ASSIGNMENT FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

BY
P.SRIMATHI
119011201044

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

1. WHAT ARE THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH (2M)

Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies

with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

2.EXPALIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH (15M)

The basic types of research are as follows:

 Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding

enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research
we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post
facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks
to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to
discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand,
the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material
 Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
 whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with
the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research,
but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or
business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social,
economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy
research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of
applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution
for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association
tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a
difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance
from experimental psychologists.
 Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies
on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source,
 and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a
working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as
to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
 Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of
one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of
research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which
research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view
of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as
well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-
study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such
studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research
studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as
conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research
is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free
to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control.
 UNIT - II RESEARCH PROCESS

1.DRAW THE RESEARCH PROCESS FLOW CHART (2M)

2. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROCESS (15M)

 Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz.,
those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships
between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he
wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated
in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be
resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a
working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general
topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view. The best way of understanding the problem is
to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the
matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who
is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the
guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business
 units or in governmental organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the
administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the
problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible
solutions. The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to
get himself acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of
literature—the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the
empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data
and other materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the
researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this
the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put
the problem in as specific terms as possible.
 Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a
Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary
Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher
should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will
lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand
should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
 Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working
hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used. How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by
using the following approach: (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution; (b) Examination of data
and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues; (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to
secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
 Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he
 will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i)
Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible
research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects
of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of
exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as
before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with
control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block
design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
 Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in
the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an
inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element
of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent
except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not
possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done
only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain
way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-
probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability
of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area
sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
 Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of
 the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained
in his hypothesis But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or
more of the following ways: (i) By observation (ii) Through personal interview (iii)
Through telephone interviews (iv) By mailing of questionnaires (v) Through
schedules
 Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data
to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that
the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be
conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be
made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given
with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers
at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept
for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible.
 Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task
of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories
to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The
unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data
for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The
mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time
but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously
 Hypothesis- testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts
support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question
which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi
square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The
hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending
upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in
 either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses
to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
 Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a
theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
 Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in
view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary
pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should
carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a
table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the
report. The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a) Introduction: It
should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with
various limitations should as well be stated in this part. (b) Summary of findings: After
introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. (c) Main
report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-
down into readily identifiable sections. (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it
is the final summing up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of
all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should
also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
 UNIT III RESEARCHING AND DATA COLLECTION

1. WRITE A NOTE ON IMPROVING RELIABILITY (2M)

Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:

 By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we
must ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are
minimised to the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
 By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to
group, by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by
broadening the sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.

2. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY ‘SAMPLE DESIGN’? WHAT POINTS

SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION BY A RESEARCHER IN
DEVELOPING A SAMPLE DESIGN FOR THIS RESEARCH PROJECT
(15M)
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to
the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e.,
the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are
many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more
precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design
which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points:

 Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case
of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea
about the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in
a factory and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars
in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are
examples of infinite universes.
 Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
 such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have
to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.
 Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If
source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
 Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size
of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample,
researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence
level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in
case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population
must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest
in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs
too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
 Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance,
we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some
characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average
or the other measure concerning the population. There may also be important sub-
groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a
strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.
 Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to
the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
 Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which
the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design
which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE In this context one must remember that
two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the cost of collecting the data and the cost
of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher must keep in view the two
causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and sampling error. A systematic bias
results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be detected
and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

 Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a

biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
 Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it
will result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device
is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a
measuring device.
 Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included
in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a
situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an
individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
 Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in
course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete
a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they
generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if
kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a
systematic bias.
 Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the
reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is
usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation
department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some
social organisation. People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for
tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.
Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the
‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either
direction, their nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such
errors happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of
the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.

In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure
causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better
way.
 UNIT-IV REPORT WRITING

1. WHAT ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH

PAPER? (2M)
These steps are the building blocks of constructing a good research paper. This
section outline how to lay out the parts of a research paper, including the various
experimental methods and designs.

 Abstract
 Introduction
 Method
 Results
 Discussion
 Interpretation
 Conclusion
 Reference List

(Source : Researchgate.net)

2. WRITE ABOUT THE DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING

REPORT AND EXPLAIN WITH AN EXAMPLE (15M)

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation
of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (c)
preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are
self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better
understanding.

 Logical analysis of the subject matter:

It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are
two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical
development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one
thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development
is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or
making something usually follow the chronological order.
  Preparation of the final outline:

It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and
a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

 Preparation of the rough draft:

This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a
step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting
the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions
he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned

 Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft:

This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires
more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference
between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should
check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher
should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does
the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it
resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the researcher
should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He
should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.

 Preparation of the final bibliography:

Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography,
which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to
the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has
consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two
parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second part may
contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography
is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the
only way of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography should be made adopting
the following order:For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:

 Name of author, last name first.

 Title, underlined to indicate italics.
 Place, publisher, and date of publication.
 Number of volumes.
Example Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The
Banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995. The above examples are just the samples for
bibliography entries and may be used, but one should also remember that they are not the
only acceptable forms. The only thing important is that, whatever method one selects, it must
remain consistent.

 Writing the final draft:

This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style
and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and
the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology
and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be
incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the
research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and
maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should
be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
 UNIT-V CASE STUDIES

1.WRITE ANY TO PRECAUTIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT

WHILE WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER. (2M)

 While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in
length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the
subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a
means to learning more and more about less and less.
 A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as to
sustain reader’s interest

2.EXPLAIN WITH ONE GOOD CASE STUDY EXAMPLE OF

A RESEARCH PAPER. (15M)

Structure and writing stye

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study
is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new
understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing
new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied
social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public
administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices,
highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional
work.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for
your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study. The
introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only
describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also
succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to
addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in
mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

 What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe

the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the
problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case
will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
 Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the
significance of the research problem and state why a case study
design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is
appropriate in addressing the problem.
 What did we know about this topic before I did this
study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more
in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior
case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to
adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be
 useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the
research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of
analysis.
 How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of
understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in
helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research
problem.
 Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few
paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a
complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-
depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured
the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference,
however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background
information and enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis
in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address. This
includes synthesizing studies that help to:

 Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to

understanding the case study being investigated. This would involve
summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to
investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a
very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past
research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were
conducted long ago, etc.].
 Describe the relationship each work has to the others under
consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable.
Your literature review should include a description of any works that
support using the case to investigate the research problem and the
underlying research questions.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case
study. If applicable, review any research that has examined the research
problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case
study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can
redirect research in an important new direction.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous
studies. This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to
unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing
how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve
these existing contradictions.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research. Your
review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for
understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis
around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of
approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the
need for additional research.
 Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study
could help to fill. Summarize any literature that not only shows how
your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research
 problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding
the problem that prior research has failed to do.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing
literature [very important!]. Collectively, your literature review should
always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research
about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent
literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have
thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to
explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event. In the social and

behavioural sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be
studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end
and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The
subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical
or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new
ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis.
Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you
identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the
validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research
problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a
rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research
problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and
Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect
economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore,
New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new
insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior
studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-
events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should
include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when
did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the
event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the
research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this

particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have
had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the
research problem. Mention any background about this person which might
help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make
them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person
has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using
them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly
important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others
and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research
problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to
show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the
election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as
a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].
If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that
investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special
in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new
understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a
place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research
problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but
you must state the method by which you determined that this place will
illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also
important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being
used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of
homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are
studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable,
describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good
choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless
veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to

a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with
the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that
forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed
or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral
sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a
complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political  system. For
example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used
by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on
them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to
combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be
how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to
the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How
might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of
collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most
often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is
grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their
environment in some way.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any
research paper, but centred around interpreting and drawing conclusions
about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a
general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to
report findings .

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear,
simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs
from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the
discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the
paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you
haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the
limitations of your case study and any need for further research. (source:
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/casestudy)
QUESTION BANK
UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

1. What are the main objectives of research (2m)

2.Expalin the different types of research (15m)

UNIT - II RESEARCH PROCESS

1.Draw the research process flow chart (2m)

2. Explain in detail the research process (15M)

UNIT III RESEARCHING AND DATA COLLECTION

1. Write a note on improving reliability (2m)

2. What do you mean by ‘sample design’? what points should be taken into consideration by
a researcher in developing a sample design for this research project (15m)

UNIT-IV REPORT WRITING

1. What are the basic components of a research paper? (2m)

2. Write about the different steps in writing report and explain with an example (15m)

UNIT-V CASE STUDIES

1.Write any to precautions to be carried out while writing a research paper. (2m)
2.Explain with one good case study example of a research paper. (15m)

Assignment by

P.Srimathi
119011201044
I year, March
PMIST.