CHAPTER -3

DC Circuit Analysis
And Circuit theorems

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 Topics to be covered
DC Circuit Analysis:
2.1 Nodal analysis.
2.2 Mesh analysis.
2.3 Linearity
2.4 Superposition Theorem
2.5 Source Transformation
2.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
2.7 Norton’s Theorem
2.8 Maximum Power Transfer
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Circuit analysis Terminologies
Linear circuit : is one whose parameters are
constant i.e they do not change with voltage or
current .
Non-Linear circuit: is a circuit whose parameters
change with voltage or current
Passive network : is one which contains no source
of emf in it.
Active network : is one which contains one or
more than one sources of emf .

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 DC Network Analysis
When a circuit contains multiple sources of power
it is difficult to simplify the circuit using Ohms law,
and simple series and parallel circuit simplification
techniques.
 Hence we will discus circuit simplification
methods. Such as
• Source transformation,
 Nodal analysis,
• Thevenin’s theorem,
 Mesh analysis,
• Norton theorem,
 Circuit linearity
• Maximum power transfer
 Superposition theorem, theorem
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 3.1 Nodal Analysis
 Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
 Choosing node voltages instead of element
voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.
 Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown
voltages in a given circuit.
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 Nodal Analysis with Out Voltage Source
 In this section the circuits do not contain
voltage sources.
 In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding
the node voltages.
 Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage
sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit
involves taking the following three6 steps.
Steps to determine the node voltages

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 Cont.…
 Once we have selected a reference node, we assign
voltage designations to non reference nodes. Consider,
for example, the circuit in Fig.3.1 (a) below.

Figure 3-1

 Node A is the reference node (V =0), while nodes B and

C are assigned Voltages V1 and V2 respectively.
 The node voltages are defined with respect to the
reference node. 8
 Cont.…
 As illustrated in Fig. (a), each node voltage is the
voltage of that node with respect to the reference
node.
 For simplicity, the circuit in fig (a) is redrawn in Fig.
(b), where we now add i1, i2 and i3 as the current
through R1, R2 and R3 respectively

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 Cont.…
• We now apply Ohm’s law to express the
unknown currents i1, i2 and i3 in terms of node
voltages.
• Since resistance is a passive element, by the
passive sign convention, current must always
flow from a higher potential to a lower potential
in resistors.
• We can express this principle as

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With this in mind, we obtain from fig 3.1(b)

Now, solve the equations using the substitution method

or solve simultaneously and fined the node voltages.

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 Example
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 3-2(a).

Figure 3-2

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 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Source
 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is
connected between two non-reference nodes, the two non-
reference nodes form a generalized node or super node;
we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.
 A super node is formed by
enclosing a (dependent or
independent) voltage source
connected between two non-
reference nodes and any
elements connected in
parallel with it.
Figure 3.3 A circuit with a super node.
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 Cont.…
 Note: We analyze a circuit with super-nodes using the
same three steps mentioned above except that the super-
nodes are treated differently.

Basic steps:
1. Take off all voltage sources in super-nodes and apply
KCL to super-nodes.
2. Put voltage sources back to the nodes and apply KVL to
relative loops.
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 Example
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3-4,
find the node voltages.

Solution: Figure 3- 4
The super node contains the 2V source, nodes 1 and 2, and
the 10 ohm resistor. Applying KCL to the super node as
shown in fig 3-5 below.
2=i1 + i2 + 7
Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages

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 Cont.…
 To get the relationship between v1and v2 we apply KVL to
the circuit in Fig. 3. 5(b). Going around the loop, we obtain.

Figure 3.5
From equations above we write

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 3.2 Mesh Analysis
1. Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for
analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables.

2. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages

in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to
find unknown currents.

3. A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other

loops within it. 18 18
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
 In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take
the following three steps
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the
mesh currents.
 KVL is then applied to write equations in terms of
unknown mesh currents.
 The branch currents are found by taking the algebraic sum
of the mesh currents which are common to that branch.
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 Figure 3.6

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Example: in the network given in fig. below find the branch
current by mesh current method

Figure 3-7

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 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
 Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current
sources (dependent or independent) reduces the number of
equations.
 Consider the following two possible cases.
CASE 1 When a current source exists only in one mesh:
Consider the circuit in Fig.3-8., for example. We set i 2= -5
A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the
usual way; that is,
10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 - i2) = 0
10 + 10i1 +30= 0
10i1 = -40
i1 = -4 A
Figure 3-8 22
 Cont.…
CASE 2: When a current source exists between two
meshes:
 Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.9(a), for example.
We create a super mesh by excluding the current
source and any elements connected in series with it,
as shown in Fig. 3-9(b).
Thus, A super mesh results when two meshes have
a (dependent or independent) current source in
common as shown in 3.9 (a).
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 Figure. 3.9
As shown in Fig. 3.9(b), we create a super mesh as the
periphery of the two meshes and treat it differently.
Therefore, applying KVL to the super mesh in Fig. 3.9(b)
gives: -20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0
Or 6i1 + 14i2 = 20 ……………..(1)
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 We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes
intersect. Applying KCL to node 0 in Fig. 3-9(a) gives
i2 = i1 + 6……………(2)
 Solving the equation (1) and (2), we get
 i1 = -3.2 A, i2 = 2.8 A

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 Summary
1. Nodal analysis is the application of KCL at the non
reference nodes.
 We express the result in terms of the node voltages.
Solving the simultaneous equations yields the node
voltages.
2. A super node consists of two nonreference nodes
connected by a (dependent or independent) voltage
source.
3. Mesh analysis is the application of KVL around meshes in
a planar circuit.
 We express the result in terms of mesh currents. Solving
the simultaneous equations yields the mesh currents.
 Cont.…
4. A super mesh consists of two meshes that have a
(dependent or independent) current source in
common.

5. Nodal analysis is normally used when a circuit

has fewer node equations than mesh equations.

Mesh analysis is normally used when a circuit has

fewer mesh equations than node equations.
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 3.3 LINEARITY PROPERTY
 Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear
relationship between cause and effect.
 Although the property applies to many circuit elements.
 The property is a combination of both the homogeneity
(scaling) property and the additivity property
 The homogeneity property requires that if the input is
multiplied by a constant, then the output must be
multiplied by the same constant.
 For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i
to the output v,
V= iR 28
 Cont.…
 If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage
increases correspondingly by k, that is,
kV = kiR
 The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of
inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied
separately. Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if
v1 = i1R and
v2 = i2R
then applying (i1 + i2) gives
v = (i1 + i2)R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2
 We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-
current relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the
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additivity properties.
 Cont.…
 In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive
and homogeneous.
 A linear circuit consists of only linear elements,
linear dependent sources, and independent
sources.
 A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input.

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 Example
Use linearity to determine io in the circuit in Fig. below

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Solution
If Io = 1, the voltage across the 6Ω resistor is 6V so that
the current through the 3Ω resistor is 2A.

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 3.4 Superposition Theorem
 It states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent
source acting alone.
• The superposition theorem is a way to determine
currents and voltages in a linear circuit that has
multiple sources by taking one source at a time
and algebraically summing the results.
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 Cont.…
 We consider the effects of 8A and 20V one by one, then add
the two effects together for final Vo.
 The 8A is replaced by open circuit (I= 0) and the 20V is
replaced by short circuit (V =0) as shown in figure 3.10 (b).

(a) (b)
Figure -3-10
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 Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one

source.
 Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
1. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
2. Find the total contribution by adding
algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
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 Cont.…
•However, to apply the superposition principle, we
must keep two things in mind:
1.When we say turn off all other independent
sources:
 Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V
(short circuit) and
 Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A
(open circuit).
2.Dependent sources are left intact because they are
controlled by circuit variables. 36 36
 Example
Use superposition theorem to find v in the circuit shown below.

Figure 3-11
Solution:
Since there are two sources, let v = v1 + v2

where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage

source and the 3-A current source, respectively. To obtain v1, we

set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 3.12(a).
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 Figure 3.12

Thus, v1 = 4i1 = 2 V
 We may also use voltage division to get V1 by writing

To get V2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 3.12(b).

Using current division,

V2 = 4i3 = 8 V
Finally V = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V 38
 3.5 Source Transformation
• Source transformation is another tool for simplifying
circuits.
• Basic to these tools is the concept of equivalence
• A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source VS in series with a resistor R by a current
source IS in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 The arrow of the current
source is directed
toward the positive
terminal of the voltage
source.
Figure 3.13 Transformation of independent sources .
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 Cont.…
 The two circuits in Fig. 3.13 are equivalent
provided they have the same voltage-current
relation at terminals a-b.
 If the sources are turned off, the equivalent
resistance at terminals a-b in both circuits is R.
 Also, when terminals a-b are short circuited, the
short-circuit current flowing from a to b is
isc = vs/R in the circuit on the left-hand side and
isc = is for the circuit on the right-hand side.
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 Cont.…
 Thus, Vs/R = is in order for the two circuits to be
equivalent.
 Hence, source transformation requires that
Vs = is R or is = Vs /R
• As shown in Fig. 3.14, a dependent voltage source in
series with a resistor can be transformed to a dependent
current source in parallel with the resistor or vice versa.

Figure 3.14 Transformation of dependent sources.

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 Example
Find Vo in Fig.3-15 shown below using source transformation.

Figure 3.15
Solution:
We first transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the
circuit in Fig 3.16 (a).

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 Cont.…
 Combining the 4Ω and 2 Ω resistors in series and transforming
the 12-V voltage source gives us Fig3.16 (b).
 We now combine the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in parallel to get 2
Ω.
 We also combine the 2-A and 4-A current sources to get a 2A
source.
 Thus, by repeatedly applying source transformations, we
obtain the circuit in Fig. 3.16(c).

Figure 3.16
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 Cont.…
We use current division in Fig 3.16 (c) to get

And vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2 V

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 3.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
 It states that a linear two-terminal
circuit (Fig. a) can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit (Fig. b)
consisting of a voltage source VTH
in series with a resistor RTH,
• VTH is Defined as the open circuit
voltage between the two output Figure 3-17
terminals of a circuit. (a) original circuit,
• RTH is the total resistance appearing
(b) the Thevenin
between the two output terminals
when the independent sources are equivalent circuit.
turned off. 45
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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
To apply this idea in finding the RTh, we need to consider two
cases.
CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn
off all independent sources.
RTh is the input resistance of the network looking between
terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 3.18(b).
CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off
all independent sources. As with superposition, dependent
sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled
by circuit variables.
We apply a voltage source Vo at terminals a and b and
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determine the resulting current io.
 Cont.…
 Then RTh = vo/io, as shown in Fig. 3.19(a).
 Alternatively, we may insert a current source io at terminals
a-b as shown in Fig. 3.19(b) and find the terminal voltage Vo.
 Again RTh = vo/io. Either of the two approaches will give the
same result.
 In either approach we may assume any value of Vo and io.
 For example, we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A, or even use
unspecified values of vo or io.

Figure 3.19 Finding RTh when circuit has dependent sources.

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 Cont.…

Solution:

Figure 3-20

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Cont.…

50
Cont.…

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Cont.…

Figure 3-22

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 3.7 Norton’s Theorem
 It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit of a current source IN in parallel
with a resistor RN,
Where
IN is the output current when the output terminals are shorted.
RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

Figure 3.23 (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit

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 Cont.…
 We find RN in the same way as we find RTh. In fact, from

what we know about source transformation, the Thevenin

and Norton resistances are equal; that is, RN = RTh
 To find IN, we determine the short-circuit current flowing

from terminal a to b in both circuits in Fig. 3.23

 It is evident that the short-circuit current in Fig. 3.23(b) is IN.
 This must be the same short-circuit current from terminal a to
b in Fig. 3.23(a), since the two circuits are equivalent.
 Thus, IN = isc as shown in Fig. 3.24 below. 54
 Cont.…
 Dependent and independent sources are treated the same
way as in Thevenin’s theorem.

Figure 3.24 Finding Norton current

 Observe the close relationship between INorton’s
N. and Thevenin’s
theorems: RN = RTh as IN = VTh / RTh
 We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes
the least effort and use them to get the third using Ohm’s law
VTh = voc and IN = isc

RTh = VTh / isc = RN

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 Example
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below.

Solution:
We find RN in the same way we find RTh in the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. Set the independent sources equal to zero.
This leads to the circuit in Fig. 3.25(a), from which we find
RN. Thus,

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 To find IN, we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown

in Fig. 3.24(b). We ignore the 5Ω resistor because it has

been short-circuited. Applying mesh analysis, we obtain
i1 = 2 A, 20i2 − 4i1 − 12 = 0
 From these equations, we obtain
i2 = 1 A = isc = IN
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Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh/RTh. We obtain VTh
as the open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b in Fig.
3.26(a). Using mesh analysis, we obtain i3 = 2 A

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 3.8 Maximum Power Transfer
 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to
provide power to a load.
 While for electric utilities, minimizing power losses in
the process of transmission and distribution is critical for
efficiency and economic reasons,
 There are other applications in areas such as
communications where it is desirable to maximize the
power delivered to a load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the
maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.
 We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL.
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 Cont.…

Figure 3-27 the circuit used for maximum power transfer.

 If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin
equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig.
3.27, the power delivered to the load is 2
 VTh 
P  i 2 RL    RL
 RTh  RL 

 For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed

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 Cont.…
 We notice from Fig. 3.27 that the power
maximum for some value of RL between 0 and ∞.
 We now want to show that this maximum power
occurs when RL = RTh.
 This is known as the maximum power theorem.
 By varying the load resistance RL, the power
delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig.
3.28 below.

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 Cont.…

Figure 3-28 The power transfer profile with different R L

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 Cont.…
 The above equation applies only when RL = RTh.
 When RL different from RTh, we compute the
power delivered to the load using.

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Example
1.Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
circuit of Fig. 3.29. Find the maximum power

Figure 3-29

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 Cont.…

 To get VTh, we consider the circuit in Fig. 3.30 (b).

Applying mesh analysis,
−12 + 18i1 − 12i2 = 0, i2 = −2 A
Solving for i1, we get,
18i1 − 12 (-2) = 12,
18i1 = 12
i1 = −2/3 A 65
 Cont.…
 Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across
terminals a-b, we obtain
−12 + 6i1 + 3i2 + 2(0) + VTh = 0

For maximum power transfer, RL = RTh = 9Ω and the maximum

power is

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THANK YOU
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