Chapter 3

The Cellular Level of

Organization
 The Cell
• The cell = the most basic structural and
functional unit of life
• Principal parts of a cell:
– cell membrane (plasma membrane)
– nucleus
– cytoplasm (cytosol + organelles)
Sperm cell Smooth muscle cell

Epithelial cell
Red blood cell

Nerve cell
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 NUCLEUS:
Cytoskeleton:
Flagellum Cilium Chromatin
Microtubule
Nuclear pore
Proteasome
Microfilament
Free ribosomes Nuclear envelope
Intermediate filament
Nucleolus
Microvilli
Glycogen granules
Centrosome:
Pericentriolar material CYTOPLASM (cytosol
Centrioles plus organelles except
the nucleus)
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Rough endoplasmic
Secretory vesicle reticulum (ER)

Lysosome Membrane-bound
ribosome
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

Peroxisome Golgi complex

Mitochondrion

Microtubule Microfilament

Sectional view
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 Fluid Mosaic Model
• Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane:
phospholipid bilayer with associated
membrane proteins (some can move about
within the phospholipid bilayer)
 Extracellular Channel protein
fluid
Pore
Glycoprotein:
Carbohydrate Lipid
bilayer
Protein

Peripheral protein
Glycolipid:
Carbohydrate
Lipid
Cytosol

Integral (transmembrane)
Phospholipids proteins

Peripheral protein

Cholesterol

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 Electrochemical Gradient
• Electrochemical gradient:
– made possible by the selective permeability of
the cell membrane
• Extracellular side:
– more Na+
– more positively charged
• Intracellular side:
– more K+, negatively-charged molecules
– more negatively charged
 Passive Transport
• Passive transport: substance moves “down”
its concentration gradient
• Types of passive transport:
– Direct diffusion
– Facilitated diffusion
– Osmosis
 Direct Diffusion
Direct diffusion (e.g. oxygen through
phospholipid bilayer.)
Rate of diffusion depends largely on:
surface area of membrane
“steepness” of concentration gradient
Beginning Intermediate Equilibrium
(a) (b) (c)

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 Ion Channels and Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
– Solutes are moved by channels or carriers and do
not require energy from the cell
– Diffusion through an ion channel. Most are
selective
 Extracellular fluid

Concentration
gradient

Simple
diffusion Carrier-mediated
facilitated diffusion
Channel-mediated
facilitated diffusion Cytosol

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 Osmosis
• Osmosis: Movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane from an
area of greater concentration of water to an
area of lower concentration of water
• Osmosis is a type of diffusion
 Applied pressure =
Left arm Right arm osmotic pressure

Water Volumes
molecule equal
Osmosis Osmosis

Selectively Solute
Movement due
permeable molecule
to hydrostatic pressure
membrane

(b) Equilibrium (c) Restoring starting conditions

(a) At start of experiment

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 Tonicity
• Tonicity: concentration of dissolved particles
(solutes) in a fluid (solvent)
– Hypertonic
– Hypotonic
– Isotonic
• Relative tonicity of intracellular and
extracellular fluid determines direction and
magnitude of an osmotic shift
Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic
solution solution solution

15,000x SEM

(a) Normal RBC (b) RBC (c) RBC undergoes

shape undergoes crenation
hemolysis

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 Active Transport
• Active transport:
– substance moves “up” (against) its concentration
gradient
– requires energy
• Sodium-potassium pump is an example
– uses ATP to expel Na+ and take in K+.
 Extracellular fluid
Na+ 3 Na+ expelled
Na+/K+ ATPase 2K+
gradient

3 Na+ P
Cytosol
K+ ATP 2 K+
gradient 1 2 ADP 3 P 4 imported

3 sodium ions (Na+) from the Na+ binding triggers ATP 2 potassium ions The release of
cytosol bind to the inside to bind to the pump (K+) land to the the P causes the
surface of the sodium– and be split into ADP outside surface of pump to return
potassium pump. and P (phosphate). The the pump and to its original
energy from ATP cause the P to be shape, which
splitting causes the released. moves the K+
protein to change into the cell.
shape, which moves the
Na+ to the outside.

1 2 3 4
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 Vesicular Transport
• Vesicular transport:
– Exocytosis –releases materials from a cell
– Endocytosis –cell takes in materials
– Phagocytosis-cell engulfs large solid particles
 Pseudopods
Plasma membrane Microbe
Receptor

Lysosome
Phagosome
Digestive
enzymes

Fusion of lysosome
and phagosome

Digestion by
lysosomal enzymes

Residual body

(a) ©
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 Cell Components-Nucleus
• Nucleus: contains DNA (chromatin during
interphase) of the cell
– Nucleoli: sites of ribosome synthesis
– Nuclear envelope with pores
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 Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nuclear pore
Nucleolus
Polyribosome

Nuclear
envelope

Rough Nuclear
endoplasmic pore
reticulum
(a) Details of the nucleus (b) Details of the
nuclear envelope

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 Nucleus

DNA

Step 1: Nuclear pore

Transcription
RNA

Plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

RNA

Step 2: Ribosome
Translation
Protein

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Chromatids

Chromosome
Centromere

SEM 6050x

(b) Chromosome

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 INTERPHASE

S phase
DNA replicated
(8 hours)
G1 phase G2 phase
Cell metabolically

4-6 hours
8-10 hours
Cell growth continues;
active; duplicates enzymes and other
organelles and proteins are synthesized;
cytosolic components; centrosome
centrosome

Metaph
replication

Pro
G0

e
Anaphase
replication

has
completed.

pha
Exit from cell begins.

op

se
cycle (nondividing

Tel

ase
cell)
MITOTIC (M) PHASE

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 Centrosome:
1
Centrioles
Pericentriolar material
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Plasma membrane
LM all at 700x
Cytosol

(a) INTERPHASE

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 Cell Division: Mitosis
• Prophase: chromosomes (2 sister
chromatids) form, nuclear envelope breaks up
• Metaphase: chromosomes are clustered at
equator
• Anaphase: chromatids separate,
chromosomes are pulled to poles
• Telophase: chromosomes become
chromatids, nuclear envelope reforms
 2

Centromere Kinetochore
Mitotic spindle
Chromosome (microtubules)
(two chromatids
joined at Fragments of
centromere) nuclear envelope

Early Late

(b) PROPHASE

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Metaphase plate

(c) METAPHASE

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 4

Cleavage
furrow

Chromosome

Late Early

(d) ANAPHASE
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5

Cleavage furrow

(e) TELOPHASE
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6

(f) IDENTICAL CELLS IN INTERPHASE

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 Cell Components-Organelles
• Mitochondria: Produce most of cell’s ATP
through aerobic cellular respiration
• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER):
Protein synthesis
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER):
Fatty acid and steroid synthesis, detoxifies
drugs, releases calcium ions in muscle cells
 Outer mitochondrial membrane
Inner mitochondrial membrane
Mitochondrial matrix
Mitochondrial cristae

Ribosome

Enzymes
(a) Details
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 Nuclear
envelope

Ribosomes

Smooth ER

Rough ER
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 Cell Components-Organelles
• Golgi complex: packages molecules
• Lysosomes: digests cells and parts of cells
that are worn out
• Peroxisomes: detoxifies free radicals
• Cilia, flagella
• Centrosome/ centrioles: mitosis and
microtubules
 Digestive
enzymes

(a) Lysosome

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 Cell Death
• Apoptosis: programmed, “intentional” cell
death – a normal process of growth and
maintenance in certain tissues
• Necrosis: cell death due to injury; stimulates
inflammation (an important defense and
repair process)
 Figure Questions
• Answer these figure questions to check your
grasp of the chapter material: Figures 3.1,
3.5, 3.8, 3.9, 3.26, 3.31, and 3.35