Research Methodology and IPR

P21RMI705
 UNIT – I

Research Methodology
and
Research Problem
 Introduction
• The word research is composed of two syllables “Re” and “Search”.
• “Re” is the prefix meaning ‘Again or over again or a new’ and “Search” is the
latter meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’.
• Together they form, a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies.
• Research involves formulation of hypothesis or proposition of solutions, data
analysis, and deductions; and ascertaining whether the conclusions fit the
hypothesis.
• Research is a process of creating, or formulating knowledge that does not yet
exist. Thus research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Meaning of Research
• According to Clifford Woody “research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis”.
• D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the “Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define
research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art”.
• According to Bulmer “research is primarily committed to establishing systematic,
reliable and valid knowledge about the social world”.
• Thus research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
for finding solution to a problem.
 Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
• Although every research study has its own specific objectives, the research
objectives may be broadly grouped as follows :
1) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies);
3) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies
are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Motivation in Research
• The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:

1) Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2) Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern
over practical problems initiates research;
3) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4) Desire to be of service to society;

5) Desire to get respectability.

 Types of Research
• Descriptive Vs Analytical Research.
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as
it exists at present.
• In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies.
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• In Analytical Research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
 Applied vs. Fundamental
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.

• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics

are examples of fundamental research.

• Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social

or business problem is an example of applied research.

• Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a

particular institution or the copy research or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be
expressed in terms of quantity or amount.
• Various available statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in
such research, which includes correlation, regressions and time series analysis
etc.
• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
• For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour, we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.
 Conceptual vs. Empirical
• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
• On the other hand, Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
• Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way.
• Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered
to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
 Some Other Types of Research
• Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research.
• Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
• Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research.
• The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather
than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
• Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time.
• Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented.
• While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as
he wishes.
• Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination.
• Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis
for decisions regarding operations under their control.
 Research Approaches
• Quantitative research approach can be further sub-classified into 3 types.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from
which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.
• This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the
same characteristics.
• Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe
their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated.
• This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system under
controlled conditions.
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour.

• Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and

impressions.

• Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or

in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.

• Generally, these techniques focus on group interviews, projective techniques and

depth interviews are used.
 Significance of Research
1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.
2. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
3. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
4. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.
5. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
• The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the
following points:
1. To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may
mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
2. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
3. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
4. To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work;
5. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalization's of new
theories.
 Research Methods versus Methodology
• Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are
used for conduction of research.
• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use
in performing research operations.
• In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the
course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
• Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a
solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
• Research Methods can be put into the following three groups:

• In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available
are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

• The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

• The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
• It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

• In it the researchers will study the various steps that are generally adopted by
them in studying the research problem along with the logic behind them.

• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research

methods/techniques but also the methodology.

• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how
to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-
square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why.
• Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not.

• The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.

• Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research
methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of
our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable
of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
 Research and Scientific Method
• The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
• Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of,
the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether
these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur”.
• The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may
vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific
method.
• Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches of science
and that method is the method of all logically trained minds”.
• Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
• The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
• Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation,
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in
varying proportions”.
• Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships.
• If any, among variables, but the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are
generally criticized for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly
executed experiments or faulty interpretations.
• The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
 Importance of Knowing How Research is Done.
• Importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done
stems from the following considerations:
1. The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new
research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop
disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively.
2. Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use
research results with reasonable confidence.
3. When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of
acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the
world and of judging every day experience.
4. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to
evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.
Research Process
 Formulating the Research Problem
• There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of
nature and those which relate to relationships between variables.
• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view.
• The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get
himself acquainted with the selected problem.
• He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed.
 Extensive Literature Survey
• The abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to.

• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.,

must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

• In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.

• The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.

• A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

 Development of Working Hypotheses
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences.
• As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for research.
• How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:
1. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
2. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
3. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
4. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
 Preparing the Research Design
• The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he/she will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted.
• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information.
• Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
• The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually
the consideration of the following:
1. The means of obtaining the information;
2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
3. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the
reasoning leading to the selection;
4. The time available for research; and
5. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
 Determining Sample Design
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
• But in practice this may not be true, even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will
get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
• There is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use
of sample checks.
• Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
• For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a
few items from the universe for our study purposes.
• Types of Sampling
1. Deliberate sampling
2. Simple random sampling
3. Systematic sampling
4. Stratified sampling
5. Quota sampling
6. Cluster sampling and area sampling
7. Multi-stage sampling
8. Sequential sampling
 Collecting the Data
• In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal
of the researcher.
• Data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
1. Observation
2. Personal Interview
3. Telephone Interview
4. Questionnaires
5. Schedules
 Execution of the Project
• The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner
and in time.

• If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can

be readily machine-processed.

• If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be

made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

• A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey as much realistic as possible.
 Analysis of Data
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
• The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis.
• Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of
data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
• Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With
coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put
in the form of tables.
 Hypothesis Testing
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for testing the hypothesis.

• The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.

• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

 Generalisations and Interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.

• As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalisations.

• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.

• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.
 Preparation of the Report or the Thesis
• Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main
text, and (iii) the end matter.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language

avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints

experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
 Criteria of Good Research
• Scientific research should satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which
the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research
and is a person of integrity.
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well
defined set of rules.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of
great value in carrying out research.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one
or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.
 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great
impediment for researchers in our country.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions
on the other side.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are
often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
1. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance.
2. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and
much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books,
journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
3. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies
of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
4. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country.
5. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also
problems relating to the process of data collection and related things.
 What Is A Research Problem
• Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions
are met with:

1. There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation).

2. There must be at least two courses of action.

3. There must be at least two possible outcomes.

4. The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the
objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice
would not matter.
• Thus, researcher can state the components of a research problem as under:

1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.

2. There must be some objectives to be attained at.

3. There must be alternative means or the courses of action for obtaining the objectives
one wishes to attain.

4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.

5. There must be some environments to which the difficulty pertains.

 Selecting the Problem
• The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a
difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must
also be considered in selecting a problem.
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.
 Necessity Of Defining The Problem
• A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved, the problem to be investigated
must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data
from the irrelevant ones.
• A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the
track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
• Questions like:
1. What data are to be collected?
2. What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
3. What relations are to be explored?
4. What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
• Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is
a step of the highest importance.
 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem
• Defining a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task.
• However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity
encountered in a research operation.
• The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question and set-up
techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for formulating
or defining the research problem.
• The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally
one after the other:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way;
2. Understanding the nature of the problem;
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions; and
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.