D.C.

CIRCUITS
Introduction

o It is well known that electric current flows in a closed path

o The closed path followed by electric current is called an
electric circuit
o The essential parts of an electric circuit are

i. the source of power (e.g. battery, generator etc.)

ii. the conductors used to carry current
iii. the load ( e.g. lamp, heater, motor etc.)
D.C. Circuit
o The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c.
circuit.
o The load for a d.c. circuit is usually a
resistance
o In d.c. circuit, loads (i.e. resistances)
may be connected in series, parallel or
series-parallel
Cont. ..

o Accordingly, d.c. circuits can be classified as

i. Series circuits
ii. Parallel circuits
iii. Series-parallel circuits.
D.C. Series Circuit

o The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to

end so that there is only one path for current to flow is
called a d.c. series circuit
Cont. ..

o Consider three resistances ohms are connected in series

across a battery of a s shown in the figure
o Obviously, there is only one path for current I i.e. current is
the same throughout the circuit

By Ohm's law;
V1 IR1 ; V2 IR2 ; V3 IR3 then, V V1  V2  V3
V IR1  IR2  IR3  V I ( R1  R2  R3 )
V
 R s R1  R2  R3
I
Cont. ..

o Hence when a number of resistances are connected in

series, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances

The total conductance G s of the circuit is given by

1 1
Gs  
Rs R1  R2  R3
1 1 1 1
Also,   
GS G1 G2 G3
Cont. ..

o The main characteristics of a series circuit are

i. The current in each resistor is the same
ii. The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of
individual resistances
iii. The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the
sum of powers dissipated in individual resistances

Ps = I 2 R 1 + I 2 R 2 + I 2 R 3  Ps = P1 + P2 + P3
Problem 1

Two filament lamps A and B take 0.8 A and 0.9 A respectively

when connected across 110 V supply. Calculate the value of
current when they are connected in series across a 220V supply,
assuming the filament resistances to remain unaltered. Also
find the voltage across each lamp.

I 0.847 A, VA 116.5 V , VB 103.5 V

Problem 2

Determine the resistance and the power dissipation of a resistor

that must be placed in series with a 75 - ohm resistor across 120
V source in order to limit the power dissipation in the 75 - ohm
resistor to 90 watts.

R 34.6 , P 41.5 Watts

D.C. Parallel Circuit

o When one end of each resistance is joined to a common

point and the other end of each resistance is joined to
another common point so that there are as many paths for
current flow as the number of resistances, it is called a
parallel circuit
Cont. ..
Cont. ..

o Consider three resistances ohms are connected in parallel

across a battery of a s shown in the figure
o Obviously, the voltage across each resistance is the same
and there are as many current paths as the number of
resistances
o By Ohm’s law;

V V V
I1  ; I 2  ; I 3  then, I I1  I 2  I 3
R1 R2 R3
Cont. ..

V V V  1 1 1 
I    I V    
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 

I 1 1 1 1
   
V RP R1 R2 R3

o Also

GP G1  G2  G3
Cont. ..

o The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are

i. The voltage across each resistor is the same
ii. The current through any resistor is inversely
proportional to its resistance
iii. The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of
currents in its parallel branches
iv. The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistances
Cont. ..

v. As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total

resistance of the circuit is decreased
vi. The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the
smallest of the resistances
vii. If resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel,
then total resistance
viii. The conductances are additive
Cont. ..

ix. The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of
powers dissipated in the individual resistances

V2 V2 V2 V2
PP      PP P1  P2  P3
RP R1 R2 R3

Like a series circuit, the total power dissipated in a parallel circuit

is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the individual
resistances
Two Resistances in Parallel
1 1 1 R1  R2
(i ) Total resis tan ce, R p .   
RP R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2
Rp 
R1  R2
 Two Resistances in Parallel
(ii ) Branch Currents
R1 R2
Rp 
R1  R2
R1 R2
V IRP I
R1  R2
V R2
Current through R1 , I1  I
R1 R1  R2
V R1
Current through R2 , I 2  I
R2 R1  R2
Advantages of Parallel Circuits
i. The appliances rated for the same voltage but different
powers can be connected in parallel without disturbing
each other’s performance. Thus a 230 V, 230 W TV
receiver can be operated independently in parallel with a
230 V, 40 W lamp

ii. If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will

have no effect on other branch circuits
Example 3
A voltage of 200 V is applied to a tapped resistor of 500 Ω. Find the
resistance between two tapping points connected to a circuit needing
0.1 A at 25 V. Calculate the total power consumed

𝑷 =𝟖𝟑 . 𝟓 𝑾
D.C. Series-Parallel Circuit
o As the name suggests, this circuit is a combination of series and
parallel circuits

o One simple rule to solve such circuits is to first reduce the

parallel branches to an equivalent series branch and then solve
the circuit as a simple series circuit
Soln.
Applications of Series-Parallel Circuits
i. In an automobile, the starting, lighting and ignition circuits are all
individual circuits joined to make a series-parallel circuit drawing its
power from one battery

ii. Radio and television receivers contain a number of separate circuits

such as tuning circuits, r.f. amplifiers, oscillator, detector and picture
tube circuits. Individually, they may be simple series or parallel
circuits. However, when the receiver is considered as a whole, the
result is a series-parallel circuit

iii. Power supplies are connected in series to get a higher voltage and in
parallel to get a higher current
Example 4
Find the current supplied by the d.c. source in the circuit shown
in Fig

I
Short and Open Circuits
Open Circuits
o As the name implies, an open is a gap or break or interruption in
a circuit path. When there is a break in any part of a circuit, that
part is said to be open-circuited
 No current can flow through an open

o Since no current can flow through an open, according to Ohm’s

law, an open has infinite resistance (R = V/I = V/0 = ∞)
o An open circuit may be as a result of component failure or
disintegration of a conducting path such as the breaking of a
wire
Open circuit in a series circuit
o Here resistor is burnt out and an open develops. Because of
the open, no current can flow in the circuit
Cont. ..
When an open occurs in a series circuit, the following symptoms can
be observed:
i. The circuit current becomes zero
ii. There will be no voltage drop across the resistors that are normal
iii. The entire voltage drop appears across the open. This can be
readily proved. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop
ABCDEFA, we have,
 0 R1  0 R2  0 R3  VDE  0 R5  120 0
VDE 120V
Open circuit in a parallel circuit
o One or more branches of a parallel circuit may develop an open.
Fig. below shows a parallel circuit with an open. Here resistor is
burnt out and now has infinite resistance.
Cont. ..
The following symptoms can be observed:
i. Branch current I3 will be zero because R3 is open
ii. The total current I will be less than the normal
iii. The operation of the branches without opens will be
normal
iv. The open device will not operate. If R3 is a lamp, it will
be out. If it is a motor, it will not run
Short Circuits
o A short circuit is an unwanted path of low resistance

o When a short circuit occurs, the resistance of the circuit becomes

low

o As a result, current greater than the normal flows which can

cause damage to circuit components

o The short circuit may be due to insulation failure; components

get shorted etc.
Partial short in a series circuit

o An unwanted path has connected R1 to R3 and has eliminated R2

from the circuit
Cont. ..
o Therefore, the circuit resistance decreases and the circuit current
becomes greater than normal

o The voltage drop across components that are not shorted will be
higher than normal

o Since current is increased, the power dissipation in the

components that are not shorted will be greater than the normal

o A partial short may cause healthy component to burn out due to

abnormally high dissipation.
Deadly short in a series circuit

o Here all the loads (i.e. resistors in this case) have been removed
by the unwanted path
Cont. ..

o Therefore, the circuit resistance is almost zero and the circuit

current becomes extremely high

o If there are no protective devices (fuse, circuit breaker etc.) in the

circuit, drastic results (smoke, fire, explosion etc.) may occur
Partial short in a parallel circuit
o The circuit resistance will decrease and total current becomes
greater than the normal

o Further, the current flow in the healthy branches will be less than
the normal

o Therefore, healthy branches may operate but not as they are

supposed to
Dead short in a parallel circuit.
o Note that all the loads are eliminated by the short circuit so that
the circuit resistance is almost zero

o As a result, the circuit current becomes abnormally high and may

cause extensive damage unless it has protective devices (e.g.
fuse, circuit breaker etc.)
Complex Circuits
o Sometimes we encounter circuits where simplification by series
and parallel combinations is impossible

o Consequently, Ohm’s law cannot be applied to solve such

circuits

o This happens when there is more than one e.m.f. in the circuit or
when resistors are connected in a complicated manner

 Such circuits are called complex circuits

Cont. ..
Kirchhoff’s Laws

o Kirchhoff gave two laws to solve complex circuits, namely;

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

o This law relates to the currents at the *junctions of an

electric circuit and may be stated as under:

“The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an

electrical circuit is zero”

( I1 )  ( I 4 )  ( I 2 )  ( I 3 ) 0
or I1  I 4 I 2  I 3
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW ( KVL )

o This law relates to e.m.fs and voltage drops in a closed circuit or

loop and may be stated as under :

In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the
electromotive forces (e.m.fs) and voltage drops in resistors is equal to
zero, i.e.,

o In any closed circuit or mesh,

Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

Cont. ..

o The validity of Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be easily established

by referring to the closed loop ABCDA shown in Fig

o Kirchhoff’s voltage law is also called loop rule

 Sign Convention

o The following convention may be followed:

A rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential

should be considered negative

Sign of Battery E.M.F. Sign of IR Drop

Method to Solve Circuits by Kirchhoff’s Laws
i. Assume unknown currents in the given circuit and show their direction by
arrows

ii. Choose any closed circuit and find the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the
algebraic sum of e.m.f.s in that loop

iii. Put the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the algebraic sum of e.m.fs equal to
zero

iv. Write equations for as many closed circuits as the number of unknown
quantities. Solve equations to find unknown currents

v. If the value of the assumed current comes out to be negative, it means that
actual direction of current is opposite to that of assumed direction
Problem

For the circuit shown in Fig. below , find the currents flowing in all
branches