngeal airway Subsequent Management
is unlikely to be tolerated and a A chest radiograph is mandatory in all
nasopharyngeal airway is more appropriate. patients exposed to blast (Table 5).
In a patient with multiple injuries, it must be
assumed that the cervical spine is injured, Table 5. Radiological Evidence of Blast Lung
particularly with an altered level of Diffuse pulmonary opacities “infiltrates”. (Typically,
consciousness or blunt injury above the these develop within a few hours, become maximal at
clavicle. Appropriate measures must be taken 24 – 48 hours and resolve over 7 days). Infiltrates
which progress after 48 hours are likely to represent
to ensure immobility of the cervical spine. complications of blast lung, e.g. adult respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS) or pneumonia.
Breathing with Oxygenation
Pneumothorax or haemopneumothorax.
The patient must be assessed for adequacy of
ventilation and clinical evidence of blast Interstitial (peribronchial) emphysema (long linear
lung. If the patient is apnoeic and at point of peribronchial lucency).
wounding immediately following injury, Subcutaneous emphysema.
artificial ventilation is required by mouth or Pneumomediastinum.
bag-valve-facemask apparatus. Artificial
ventilation is not appropriate if there has Pneumoperitoneum (usually secondary to perforation
of an abdominal viscus, but tension
been apnoea for more than a few minutes. pneumoperitoneum has been reported in association
Definitive control of the airway and with blast lung) (Oppenheim et al 1998).
ventilation is achieved by endotracheal
intubation, but equipment and expertise may Computed tomography (CT) of the thorax
not be available. If intubation is not possible is not presently a routine investigation in the
and the airway is obstructed an attempt management of blast lung, but probably has
should be made to establish a surgical airway. a role in selected patients. Studies on non-
Patients with blast lung are at risk of blast pulmonary contusion have shown that
pulmonary barotrauma and if there is CT has higher sensitivity than plain chest
evidence of tension pneumothorax, it should radiography in detecting early parenchymal
be decompressed immediately. All patients and pleural lesions (Schild et al 1989), and a
should receive oxygen at high flow rate (15 predictive role in determining which patients
litres per minute). It should be noted that, on will require mechanical ventilation (Wagner
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 33

et al 1989).The general management of blast pulmonary primary blast injury. Changes

lung is similar to that of pulmonary may occur throughout the airways, from the
contusion. In particular blast lung casualties nasal fossae and paranasal sinuses to the
are susceptible to reduced lung function bronchioles. These include loss of cilia,
from injudicious fluid replacement. The high flattening of epithelial cells, epithelial
risk of pulmonary barotrauma (notably stripping and mucosal haemorrhages.
pneumothorax and systemic air emboli) in Within the larynx, the vestibule, posterior
blast lung distinguishes it from other forms epiglottic surface and arytenoids are
of pulmonary injury. Other manifestations of particularly affected by mucosal bruising.
pulmonary barotrauma include interstitial Stripping of the epithelium off the basal
emphysema, pneumomediastinum, subcut- lamina (the stripped-epithelium lesion) is the
aneous emphysema, pneumoretroperit- most common airway injury, resulting in
oneum and pneumoperitoneum. ulceration and bleeding into the lumen. It is
It has been argued that positive pressure postulated that spalling is responsible for
ventilation (PPV), particularly with high level fragmentation of the epithelium at the tissue-
positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) air interface (Chiffelle 1966). These injuries
increases the risk of air embolism and and intraluminal haemorrhage are potential
pneumothorax and should therefore be causes of airway obstruction.
avoided in blast casualties. Patients are Cases of difficult intubation or acute
similarly at risk during general anaesthesia airway compromise due to structural
and evacuation by air in partially pressurised changes or bleeding have not been reported.
aircraft. However, there will be patients for In theory, mucosal injuries should render
whom the severity of lung injury renders mucociliary clearance less effective. Whether
PPV mandatory.Various strategies have been they predispose patients with blast lung to
proposed to reduce the likelihood or effects secondary infection is not known. Mucosal
of pulmonary barotrauma. These have lesions of the airways generally resolve
included: spontaneously. They are sentinel injuries,
indicating possible blast injury of the lung or
• Prophylactic insertion of chest drains;
at other sites and should be sought on
• Reversion to spontaneous breathing as
examination of the upper respiratory tract.
soon as possible using intermittent
mechanical ventilation (IMV) and
continuous positive airway pressure
The Circulatory System
(CPAP) (Uretzky et al 1980);
The Heart
• Reduction of tidal volume and therefore
Direct injuries to the heart include
peak inspiratory pressure with permissive
haematomas and lacerations. Epicardial
hypercapnia (Sorkine et al 1998).
haematomas tend to be located on the
Less conventional techniques (independent diaphragmatic surface and endocardial
lung ventilation, high frequency jet contusions around the papillary muscles.
ventilation, nitric oxide inhalation and Involvement of the myocardium is less
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation) have frequent. Anteroseptal myocardial infarction
been employed in limited numbers of
severely affected patients with varying
degrees of success (Pizov et al 1999).
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is a
highly sophisticated technique and requires
anticoagulation; it is probably incompatible
with severe haemorrhagic lung injury.
Independent lung ventilation has been used
in patients with unilateral bronchopleural
fistulae.
The prognosis for patients with
uncomplicated blast lung seems to be
favourable. In a small series of 11 patients
with blast lung of whom 10 required
mechanical ventilation, clinical pulmonary
function tests were normal at one year
(Hirshberg et al 1999).

Non-Parenchymal Injury
Rib fractures may occur in the posterior
angles with high blast loads, but are
uncommon and suggest secondary or
tertiary injury. The mucosa of the upper and
lower airways is sensitive to blast.When blast
exposure is repetitive, damage occurs at Fig 4. Air emboli in coronary blood vessels after blast
overpressures below those responsible for exposure.
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

34 Blast Injuries

with complete obstruction of the left anterior therapy reduces the volume of gas bubbles
descending coronary artery has been and improves blood flow to hypoperfused
reported following blast exposure (Keren tissues. Treatment should be instituted as
1981). In this case sub-intimal haemorrhage soon as possible following blast exposure.
or intimal tearing by the blast wave may have Disseminated intravascular coagulation
predisposed to secondary thrombosis and has occurred in association with blast lung in
subsequent infarction. a small series of five patients, of whom four
More commonly, myocardial injury is additionally developed hypokalaemia
indirect and probably caused by coronary (Melzer et al 1986). Since all five victims had
artery air emboli. other significant injuries, it is not possible to
attribute these associations solely to blast
BloodVessels lung.
In blast lung, air can enter the systemic Transplant teams considering organ
circulation via traumatic alveolo-venous harvest from brain dead patients who have
fistulae. Any organ may be affected, but the sustained blast injuries need to be aware that
cerebral and coronary circulations are of air embolism may render apparently normal
most relevance clinically (Figure 4). Arterial organs unusable. Massive compressed air
air embolism has been considered to be one emboli in the aorta and renal arteries have
of the principal causes of immediate and developed during ventilation for organ
early death due to primary blast injury. harvest. This has resulted in dissection of the
Features of air emboli should be sought early interstitial tissues of the renal papillae (by
in the assessment of the blast casualty and air) and compression of collecting ducts
include: (Freund et al 1980).
• Cardiac arrhythmias and other evidence of
myocardial ischaemia or infarction on Abdominal and Pelvic Organs
electrocardiography. Abnormalities of Gas containing parts of the gastro-intestinal
cardiac rhythm may also arise indirectly tract are at risk of primary blast injury,
through centrally mediated autonomic particularly in cases of immersion blast.
dysfunction from cerebral emboli; Isolated primary blast injury to the gut is less
• Headaches, vertigo, ataxia; frequent in air-blast. At high overpressures,
• Convulsions; immediate rupture of the gut wall occurs
• Alterations in conscious level; with bleeding and spillage of intraluminal
• Weakness or sensory loss; contents into the peritoneal cavity. More
• Facial or tongue blanching; commonly and at lower overpressures,
• Retinal artery air emboli. haemorrhage develops within the intestinal
wall (Figure 5).
The immediate action must be the These haemorrhages range in size from
administration of oxygen. It was previously small petechiae to large confluent
thought that affected patients should be haematomas. Bleeding is initially confined to
placed in the head-down position to reduce submucosal regions; with increasing severity
embolus flow into the coronary and cerebral it becomes transmural (Goligher et al 1943).
circulations. Currently this advice has been These lesions demonstrate histological
abandoned, since there is evidence that the similarities to those seen in non-penetrative
Trendelenberg position may promote gas abdominal trauma and some will progress to
embolism to the coronary vasculature and necrosis of the gut wall and late perforation.
increase intracranial pressure. The definitive The mesentery may also be involved; an
treatment of systemic air embolus is injury undoubtedly caused by local shear -
hyperbaric oxygen therapy, although this is motion of the bowel segment with respect to
not universally available. Hyperbaric oxygen the restrained mesentery (Figure 6).

Fig 5. Contusion to large bowel caused by a blast wave; the

injury was probably caused by intra-abdominal stress Fig 6. Damage to bowel and mesentery caused by a blast wave; the injury was probably
waves. caused by shear.
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 35

Recent experimental studies on pigs Table 6. Clinical Features of Abdominal Primary Blast
(Cripps et al 1997) identified those Injury
Symptoms Abdominal pain.
contusions at greater risk of late perforation. Nausea, vomiting and (rarely)
At laparotomy, small bowel contusions > 15 haematemesis.
mm diameter and colonic contusions > 20 Rectal pain, tenesmus.
mm diameter were at higher risk and it was Testicular pain.
considered that these warranted resection; Signs Abdominal tenderness, rebound and
smaller lesions could be treated guarding.
conservatively. Absent bowel sounds.
Subcapsular haematomas, lacerations and Evidence of hypovolaemia.
fracture of solid organs (e.g. liver, spleen),
Intraperitoneal fibrosis is a late complication
testicular rupture and retroperitoneal
of abdominal primary blast injury. Small
haematomas have all been described in
bowel adhesions, presenting as intestinal
the literature. In the context of primary
obstruction 50–60 years after blast exposure
blast injury they result from high blast
have been reported (Carter et al 1999).
loads.
The clinical features of abdominal
primary blast injury are listed in Table 6. In Orthopaedic Injuries
some patients, the indications for Traumatic amputation of limbs by explosion
exploratory laparotomy are obvious; in is unusual in survivors (1.5%), with the
others primary blast injury to the abdomen exception of those injured by anti-personnel
represents a diagnostic challenge, since it mines, but relatively common in those who
may be clinically silent until complications die early (19%) (Mellor et al 1989).
are advanced. It is not the intention of this It used to be considered that limb
review to discuss in detail the surgical displacement (flailing) by the blast wind was
management of abdominal primary blast the primary mechanism responsible for this
injury. However indications for urgent injury.There is now substantial evidence that
laparotomy would include: this is not the case. If traumatic amputation
were due to avulsion of the limb by the
• Unexplained signs of haemorrhage in dynamic overpressure alone, amputation
patients who cannot be stabilised and in should occur through or near joints. This
whom intra-abdominal injury is occurs when ejecting fast jet pilots are
suspected; exposed to slipstream wind speeds of 1100
• Radiological evidence of pneumoperito- km/h, which approximates to airspeeds
neum (ruptured vicus); caused by blast. An analysis of post-mortem
• Rupture of the diaphragm; data has revealed that traumatic amputations
• Obvious clinical evidence of peritoneal caused by explosions occur through long
irritation; bone shafts and not in association with joints.
• Significant and persistent bleeding from Computer modelling studies and evidence
the gastro-intestinal tract. from experiments on isolated goat hind limbs
Tension pneumoperitoneum is a rare exposed to blast have supported a different
complication of pulmonary barotrauma due mechanism of injury (Hull et al 1996).
to blast and causes dramatic changes in Coupling of the blast wave into bone tissue
cardiovascular and respiratory function generates stress waves, which fracture the
with severe hypoxaemia, hypercarbia and long bone shaft. Sites of predilection are the
shock. upper one third of the tibia and in the femur,
either the upper or lower one third
Table 7. Classification of Airborne Stimulation Hearing Loss
(depending on the type of explosive device).
The dynamic overpressure generated by the
1. Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Long term exposure to increased sound blast wind separates the fractured limb from
(occupational hearing loss) intensities (generally >85 – 90 dB).
Bilateral and symmetrical sensorineural hearing the body.
loss which is initially reversible and most severe Large fragments (e.g. from vehicle bombs)
at 4kHz. may also cause traumatic amputation of
Middle ear damage does not occur. limbs, but this is not the usual mechanism.
Balance is not affected.
Death in individuals who have sustained
2. Report Trauma Exposure to gunfire. traumatic amputation is usually attributable
Stimuli are usually multiple. to severe associated secondary and tertiary
Stimulus duration is less than 1.5 ms.
Sensorineural hearing loss initially most marked injuries (e.g. open head injury, decapitation,
at 4 kHz; one ear is usually more severely large open chest wounds or evisceration),
affected. blast lung or exsanguination due to limb
Middle ear damage is possible, but unusual. amputation.
Vestibular features do not occur.
3. Blast Trauma Caused by the positive phase of the blast wave. The Ear
Stimulus duration is greater than 1.5 ms.
Hearing loss may be sensorineural, conductive
The auditory system is extremely sensitive to
or mixed. the blast wave. The middle ear cleft is gas-
Middle ear damage is common. Vestibular containing and the ear is uniquely
symptoms may occur. constructed for the efficient transmission of
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

36 Blast Injuries

rupture, none progressed to develop blast

lung or intestinal primary blast injury -
isolated perforation of the tympanic
membrane is not a marker for latent serious
primary blast injury. Patients who present
with this injury in the absence of clinical
features of other blast injuries and who have
a normal chest X-ray may be discharged after
a short period of observation (Leibovici et al
1999).
At overpressures insufficient to perforate
the eardrum, otoscopy may demonstrate
hyperaemia (along the malleus handle or in
the pars flaccida) or subepithelial bleeding.
Associated ossicular injury is a feature of
higher overpressures and has been reported
Fig 7. Rupture of the tympanic membrane.
as occurring in up to 33% of ears at
mechanical energy (sound waves) and its tympanotomy (Sudderth 1974).
transformation into nerve impulses. There
has been confusion regarding the Ossicular Injuries
classification of airborne stimulation hearing (Sudderth 1974;Wolf et al 1991; Chandler et
loss. Noise-induced hearing loss, report al 1997)
trauma and blast trauma are separate clinical These include:
entities (Kerr 1987) (Table 7). • Incudo-malleolar joint disruption with
medial displacement of the handle of the
External Ear malleus (probably the most common
The majority of injuries of the external ear ossicular injury);
are caused by penetrating and non- • Incudo-stapedial joint disruption with or
penetrating fragments. Lacerations and without fracture of the stapes
similar injuries of the auricle are managed superstructure;
according to conventional principles. • Fracture of the stapes superstructure alone;
• Fracture-dislocation of the stapes footplate;
Middle Ear • Dislocation of the incus;
Tympanic membrane perforation is the most • Erosion of the stapes superstructure or
common significant middle ear injury long process of the incus (thought to be
(Figure 7). It is generally accepted that due to avascular necrosis).
human tympanic membranes begin to
rupture at pressures as low as 5 psi (35 kPa) Although tympanic membrane perforation
and that 50% will fail at 15 psi (104 kPa) and disruption of the ossicular chain are
(Kerr 1978). Perforations invariably affect considered to reduce cochlear damage by
the pars tensa and vary from small defects in interfering with the transmission of
line with radial fibres of the lamina propria to mechanical energy from the tympanic
complete loss of the tympanic membrane. membrane to the oval window, clinical
These perforations are probably caused by evidence for this is lacking. Disruption of the
the positive rather than the negative phase of stapes footplate or round window rupture
the blast wave. This is supported by the with resultant leak of perilymph (perilymph
following observations: fistula) occur rarely in humans (Nedzelski
1976). Isolated cases of secretory otitis media
• Perforation edges are usually inverted; have been recorded following blast exposure.
• Medial displacement of ossicles; It is likely that these are incidental, at least in
• The phenomenon of implantation choles- children in whom this condition is prevalent.
teatoma following blast exposure;
Cholesteatoma of the middle ear and
• The presence of squamous epithelium in
mastoid air-cell system is a late complication
the middle ear cleft at post-mortem
occurring in up to 12% of blast induced
examination of specimens of temporal
perforations (Seaman et al 1971) and usually
bones.
presenting up to 4 years after injury
Perforation of the tympanic membrane, (Kronenberg et al 1988). It results from the
which is dependent on the orientation of the implantation of small fragments of
ear drum to the blast wave (amongst other keratinizing squamous epithelium from the
factors), correlates poorly with serious outer layer of the tympanic membrane into
primary blast injuries (to the lung or gut). In the middle ear cleft. If viable these cells
a study of 647 explosion survivors, of whom develop into cholesteatoma pearls or invasive
193 had primary blast injury, 142 (73.6%) cholesteatomas histologically indistinguish-
had isolated tympanic membrane perforation able from primary or other acquired
and 18 (9.3%) had blast lung in the absence cholesteatomas. Since the majority of
of tympanic membrane rupture. Moreover, perforations caused by blast heal
of those with isolated tympanic membrane spontaneously, viable squamous epithelium
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 37

with the potential to develop into indicate that central auditory pathways
cholesteatoma may be sequestered behind an function normally at least in survivors (Pratt
intact tympanic membrane. It is for this 1985).
reason that some authors advocate delay in Vertigo is unusual following blast. A small
surgical repair of tympanic membrane number of cases of benign paroxysmal
perforations which fail to heal spontaneously. positional vertigo have been recorded,
The incidence of cholesteatoma formation is suggesting damage to the utricle but most
related to the grade of perforation cases of vertigo or dysequilibrium have been
(Kronenberg et al 1988) (Table 8). attributed to associated head injury.
Table 8.
Clinical Features
Grade of Perforation Incidence It is easy to miss blast injury of the ear in a
of severely injured patient. Otological
Cholestea-
toma (%) symptoms and signs (Table 9) should be
sought on assessment of blast injured
1 (up to 2 mm diameter) 2.0 individuals.
2 (up to 25% of the tympanic membrane) 4.5
3 (up to 50% of the tympanic membrane) 14.3
4 (subtotal perforation) 20.0 Table 9. Clinical Features of Primary Blast Injury of the Ear
• Hearing loss and tinnitus (occur in most patients, at
Of particular interest is the observation least initially and usually improve, but may be
that marginal perforations caused by blast permanent).
• Otalgia (temporary, but may last for several weeks).
are not associated with a higher incidence of • Vertigo is uncommon.
cholesteatoma. Whether invasive chol- • Bleeding from the ear canal due to perforation of the
esteatoma caused by blast is best treated by tympanic membrane.
combined approach tympanoplasty (CAT, • Tympanic membrane perforation (typically slit-like or
canal wall up procedure) or by open cavity punched-out in shape with irregular edges and tiny
blood clots attached to the margins).
mastoidectomy (canal wall down approach), is • Mucopurulent otorrhoea is a sign of secondary
open to debate. Multifocal implantation infection of the middle ear cleft.
cholesteatoma of the external auditory canal is
a much rarer complication (Wolf et al 1999). Fracture of the petrous temporal bone
(due to secondary or tertiary blast injury)
Inner Ear should be excluded in patients with bleeding
Blast exposure often causes sensorineural
from the ear canal. Severe vertigo with
hearing loss with high pitched tinnitus. In
horizontal nystagmus, CSF otorrhoea, facial
many cases these resolve spontaneously,
nerve paralysis or Battle’s sign suggest
sometimes within hours. The prevalence of
permanent sensorineural hearing loss varies temporal bone fracture. A normal plain skull
between 30 and 55% (Chandler et al 1997). radiograph does not exclude a fracture of the
There is wide variation in the audiometric skull base; cases of complicated skull base
configuration, but the most common pattern fracture will require sophisticated imaging
on pure tone audiometry is that of a high which may include computed tomography,
frequency loss. A notch at 4 kHz which is magnetic resonance imaging or angiography.
characteristic of noise induced hearing loss
and report trauma does not occur. Injury to Management
the cochlea by the blast wave is considered to All patients exposed to blast should have an
be a mechanical injury to sensory structures otological assessment and audiometry.
on the basilar membrane with tearing of Over 80% of tympanic membrane
sensory cells from their supporting cell perforations caused by blast are likely to heal
attachments due to excessive displacement of spontaneously (Kerr et al 1975; Pahor 1981).
the basilar membrane (Patterson et al 1997). Large perforations (> 80% surface area) are
Reversible discontinuities in the reticular less likely to heal without surgery. Although
lamina are thought to be responsible for some authors advocate immediate repair,
temporary threshold shifts. These may (Ziv et al 1973), most otologists treat these
include disruption of tight junctions between perforations expectantly, waiting up to 12
Hensen cells, changes in membrane months before undertaking elective
permeability and holes in the reticular tympanoplasty. During this period ears
lamina. These result in mixing of perilymph should be kept dry.
and endolymph. When these breaches are Antibiotics (topical or systemic) are not
repaired and the electrochemical properties indicated except in the presence of infection.
of inner ear fluid systems restored, normal Early surgical intervention is confined to the
function may be re-established. Loss of hair removal of foreign material and debris from
cells, structural abnormalities of cilia and the ear canal, although a good case can be
detachment of long segments of the organ of made for the approximation of perforation
Corti probably account for permanent edges (Gapany-Gapanavicius et al 1977).
threshold shifts. The outcome of surgery to repair tympanic
Measurements of auditory brainstem membrane perforations caused by blast, is
evoked potentials following blast exposure excellent; 90% of grafted tympanic
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

38 Blast Injuries

membranes will heal completely. is increasing evidence that the central

There is little evidence that vasodilators, nervous system is at risk of blast injury by
low molecular weight dextrans, anti-platelet other mechanisms. The occurrence of air
drugs, vitamins or systemic steroids improve emboli in the cerebral circulation following
the outcome for patients with sensorineural blast is well known. Early anecdotal reports
hearing loss caused by blast. It remains and recent experimental studies implicate
current practice in this country to administer the primary effect of blast as a mechanism of
one or a combination of these drugs to injury to the brain (Kaur et al 1995).
patients with sudden sensorineural hearing
loss on an inpatient basis. Removal of Unexploded
Patients with blast induced perforations are Ordnance
at risk of late presenting implantation Patients with retained unexploded ordnance
cholesteatoma and therefore require long are rare, but present a considerable logistical
term review. and surgical challenge. Reports of these
The diagnosis of a perilymph fistula should injuries to date have been confined to the
be considered in a patient with sensorineural military literature. Weapons most commonly
hearing loss and vertigo, particularly if either implicated are the M79 grenade-launcher
of these is fluctuating, since the treatment is (40 mm round) and mortars (48-82 mm
surgical (urgent exploratory tympanotomy rounds). In a recent review of 32 such
and repair of the perilymph leak). patients injured in conflicts from WW II to
Somalia (1993) and who survived surgical
The Eye and Orbit removal of unexploded ordnance, a strategy
Although the eyeball represents only 0.1% of for the management was proposed (Lein et al
the body surface area, ocular injuries caused 1999)(Table 10).
by explosions are relatively frequent (with up
to 10% of blast survivors being affected).The Table 10. Management of Patients with Unexploded Ordnace
majority are produced by small projectiles to
• Notification of the incident to the Explosive Ordnance
which the eye is extremely vulnerable. Blast Disposal (EOD) team.
fragmentation from munitions accounted for • The use of closed cardiac massage and defibrillation,
68–86% of all ophthalmic casualties in which may detonate the round, should be avoided in
various conflicts from WWI to Operation patients who are moribund.
• Isolation of the patient from the rest of the hospital to
Desert Storm. a protected operating area for removal of the ordnance
The globe is relatively resistant to the to minimise collateral damage in the event of
direct action of the blast wave, since its premature detonation. Sandbag barriers and body
constituent parts are of similar density. armour should be employed.
Therefore the incidence of primary blast • Strong electrical fields, vibration, temperature
fluctuations and changes in position or orientation of
injury to the eye is likely to be low, at least in the munition may arm the fuse. The use of
survivors. A single case of conjunctival electrocautery, powered instrumentation and other
injection and hyphaema caused by blast in similar electrical equipment should be avoided and
the definite absence of either penetrating or patient movement minimised.
blunt trauma has been reported (Beiran et al • Plain radiography should be used in preference to
more sophisticated imaging modalities (e.g. computed
1992). tomography, magnetic resonance imaging,
More recent experimental studies (Petras ultrasound), which are more likely to trigger the fuse.
et al 1997) have shown evidence of retinal • En bloc removal of the munition with surrounding
injury and degeneration of central visual tissues expedites surgery and reduces the probability of
contact between the round and metal instruments
pathways (retinofugal axonopathy) in rats which may cause detonation. Following removal the
exposed to blast. patient can be transferred to a more appropriate
Blow-out fractures of the orbit can be operating room for definitive surgery and further
produced in experimental animals (dogs) at management.
lethal levels of blast overpressure, but these
are rare in humans. There is one clinical case Conclusions
cited in the literature in which bilateral The relevance of blast injuries to military
blow-out fractures involving the orbital floor doctors is inescapable, but explosions are not
with extrusion of the left eyeball into the confined to the battlefield. Industrial
maxillary sinus and severance of the optic accidents and detonation of terrorist devices
nerve resulted from blast (Mandelcorn et al are occasional events capable of generating
1973). large numbers of casualties whose injuries
Air emboli caused by pulmonary primary may be unfamiliar to many physicians. An
blast injury, and present in retinal arteries understanding of the mechanisms of these
probably explain transient episodes of injuries and their management should be of
blindness. assistance in the aftermath of such an event.
Interest in explosions and their effects has
Central Nervous System formerly been confined to the military; today
Head injury due to the secondary or tertiary all doctors should be cognisant of the injuries
effects of blast, frequently contributes to caused by blast. Key points in the
death in both immediate (71%) and late management of blast casualties are presented
(52%) fatalities (Frykberg et al 1988). There in Table 11.
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

CL Horrocks 39

Table 11. Key Management Points Hull JB, Cooper GJ. Pattern and mechanism of
traumatic amputation by explosive blast. J Trauma
• Primary blast injury should be considered in all 1996; 40: S198 – 205.
individuals exposed to blast. Iremonger MJ. Physics of detonations and blast waves.
• Serious primary blast injuries are uncommon in In: Cooper GJ, Dudley HAF, Gann DS, Little RA,
survivors; fragmentation injuries predominate. Maynard RL eds. Scientific foundations of trauma.
• Blast lung presents early. Diagnosis is made on Butterworth-Heinemann. 1997: 189 – 199.
clinical grounds and confirmed on plain chest Katz E, Ofek B, Adler J, Abramovitz, HB, Krausz MM.
radiography. This diagnosis needs to be excluded in Primary blast injury after a bomb explosion in a
patients who require general anaesthesia or civilian bus. Ann Surg.1989; 209: 484 – 488.
transportation in partially pressurised aircraft. Kaur C, Singh MK, Lim B, Ng BL,Yap EPH, Ling EA.
Prophylactic chest drain insertion is advocated in The response of neurons and microglia to blast injury
patients with blast lung under these circumstances. in the rat brain. Neuropathology and Applied
• Isolated perforation of the tympanic membrane is not Neurobiology 1995; 21: 369 – 377.
a marker for life threatening primary blast injuries. Keren A, Stessman J, Tzivoni D. Acute myocardial
• Abdominal primary blast injury may be clinically infarction caused by blast injury of the chest. Br Heart
silent until complications (including peritonitis and J. 1981; 46: 455 – 457.
septicaemia) are advanced. Kerr AG. Blast injuries to the ear. Practitioner 1978;
• Patients who sustain traumatic amputation of limbs, 221: 677 – 682.
should they survive to reach hospital, often have Kerr AG. Blast injury to the ear: a review. Rev Environ
multiple life threatening injuries. Health 1987; 7: 65 – 79.
• Primary blast injuries of the auditory system are Kerr AG, Byrne JET. Concussive effects of bomb blast
easily overlooked and are a source of significant on the ear. J Laryngol Otol. 1975; 89: 131 – 143.
morbidity and future litigation. They should be Kronenberg J, Ben-Shoshan J, Modan M, Leventon G.
accurately documented and promptly referred for Blast injury and cholesteatoma. Am J Otol.1988; 9: 127
specialist management. – 130.
Laure P. Methaemoglobinaemia: an unusual case
report. Intensive Care Med. 1993; 19: 124.
References Leibovici D, Gofrit ON, Shapira SC. Eardrum
Beiran I, Miller B. Pure ocular blast injury. Am J
perforation in explosion survivors: is it a marker of
Ophthalmol. 1992; 114: 504 – 505.
pulmonary blast injury? Ann Emerg Med. 1999; 34; 168
Benzinger T. Physiological effects of blast in air and
– 172.
water. In German Aviation Medicine World War II,
Lein B, Holcomb J, Brill S, Hetz S, McCrory T.
Volume II, Chapter XIV-B, pages 1225 – 1259. U.S.
Removal of unexploded ordnance from patients: A 50-
Department of the Air Force.
year military experience and current
Brown RFR, Cooper GJ, Maynard RL. The
recommendations. Mil Med. 1999; 164: 163 – 165.
ultrastructure of rat lung following acute pulmonary
Mandelcorn MS, Hill JC. Orbital blast injury. Canad J
blast injury. Int J Exp Path. 1993; 74: 151 – 162.
Ophthal. 1973; 8: 597 – 599.
Carter PS, Belcher PE, Leicester RJ. Small bowel
Mellor SG, Cooper GJ. Analysis of 828 servicemen
adhesions long after blast injury. J R Soc Med. 1999; killed or injured by explosion in Northern Ireland 1970
92: 135 – 136. – 84: the Hostile Action Casualty System. Br J Surg.
Caseby NG, Porter MF. Blast injuries to the lungs: 1989; 76: 1006 – 1010.
clinical presentation, management and course. Injury Melzer E, Hersch M, Fischer D, Hershko C.
1976; 8: 1 – 12. Disseminated intravascular coagulation and
Chandler DW, Edmond CV. Effects of blast hypopotassemia associated with blast lung injury. Chest
overpressure on the ear: case reports. J Am Acad 1986; 89: 690 – 693.
Audiol. 1997; 8: 81 – 88. Nedzelski JM, Barber HO. Round window fistula. J
Chiffelle TL. Pathology of direct air-blast injury. Otolaryngol. 1976; 5: 379 – 381.
Technical progress report on contract no. DA – 49 – Oppenheim A, Pizov R, Pikarsky A et al. Tension
146 – XZ – 055. 1966. Lovelace Foundation for pneumoperitoneum after blast injury: dramatic
Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, New improvement in ventilatory and hemodynamic
Mexico. parameters after surgical decompression. J Trauma
Cohn SM. Pulmonary contusion: a review of the 1998; 44: 915 – 917.
clinical entity. J Trauma 1997; 42: 973 – 979. Pahor AL. The ENT problems following the
Cooper GJ, Taylor DEM. Biophysics of impact injury Birmingham bombings. J Laryngol Otol. 1981; 95: 399
to the chest and abdomen. J R Army Med Corps 1989; – 406.
135: 58 – 67. Patterson JH, Hamernik RP. Blast overpressure
Coppel DL. Blast injuries of the lungs. Br J Surg. 1976; induced structural and functional changes in the
63: 735 – 737. auditory system. Toxicology 1997; 121: 29 – 40.
Cripps NPJ, Cooper GJ. Risk of late perforation in Petras JM, Bauman RA, Elsayed NM. Visual system
intestinal contusions caused by explosive blast. Br J degeneration induced by blast overpressure. Toxicology
Surg. 1997; 84: 1298 – 1303. 1997; 121: 41 – 49.
Freund U, Kopolovic J, Durst AL. Compressed air Pizov R, Oppenheim-Eden A, Matot I et al. Blast lung
emboli of the aorta and renal artery in blast injury. injury from an explosion on a civilian bus. Chest 1999;
Injury 1980; 12: 37 – 38. 115: 165 – 172.
Frykberg ER, Tepas JJ. Terrorist bombings. Lessons Pratt H, Goldsher M, Netzera A, Shenhav R. Auditory
learned from Belfast to Beirut. Ann Surg. 1988; 208: brainstem evoked potentials in blast injury. Audiology
569 – 576. 1985; 24: 297-304.
Gapany-Gapanavicius B, Brama I, Chisin R. Early Schild HH, Strunk H, Weber W et al. Pulmonary
repair of blast ruptures of the tympanic membrane. J contusion: CT vs plain radiograms. J Comput Assisted
Laryngol Otol. 1977; 91: 565 – 573. Tomogr. 1989; 13: 417 – 420.
Goligher JC, King DP, Simmons HT. Injuries Seaman RW, Newell RC. Another etiology of middle
produced by blast in water. Lancet 1943 (2): 119 – ear cholesteatoma. Arch Otolaryngol. 1971; 94: 440 –
123. 442.
Guy RJ, Kirkman E, Watkins PE, Cooper GJ. Sorkine P, Szold O, Kluger Y et al. Permissive
Physiologic responses to primary blast. J Trauma 1998; hypercapnia ventilation in patients with severe
45: 983 – 987. pulmonary blast trauma. J Trauma 1998; 45: 35 – 38.
Hill JF. Blast injury with particular reference to recent Sudderth ME. Tympanoplasty in blast-induced
terrorist bombing incidents. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. perforation. Arch Otolaryngol. 1974; 99: 157 – 159.
1979; 61: 4 – 11. Uretzky G, Cotev S. The use of continuous positive
Hirshberg B et al Recovery from blast lung injury: one- airway pressure in blast injury of the chest. Crit Care
year follow-up. Chest 1999; 116: 1683 – 1688. Med. 1980; 8: 486 – 489.
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

40 Blast Injuries

Wagner RB, Jamieson PM. Pulmonary contusion: Wolf M, Megirov L, Kronenberg J. Multifocal
Evaluation and classification by computed cholesteatoma of the external auditory canal following
tomography. Surg Clin North Am. 1989; 69: 31 – 40. blast injury. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1999; 108: 269
Wang CY, Yap BH, Delilkan AE. Melioidosis – 270.
pneumonia and blast injury. Chest 1993; 103: 1897 – Ziv M, Leventon G, Philipsohn NC, Man A. Blast
1899. injury of the ear: Treatment and evaluation. Mil Med.
Wolf M, Ben-Shoshan J, Kronenberg J, Roth Y. Blast 1973; 138: 811 – 813.
injury of the ear. Mil Med. 1991; 156: 651 – 653. Zuckerman S. Experimental study of blast injuries to
the lungs. Lancet 1940; (2): 219 – 224.
 Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on November 25, 2014 - Published by group.bmj.com

Blast Injuries: Biophysics, Pathophysiology

and Management Principles
CL Horrocks

J R Army Med Corps 2001 147: 28-40

doi: 10.1136/jramc-147-01-03

Updated information and services can be found at:

http://jramc.bmj.com/content/147/1/28.citation

Email alerting Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article. Sign up in the
service box at the top right corner of the online article.

Notes

To request permissions go to:

http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions

To order reprints go to:

http://journals.bmj.com/cgi/reprintform

To subscribe to BMJ go to:

http://group.bmj.com/subscribe/