GENERAL

PHYSIOLOGY
PORTION
 CPROT4205MDSLABE:DCP,CAgCLSU1stsem2024-2025

LIFE PROCESSES IN INSECTS

For Maintenance of Life (for energy production and
metabolism)
 Digestive/Nutrition, Excretory, Circulatory, Respiratory
Systems
For Movement of Insects
 Nervous and Muscular Systems , Sensory Organs
For Perpetuation/ Survival of Species
 Reproductive System
For Support and Protection
 Integumentary System
For Regulation/Over-all Coordination of Life Processes
 Endocrine System
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/INSECT
NUTRITION
REGIONS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
 FOREGUT or stomodaeum (Pharynx – Esophagus – Crop –Proventriculus)
 MIDGUT or mesenteron (Gastric caeca – Ventriculus)
 HINDGUT or proctodaeum (Malpighian tubules – Ileum – Colon- Rectum –
Anus)
THE ALIMENTARY
CANAL
foregut (lined with spines or intima, hair or teeth) =
PECP

 P (pharynx): an elaborate muscle for food

ingestion
 E (esophagus): narrow tube leading to crop
 C (crop): dilated posterior part of foregut for
food storage
 P(proventriculus) or gizzard: teeth-like to
grind particles of food

 cardiac sphincter: invagination of foregut

into the midgut; regulates passage of food
from foregut to midgut
midgut =G  V

 g (gastric caeca): boundary of foregut and midgut

 v (ventriculus) : primary site for enzymatic digestion of food

and absorption of highly soluble nutrients; lined with
peritrophic membrane; a semipermeable membrane lining
the midgut, protects delicate digestive cells (have microvilli
that increase surface area for nutrient absorption, made up
of goblet cells (regenerative or degenerative).

 pyloric sphincter: boundary between midgut and

hindgut, made up of muscles to regulate deposition of
waste to hindgut; regulates flow of material from
mesenteron to the proctodaeum
Midgut or goblet cells

 Regenerative
= Cells involved in the production of
enzymes and secretions, as well as
absorption of digested food
 Degenerative
=Help pump out excess K from the
haemolymph
More on peritrophic
membrane
 Made-up of protein, chitin and
mucopolysaccharide
 Serves to protect the midgut from particles
or food coming from foregut
 Encloses foodstuff, go directly to hindgut,
thus ensures that midgut cells are protected
from abrasions
 Secreted by specialized midgut cells
(epithelial cells) - known as goblet cells .
Midgut cells are secretory and absorptive
Pyloric sphincter

 De-markation between midgut and

hindgut, furnished with muscles to
regulate deposition of waste to
hindgut
 When closed, only materials from
pylorus can enter hindgut
 Mt can empty contents to hindgut
There are specific parts of the
digestive system where
absorption of nutrients take place

Absorption
takes place in
the midgut
  Active absorption =
Passive
energy is needed to
absorption = transport the nutrient
diffusion (from from the lumen of the
higher to gut to the other parts of
the body; energy is
lower conc.)
needed to counteract
the resistance because
the movement is from
lower to higher conc. =
against concentration
gradient
It is important to have a large
To effect absorption
surface area ofand plasma
secretion…
membrane, thus, modified into
microvilli. Thus, the midgut cells,
instead of lining the surface,
these, are invaginated
 In some insects, midgut could have
functional subdivisions…
e.g. fleshfly

Anterior midgut = water absorption

Middle midgut = acidic, concentration of
foodstuff
Posterior midgut = digestive enzyme
secretion; alkaline digestion; finally,
nutrient absorption
Processes used by insects to
OBTAIN FOOD
1. Secure the food
2. Gain access to,
3. Or select the ingestible parts,
modify them if necessary
4. And transfer them into storage
or processing part of the gut
Structures involved in
obtaining food
 Mouthparts and their
muscles
 Salivary system
 Food pumps
 Skeletal
and muscular
components
 The feeding processes
1. Food secured and held 1. Purchase (mech’l connection)
RELATIVE to the 2. Initial puncture
mouthparts
3. Deep penetration
2. Detachment of pieces 4. Recognition of
from food source target(chemo/mechano
receptors)
3. Detached pieces further
reduced in size for 5. Uptake of food
ingestion 6. Pumping to create pressure
4. Food particles brought to 7. Special secretions to assist
the functional mouth and penetration by lubrication or
retained for swallowing by chemical breakdown of
tissues for liquefaction(saliva)
5. Particles moved from the
8. Sheathing of mouthparts
mouth to lumen of the gut
for digestion and Piercing and Sucking –
absorption protective barriers are passed
Chewing and Cutting thru by the insect
 Other feeding mechanisms
( for Free liquid)

 Catching mobile prey

 Siphoning –
like Odonatans
tube-like
(labium with hinged
proboscis for extensible device
nectar equipped with
feeding terminal pincers)
 Sponging type  Filter feeding
for housefly
 Cuticular filters
 Lapping for (mosquitoes)
bees  Silk nets for
caddisflies
(Trichoptera)
WHAT IS Digestion?

 It is the series  proteins to aa

of activities (proteinase)
and hydrolytic  Carbs to
reactions that
sugars
convert
(carbohydrase
complex
s)
substances to
simpler ones  Fats to fatty
through the acids or
action of glycerols
enzymes (lipase)
ENZYMES are Proteins that can catalyze
reactions produced in the
salivary glands, gastric caeca
and midgut cells
(= proteinases,
carbohydrases, sucrases):quality
and quantity are basically an
adaptation to the type of diet
Amylase, maltase, lipase, invertase, exo and
endo peptidases
Blood – feeding species - proteolytic
enzymes
wood - boring species - cellulase (produced
by symbiotic microorganisms in the gut)
 SALIVA = clear, watery neutral fluid,
basicallycomposed of amylas and invertase
(sucrase) that have several functions like:

 Moistening of food
Sugar dissolving
saliva
Moistening of mouthparts and cleaning
between feeding
1. For active enzyme constituents
THE DIGESTION
PROCESS
1. Food comes in contact with enzymes
present in the saliva.
2. Slightly digested food passed along the
crop, stored or moved to the
proventriculus where food is ground to
increase surface area for action of
digestive enzymes.
3. Once food reaches midgut, digestive
enzymes act on it, also those in the
gastric caeca
4. Digested food pass through peritrophic
membrane and absorbed by the midgut
epithelium. [Undigested food/wastes
Physiological Adaptations

1. Feeding Habits (depending on food source)

e.g. siphoning, lapping, filter feeding
2. Presence of microorganisms in gut
 Bacterial Fermentation chamber
(Cerambycid, Tipulid) in hindgut for wood
vegetable and bacteria. Stored for weeks,
digested and lyzed by midgut, and
nutrients are absorbed from bacteria
 Protozoans for cellulose digestion in
termites
3. Cultivation of fungal gardens (ants, beetles,
wood wasps, termites)
Fungal garden of ants

 Different ant species/different

substrates to grow the fungi
 Primitive ant genera use insect feces
and dead vegetable matter
 Intermediate genera use plant debris,
leaf fragments and flowers
 Complex genera use exclusively fresh
leaves and flowers cut from live plants
Fungal garden of ants
 Fungus cultivated in the gardens produces
bromatia (staphylae) consisting of sterile hyphae
with swollen terminal cells that are eaten by the
ants or fed to the larvae (Atta spp. = leaf-cutting
ants/parasol ants)
 Fungus provides enzymes that are found in the
fecal fluids of the ants. The fecal fluid, when
applied to plant fragments, catalyzes the
degradation of proteins and polysaccharides,
providing a medium that enhances fungal growth
on plant tissues. Thus, the ant serves as a carrier
of enzymes from the fungus to plant substrates.
 In return, the fungus provides the ant with low mol.
Wt. nutrients that can be absorbed readily without
further digestion
Fungal garden of ants

 The ant’s anatomy is modified for carrying and

spreading the fungus
 Virgin Q ant ingests a mass of hyphae and leaf
tissues and held as a pellet in her infrabuccal
pouch. After mating, she uses the pellet to start a
new fungal garden, which is fertilized by her feces
or an occasional egg.
 The initial workers gather more foliage and tend to
the fungal garden. The Q becomes an egg
producing factory.
 The fungal gardens increase in size and numbers,
and at this stage, the ant colony may become an
economically devastating pest
Physiological
Adaptations
5. Filter chamber (“no LBM”). Physical assoc. between
the foregut and terminal midgut to shorten distance
so there is no dilution of fluid. The filter chamber
aims to remove the fluid as soon as possible as not to
dilute the hemolymph and thus easily concentrate
food for digestion.
6. Stylet sheaths or hardened saliva
7.Food storage . Internal stores in the fat bodies, crop
termites have external stores like honeybees in their cell
8. Extra intestinal digestion (carnivorous heteropterans,
plant sucking homopterans, silkworm, blowflies). High
hyaluronidase in saliva of carnivorous insects
ataacks(digest mucopolysaccharides in connective
tissues, also acts as spreading agents for other enzymes
(proteases, once enzyme have acted on the food, they
suck liquid
Physiological
Adaptations
For plant sucking homopterans, saliva
have pectinase or galacturonidase
(enzyme that can digest middle
lamella of plant cell wall), thus aid in
tissue penetration by stylets.
For silkworm, the enzyme in the midgut
(protease) will attack the silk so it can
emerge from the cocoon.
9. Digestion of unusual food like
cellulose, beeswax and keratin
Physiological
Adaptations
10.Hematophagous insects (including
blood-sucking hemipterans and dipterans.

 The diet is highly unbalanced, containing 7%

protein and part of this is sequestered from
hemoglobin (RBC). The mparts are piercing-
sucking capable of piercing RBC and
therefore liberate hemoglobin. Blood suckers
have anticoagulants and in the case of
Glossina (Tsetse fly), it is identified as
Plasminogen activator. Once blood reaches
crop, coagulation is rapid and thus it is ready
for regular digestion.
 Insect Nutrition
 Nutrition is  Nature refers
the nature or to the
processing of information on
materials from chemical
the composition of
environment the different
by organisms components of
for fuelling the food and
their energy delineation of
needs, for essential and
augmenting deleterious
their constituents
substance, of foods
and
production of
NUTRITION

 Refers to the
 Note that
type of food as
well as the the food the
physical and insects feed
chemical changes on are as
of these foods varied as
into body
their habitat
elements
 Refers to the
quality of food as
well as
metabolism of
food into energy
TYPES OF INSECT FOOD

 Food containing  Food containing

substances important
necessary to chemical
fulfil the components to
nutritional induce or
requirements of attract feeding
insects (non-
(nutritional nutritional
component) component)
e.g. host finding
e.g. rice = amino alighting
acids feeding
high induction
Insect Food
Classification
Non-
nutritional
 Secondary Chemicals which
plant in themselves are
substances or not nutritive, but
SPS repel or attract
feeding and
consequently
influence
locomotion,
behavior patterns
in feeding
Insect Food
Classification
Nutritional
 ESSENTIAL
 NON-ESSENTIAL
Necessary
substance that the Nutrients that can
insect does not be excluded from
have the capacity the diet because
to synthesize insects can
because it does not manufacture it or
have the have the ability to
symbionts/microorg synthesize the
anisms that could substance
produce the
substance
3 Basic Rules of Insect Nutrition

1.Rule of Sameness (in terms of quality, CHO, CHON, fats)

Sterols = for hormone production
Despite the uniformity of requirements, it is noted that
insects feed on a particular food material
2. Principle of Nutrient Proportionality (quantitative
differences), refer to the suitable balance of different
nutrients needed for normal development (variation in food
selecting capacity of the insect)
3. Principle of Cooperating Supplements- generally refer to
the substitute sources of nutrients: microorganisms/
symbionts that help or to substitutive substance of nutrients;
variation in enzyme system present in insect groups; food
reserves [newly hatched individuals with carry-over food
reserves from the previous stage]
GENERAL NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS OF INSECTS
(Dietary components for Normal
Insect Growth and Development)
1. Proteins (amino acids = AA) needed for
cell production, enzyme production
10 essential amino acids
PHILL V MATT
Phenylalanine Methionine
Histidine Arginine
Isoleucine Valine Theurine
Leucine Tryptophan
Lysine
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
 AA needed primarily to build tissues
and enzymes
 Requirement vary with qualitative and
quantitative compositions of the AA and
with the stage of the animal
 Excessive amounts in diet of Drosophila
produce melanotic tumors
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
 Deficiency affects the growth, development
and reproduction of the insect; also affects
the characteristics and development of the
skeletal structure
e.g.
low protein diet in Apis mellifera results to brittle
integument and general paralysis
Lack of protein in European corn borer delays
molting or causes supernumerary molts
Yolk synthesis prevented in Drosophila
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
2.Carbohydrates as main energy source (ATP
production basically comes from carbohydrates);
also serve other metabolic functions

Monomers = glucose, fructose

Di = sucrose, trehalose
Tri, tetra, penta = raffinose
Poly = starch (plant)
Glycogen (animal)
cellulose
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
3. Fats and oils – minor requirements but
are essential since they are needed for
hormone production

e.g. sterols as building blocks for

hormone production; needed as growth
factors
unsaturated fatty acids
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
4. Vitamins - essential in metabolism; in general,
as constituent of enzyme system
6 or more B vitamins as essential cofactors in
metabolic transformation
Water soluble B vitamins (B1, B6, B12) act as co-
factors for enzymatic reactions
Thiamine and riboflavin involved in carbohydrate
metabolism
Pyridoxine as coenzyme in tryptophan metabolism
Some ate important in fecundity of adults:
oogenesis
NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
Vit. A and E are essential in reproduction
of predators and parasitoids
Vitamin A accelerates growth for males
5.Lipogenic factors or phospholipids as
essential components in the synthesis of
lipids inositol and choline
Phospholipids are parts of cell
membranes; also important in transport
NUTRITIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
6. Minerals - Na, K, Mg, PO4, Cl
7. Nucleic acids are special requirement for
dipterans
8. Sterol such as cholesterol
- Cholesterol fulfills the sterol requirements
of insects
- Important for cytoplasmic membrane
- Provides starting material for synthesis of
ecdysone
 What is the use of
food?
Energy production
Growth and
development
Reproduction
APPLIED ASPECT OF
INSECT NUTRITION
1. Insect Control
 Plant resistance /susceptibility (development of
varieties resistant to attack by insects; use of
susceptible varieties like trap cropops
 Botanical pesticides
2. Mass production of insects
 as bio-con agents
 For bio-assay test
 Industrial insects (silk production, honey)
Description of insects
according to type of food
eaten
1. Phytophagous
- Insects feeding on plants
- Feed on any plant part by removing tissues
from these parts
- Feed on plant sap from punctured tissues
- Feed on nectar and other plant products
2. Zoophagous
Insects feeding on other animals, including
almost all vertebrates and invertebrates
Continuation…
Description
3. Saprophagous
- Insects feeding on non-living organic matter
- Play important role in cycling of nutrients
- General scavengers (cockrocahes), dung
feeders (dung beetles), dead plant feeders
(termites), carrion feeders
4. Omnivorous
Insects feeding on cross categories ( e.g.
stinks bugs = predators , feeding on other
insects normally but if food is lacking, may
switch to feed on plant tissues)