Errors and Uncertaintes

General Introduction
Week 1, Lesson 1
• What is Physics
• Counting & Measuring: Accuracy & Precision
• Dimensions & Units of Measure
• Calculating & Converting
• Significant Digits
References/Reading Preparation:
Principles of Physics by Beuche – Ch.1
Week 1, Lesson Introductio 1

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What is Physics?
Physics is: a body of knowledge that provide organized answer
to our questions about the physical world.
Its goal : to describe all phenomena in the ohysical world in

terms of a few fundamental realtionships (called the laws of
Physics) between measurable properties of matter and energy.
All phenomena
in the physical world Physical laws
Quantitative results Mathematical form

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Counting & Measuring: Accuracy & Precision
Precision
One of the simplest methods of quantifying is to count.
This methods is applicable wherever we have individual units,

such as apples, oranges, people,, or atoms.
In principle, counting is an exact process of quantifying

because we are using whole numbers, or integers, to express
a quantity.

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Another method of quantifying is to measure.
Unlike counting, the process of measurement is not exact.
When we measure, we are no longer using integers to determine

quantity. Instead, we are using the markings on a meter stick,
or thermometer, or the ticks of a clock to measure quantities of
length, temperature and time.
All such marks and ticks have an inherent limit of precision

that is determined by the design and construction of the
measuring device.
A general guideline is that a given measuring device has a limit
of precision equal to one half the smallest division of measure-
ment built into the device.
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The limit of precision of a measuring device is ± ½ the
smallest division of measurement the device is able to
display.
Thus:
A meter stick with 1 mm divisions has a limiting precision of 0.5 mm.
A vernier caliper that can be read to the nearest 0.1 mm has a limiting
precision of 0.05 mm.
A stopwatch with 0.5 second intervals has a precision of 0.25 s.
A digital stopwatch that displays to the nearest 0.1 s has a limiting precision
of 0.05 s.

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Accuracy
A different kind of measurement uncertainty involves the

possibility of incorrect design or calibration of the instrument,
or incorrect reading or interpretation of the instrument.
Such errors are called systematic errors.
These errors cause the measurement to be consistently higher

or lower than the true value.
Such a measurement is said to be inaccurate.

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Random errors or statistical errors
– Is multiple measurements of the same quantity using
the same instrument often differ by more than the
precision of the instrument.
- Caused by fluctuations on the physical property being
measured. i.e: changes in temp, gas pressure, elec .
voltage etc.
- It cannot be eliminated
- But can be reduced by increasing the number of
measurements.

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Accuracy is the extent to which systematic errors
make a measured value differ from its true value.

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Accuracy and
Precision

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Dimensions and Units in Measurement
When measuring a physical quantity, we first have to identify

what kind of physical property we are measuring.
There are only seven basic kinds of physical properties necessary

to describe all physical measurements.
These properties are called dimensions.
They are:
length mass time temperature electric
luminous intensity
current number of particles

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With each dimension, there is an associated unit.
The fundamental dimensions and their basic SI units are shown.
Dimension Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Number of Particles Mole M
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

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Calculating with Units
Calculating with measured quantities involves two processes:
1) Doing the numerical calculation, and
2) Calculating the units of the resulting quantity.

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Examples:
Dividing 60 miles (mi) by 2 hours (h) gives:
60 mi
= 30 mi = 30 mi/h
2h
h
Multiplying 3 kilograms (kg) by 12 meters per second (m/s):
3 kg x 12 m/s = 36 kg  m/s

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Converting Between Systems of Units
The units used in various systems to measure a dimension

usually have different names and represent different amounts
of the dimension.
We can convert any measurement from one system to another

by using the appropriate equivalencies, called conversion
factors.
For example: 1 ft = 0.3054 m
We read this as:

“there are 0.3054
meters in one foot
(0.3054 m/1 ft)” or
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“there is one foot in
Examples:
a) Convert 20.0 ft into meters.
b) Convert 60.0 mi/h to m/s.
(ans. 6.10 m, 26.8 m/s)

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a) Convert 20.0 ft into meters.
1 ft = 0.3054 m
Therefore, 20 ft = 20 x 0.3054 = 6.108m
b) Convert 60.0 mi/h to m/s.
1 mi/h  1610m/3600s
Therefore, 60mi/h = (60 x 1610)/3600 m/s
=
Week 1, Lesson 26.83Introductio

m/s 17
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Converter:
1 inch=2.54cm
1 ounce=0.03
liter
1 ton= 1.016kg

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Significant Digits in Calculations
Since measuring instruments always have a limit of precision

and since statistical errors are often present, every measurement
in physics has a limit on how many digits in the result are
known with certainty.
The digits that are known with certainty are called significant
digits.
Whenever you work a problem in physics, you must use the

correct number of significant digits to express the results
of both your measurement and your calculation.

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Examples
Measurement Significant Digits Remarks
3.1 cm 2
4.36 m/s 3
5.003 mm 4 Both zeros are significant
0.00875 kg 3 Zeros simply locate the decimal.
8.75x10-3 kg 3 Same quantity as previous example.
4500 ft 2,3 or 4 Ambiguous – can’t tell whether zeros
measured or only showing decimal.

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Significant Digits in Addition or Subtraction
When adding or subtracting measured quantities, the precision

of the answer can only be as great as the least precise term in
the sum or difference. All digits up to this limit of precision are
significant.
Example: 3.76 cm The least precise quantity is
+ 46.855 cm 0.2 – so our answer is known
+ 0.2 cm only to the nearest 0.1 cm.
50.815 cm
The correct answer is 50.8 cm.

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Significant Digits in Multiplying and Dividing
When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, the number

of significant digits in the result can only be as great as the least
number of significant digits in any factor in the calculation.
Example:
(31.3 cm)(28 cm)(51.85 cm) = 45,441.34 cm3
But, the significant digit rule allows us to keep only two digits –
we are limited by the two significant digits in 28 cm.
Therefore, the answer is stated as: 45,000 cm3, or 4.5x104

cm3.

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General Introduction

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 1

Its goal : to describe all phenomena in the ohysical world in

Quantitative results Mathematical form

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 2

One of the simplest methods of quantifying is to count.

This methods is applicable wherever we have individual units,

In principle, counting is an exact process of quantifying

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 3

Unlike counting, the process of measurement is not exact.

When we measure, we are no longer using integers to determine

All such marks and ticks have an inherent limit of precision

A stopwatch with 0.5 second intervals has a precision of 0.25 s.

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 6

A different kind of measurement uncertainty involves the

Such errors are called systematic errors.

These errors cause the measurement to be consistently higher

Such a measurement is said to be inaccurate.

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 7

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 8

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 9

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 10

When measuring a physical quantity, we first have to identify

There are only seven basic kinds of physical properties necessary

These properties are called dimensions.

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 11

Dimension Unit Symbol

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 12

Calculating with measured quantities involves two processes:

1) Doing the numerical calculation, and

2) Calculating the units of the resulting quantity.

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 13

Dividing 60 miles (mi) by 2 hours (h) gives:

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 14

The units used in various systems to measure a dimension

We can convert any measurement from one system to another

For example: 1 ft = 0.3054 m

We read this as:

(ans. 6.10 m, 26.8 m/s)

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 16

b) Convert 60.0 mi/h to m/s.

Week 1, Lesson 26.83Introductio

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 18

Since measuring instruments always have a limit of precision

Whenever you work a problem in physics, you must use the

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 19

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 20

When adding or subtracting measured quantities, the precision

The correct answer is 50.8 cm.

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 21

When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, the number

Therefore, the answer is stated as: 45,000 cm3, or 4.5x104

Week 1, Lesson Introductio 22

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