Digestive system - food is ingested through the mouth,

Two categories of organisms based on they passes through the esophagus, and
obtain energy and nutrients is stored in an organ called the
1. Autotrophs - produce their own food from crop; then it passes into the
energy and raw material gizzard, where it is churned and
2. Heterotrophs - get energy from the digested. From the gizzard, the
consumption of autotrophs or other food passes through the intestine,
consumers. the nutrients are absorbed, and the
- Photoheterotrophs waste is eliminated as feces, called
- Chemoheterotrophs castings, through the anus.

Categories of animals according to diet: Vertebrate Digestive System

1. Herbivores - herbs eaters
2. Carnivores - meat eaters 1. Monogastric
- Obligate ➔ one simple stomach, secretes acid - low pH
carnivores/Hypercarnivores - lion of 1.5 to 2.5
- Facultative carnivores - dogs ➔ better adapted to eat rations high in
3. Omnivores - both concentrates
➔ teeth are crucial for physically breaking down
Digestion - process that breaks down complex food food into smaller pieces during mastication
into materials that the body can readily absorb ➔ salivary enzymes start to chemically
- made up of the alimentary canal/digestive breakdown food
tract and other abdominal organs or ➔ the esophagus connects the mouth to the
accessory digestive organs stomach; esophagus muscles move the food
toward the stomach through a process
Six Interrelated Processes Of Digestion known as peristalsis.
1. Ingestion- the food is put into the mouth ➔ digestion is carried out in the small intestine
2. Digestion- the food is mechanically and by enzymes produced by the liver, small
chemically broken down into smaller intestine, and pancreas.
molecules, which the body can utilize ➔ nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream
3. Absorption- the process whereby the cells through the epithelial cells lining the small
lining the digestive tract absorb the digestive intestine's walls
products ➔ discharged waste - large intestine - the water
4. Circulation- transport the digestive products is absorbed - feces - into the rectum
to the different cells of the body for 2. Avian
5. Assimilation- the digestive products are ➔ has two chambers: the Proventriculus and
incorporated as part of protoplasm and later the Gizzard
to be broken down to provide energy ➔ feed enters the mouth, travels to the
6. Egestion- the expulsion of undigested esophagus, and empties directly into the
residue called feces. crop (stores food). Food then moves to the
proventriculus (where gastric enzymes and
Invertebrate Digestive Systems hydrochloric acid are secreted). Then the
1. Gastrovascular Cavity food makes its way to the gizzard (a
- only one opening for digestion muscular organ that contains grit or stones
- Platyhelminthes (flatworms), that function like teeth to grind food). Then to
Ctenophora (comb jellies), and the large intestine (kidneys secrete uric acid,
Cnidaria (coral, jellyfish, and sea which is combined with the waste). The
anemones) nondigestible food components then travel
- cells within the cavity secrete into the cloaca. The material is then passed
digestive enzymes that break down out of the body through the vent.
the food. The food particles are ➔ undigested material forms food pellets that
engulfed by the cells lining the are sometimes regurgitated
gastrovascular cavity. 3. Ruminant
2. Alimentary Canal ➔ large stomach divided into four
- one tube with a mouth at one end compartments
and an anus at the other - the rumen (solid feed is mixed and
- segmented worms (earthworms), partially broken down)
arthropods (grasshoppers), and - the reticulum (that traps foreign
arachnids (spiders) materials)
- the omasum (produces a grinding
action on the feed and removes
some of the water from the feed)
 - the abomasum (produces zone of elongation
hydrochloric acid and digestive
enzymes; receives digestive ➔ is located next to the meristematic region
enzymes secreted from the ➔ assists in the absorption of water and
pancreas; helps prepare proteins minerals from the soil
for absorption in the intestines) ➔ aids in increasing the size and length of
➔ high in roughage and low in concentrates cells that have lost the ability to multiply
➔ roughage - high in fiber, low in energy, and
typically only 50 to 65 percent digestible. differentiation or region of maturation
(e.g. hay, straw, grazed forages, and silage)
➔ Swallow food in large quantities with little
➔ located next to the zone of elongation
chewing. Later they will ruminate, or belch
➔ responsible for the formation of specialized
up the feed, chew, and swallow it again. The
tissues such as root hairs, xylem, and
regurgitated feed is called cud (ball-like
phloem
mass of feed brought up from the stomach to
2. Shoot System
be rechewed)
➔ consists of the stem, leaves, and
4. Pseudo-ruminant
reproductive parts of the plant.
➔ have a three-chamber stomach in the
➔ stem
digestive system: an omasum, abomasum,
- connects the roots to the leaves of the plant,
and reticulum
enables transport
➔ does not have a stomach with several
- provides structural support
compartments.
- characterized by nodes, regions where
➔ can utilize large amounts of roughage
flowers and leaves are
because of the greatly enlarged cecum (a
- attached, and internodes, regions between
pouched organ at the beginning of the large
two nodes
intestine containing microorganisms needed
for the digestion of plant materials) and large
intestine, which provide areas for microbial Apical buds are buds that grow at the tip of each root
digestion of fiber. and contain apical meristems, which are cells
➔ often eat forages as well as grains and other specialized for triggering the growth of new cells.
concentrated feeds
➔ horse, rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamster The axillary bud is usually located between the base
of a leaf and the stem, where it can grow a new
PLANT NUTRITION branch or flower.

Two organ systems: ➔ leaves

- main sites of photosynthesis in plants, in the
mesophyll tissue of the leaves
1. Root System
- colored green due to the presence of
➔ divided into three zones: zone of cell
chlorophyll
division, zone of elongation, and zone of
- are attached to the stem by a petiole and
maturation.
covered with a waxy layer called the cuticle
➔ absorbs water and nutrients from the soil,
- Xylem and phloem are found in the veins of
supports the plant, and serves as storage for
the leaves, enable the transport of water and
food produced during photosynthesis
minerals and provide structural support
➔ tip of the root is protected by the root cap
(multi-cellular structure in active cell division
that enables the passage of water from the Stomata are openings in the epidermis of leaves that
soil to the xylem through the cytoplasm of enable the exchange of gases.
endodermal cells)
➔ root hairs are specialized cells located at Plant-Organism Interactions
the tips of plant roots (absorb water and
nutrients, interact with microbes, anchors 1. Root Nodule Bacteria
plant to the soil) ➔ Root nodules or swellings in the roots of
➔ meristematic region or the zone of cell certain plants enable bacteria to form
division - above the root cap consists of symbiotic relationships with plants.
small, thinly-walled, and dense protoplasm ➔ Bacteria can extract nitrogen from the
that performs cell division for root elongation. atmosphere and provide it to plants.
- has three layers: (1) dermatogen, the outer ➔ The plant can then serve as a source of
layer; (2) plerome, the middle layer; and (3) carbohydrates for the bacteria.
Periblem, the innermost layer.
2. Mycorrhizae
 ➔ A symbiotic relationship between plant It aids in chewing, swallowing, and tasting food.
roots and fungi.
➔ The fungi increase the surface area for Salivary glands secrete SALIVA, a chemical
mineral and water uptake and break substance that lubricates the mouth and plays an
down complex materials into simpler important role in the chemical digestion of food.
nutrients.
➔ The plant provides sugars and amino - 1 1.5 L saliva is produced daily
acids to the fungi.
3. Parasitic Plants
Bolus is food that has been mixed with saliva.
➔ Parasitic plants send out rootlike
Chyme is food that has been mixed with gastric juice.
projections called haustoria into the
xylem and phloem of the host stem in
order to obtain water and nutrients. THREE PAIRS OF SALIVARY GLANDS
4. Carnivorous Plants
➔ Certain plants obtain nutrients through 1. Parotid glands- located in front and under
the digestion of other organisms. the ears, secrete purely serous
➔ They employ different tactics to trap their 2. Submaxillary glands- located below the
prey: pitfall, adhesive, snap, snare, and jaw, secrete mucous and serous
suction. 3. Sublingual glands- located under the
➔ They grow their flowers at the ends of tongue, secrete purely mucous
long stalks to separate prey from
pollinating insects. SALIVARY SECRETIONS:

Parts of the Digestive System 1. Serous secretion - a clear solution that

contains the digestive enzyme PTYALIN or
The mouth salivary amylase
2. Mucous secretion - containing mucus or
➔ anterior opening of the digestive tract mucin that enables the binding of the food
➔ below the nasal cavity particles together to form BOLUS.
➔ hard palate - the front part of the roof
➔ soft palate - back The saliva also contains GLYCOPROTEIN that
➔ uvula - covers the nasal cavity during protects the soft lining of the mouth, an anti-bacterial
swallowing agent, and BUFFER.

The digestive structures of the mouth include the THE PHARYNX

following:
➔ it is an opening behind the mouth cavity,
Lips or labia- that bound the mouth anteriorly. It is about 5-6 inches long leading downward to
composed of muscles, fibroelastic connective tissue, the esophagus and trachea
stratified squamous epithelium, and glands. ➔ common passageway for digestion and
respiration
Cheeks- form the side walls of the mouth. It consists ➔ it is subdivided into three: nasopharynx-
of accessory muscles for mastication. part of the respiratory passageway,
oropharynx- posterior to the oral cavity,
laryngopharynx- continuous with
Gums/ gingivae- composed of squamous epithelium
esophagus
and collagen fibers
➔ When we swallow, the tongue is raised
against the roof of the mouth and food is
Palate- separates the mouth cavity from the nasal pushed into the pharynx; at the same time,
cavity respiration is temporarily stopped through
the epiglottis to prevent the passage of food
Teeth- Man has 2 sets of teeth: DECIDUOUS or the into the trachea, and the opening of the
milk teeth and the PERMANENT TEETH (incisors- esophagus enlarges to facilitate the passage
biting the food, canines- tearing the food, premolars of food.
and molars- for grinding and crushing the food.)
THE ESOPHAGUS
Tongue- attached to the floor of the mouth through
the frenulum. ➔ Narrow, muscular tube where food passes
through the mouth cavity to the stomach. It
It is made up of tiny projections known as PAPILLAE, lies behind the trachea.
which contain the TASTE BUDS. ➔ About 25 inches long
 ➔ It is where PERISTALSIS begins. Peristalsis Amylase- simplifies carbohydrates to maltose
is the wave-like contractions of the smooth
muscles pushing the food down to the 3. Bile
stomach. - is composed of water, salts like sodium
bicarbonate, bile salts, mucin, and bilirubin
Esophageal Sphincter - opens to let food pass into (pigments like green and yellow coming from
the stomach from the esophagus, and it prevents food the breakdown of hemoglobin)
from moving back up into the esophagus from the
stomach. THE LARGE INTESTINE

THE STOMACH - it is only 2 meters long. It is divided into four

sections: CECUM, COLON, RECTUM,
➔ It is a large pouch located high in the ANUS
abdominal cavity. Its wall is lined with - reabsorb the excess water that has
millions of GASTRIC GLANDS, which accumulated as solvent of various digestive
together secrete 400-800 ml of gastric juice juices
at each meal. - intestinal bacteria provide humans with
➔ It is divided into three parts: CARDIAC certain essential vitamins like Vit. K, biotin
REGION, FUNDUS REGION, and the and folic acid, and minerals are absorbed in
PYLORIC REGION. the large intestine

THREE KINDS OF CELLS FOUND IN GASTRIC ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

GLANDS:
THE PANCREAS
Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid
-it is a long, glandular organ nestled in the mesentery
Chief cells - secrete pepsin between the stomach and the duodenum

Mucus - secreting epithelial cells - secretes mucus PANCREATIC JUICES

THE SMALL INTESTINE sodium bicarbonate- neutralizes the acidity of the

material arriving from the stomach
➔ It is a convoluted tube about 6m long, in
which digestion is completed and through amylase- hydrolyses starch into a mixture of maltose
which most nutrient products enter the and glucose
bloodstream.
➔ Its inner surface is covered with tiny, lipase - break down fat
fingerlike extensions called VILLI- which
increases the surface area for absorption trypsin - breaks down proteins
➔ It is divided into three parts: DUODENUM,
JEJUNUM, and ILEUM.
carboxypeptidase- simplify protein into peptones
and amino acids
FOOD in the small intestine is acted upon by three
juices:
nucleases- decomposes nucleic acid into nucleotides
1. Intestinal juices
THE LIVER
Erepsin- changes maltose- glucose
- it produces the BILE needed in digestion
- it changes surplus glucose into glycogen.
Lactase- changes lactose- glucose All monosaccharides other than glucose are
removed by the liver and converted into
Sucrase- changes sucrose- glucose and fructose glucose.

2. Pancreatic juices THE GALLBLADDER

Trypsin- split protein into amino acid - a small pear-shaped sac that can hold about
50 ml of bile which it stores and
Lipase- changes fats to fatty acids and glycerol concentrates.
Hormones involved in digestion: 1. Through Plasma Membrane
➔ absorb oxygen from the surrounding air
1. Cholecystokinin- is synthesized and secreted by or water and give out carbon dioxide
enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, the first through the plasma membrane by
segment of the small intestine. Its presence causes diffusion
the release of digestive enzymes and bile from the
2. Through Body Wall or Skin
pancreas and gallbladder, respectively, and also
acts as a hunger suppressant. ➔ use their skin to absorb oxygen from the
air and remove carbon dioxide
2. Secretin- a hormone released into the ➔ Many blood cells called capillaries are
bloodstream by the duodenum (especially in spread on their skin.
response to acidity) to stimulate secretion by the liver ➔ The exchange of gases occurs at
and pancreas. capillaries. They die of suffocation if
their skin is dried up.
3. Enterogastrone- a hormone secreted by the 3. Through Tracheal System
upper intestinal mucosa, that inhibits the secretion ➔ In insects, transportation and exchange
of gastric juice and stomach movements, thereby of gas take place by a special type of
slowing digestion, especially of fats. fine tube called the trachea.
4. Through Gills
4. Gastrin- a peptide hormone that stimulates the
➔ Gills are projections of the skin that help
secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of
the stomach and aids in gastric motility.
in using oxygen dissolved in water. Gills
contain blood vessels that help in the
exchange of gases.
➔ Fish gulp water and pump it over the
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM gills - water passes into the gill chamber
through gill slits - water passes over the
Respiration - ventilation or breathing filament in each chamber - oxygen from
(macroscopic level), processes by which cells the water is absorbed and exchanged
utilize oxygen, produce carbon dioxide, and with CO2
convert energy into useful forms (cellular level) 5. Through the lungs
➔ exchange gases through special
RESPIRATION - the union of oxygen with food respiratory organs called lungs -
and the accompanying release of energy, water, air-filled sac-like structures in the chest
and carbon dioxide. It can be divided into three cavity and are connected to the outside
general processes: by a series of tubes and a small opening

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION- the exchange of Types of Respiration

gases between the atmosphere and the blood
Aerobic Respiration:
INTERNAL RESPIRATION- the exchange of
gases between the blood and body cells - Utilizes oxygen in breaking down glucose,
amino acids, and fatty acids to produce
CELLULAR RESPIRATION- the biochemical adenosinetriphosphate (ATP)
process that takes place in the mitochondria of
the cell - Glycolysis to Acetyl Coenzyme a ( Acetyl CoA)
formation to Krebs Cycle to Electron Transport
Respiration in Animals Chain (ETC)

Breathing refers to the physical way in which - Occurs in the Mitochondrial matrix of cells. It
organisms take in oxygen from the air and expel may also be found in the cytoplasm (in the stage
carbon dioxide. Respiration, on the other hand, of glycolysis.
refers to the more intricate process of breaking
down food molecules within the cells that leads - Commonly used by higher organisms
to the release of energy.
- Anaerobic respiration happens more quickly
than aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic Respiration: The Human Respiratory System

- Utilizes glucose (sugars) to form alcohol, The PATHWAY

carbon dioxide, and energy. Anaerobic
Respiration in multicellular organisms also ➔ Air enters the nostrils, then passes
produces lactic acid. through the nasopharynx, the oral
pharynx, the glottis, into the trachea,
- Commonly used by lower organisms (bacteria into the right and left bronchi, into
and yeast). It may also happen in other bronchioles, each of which terminates
organisms given that they have done heavy in a cluster of alveoli
activities.
Functions of the human respiratory system
- Happens only in the cytoplasm.
1.Gaseous exchange for the cellular respiratory
- Occurs in the absence of oxygen. process

- The process does not produce any additional 2.Sound production (vocalization)
ATP molecules when oxygen is not present.
3.Assistance in abdominal compression during
Photosynthesis: micturition, defecation, and parturition

- Is an anabolic process where a new product 4.Coughing and sneezing (self-cleaning

(glucose) is produced. reflexes)

- Photosynthesis requires chlorophyll (which is NOSE- is consists of the external visible part,
commonly seen in plants/algae) supported by cartilage, and the inner nasal
cavity that is divided into left and right halves by
- Occurs in chloroplast the NASAL SEPTUM. It is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium containing cilia and a
- Utilizes carbon dioxide coming from the thick layer of the mucous membrane. It is the
atmosphere and produces oxygen efficient air conditioning and filtering units of
respiration.
- Only happens in the daytime, can only happen
at night when there are enough artificial light PHARYNX- a narrow tube composed of muscles
and membrane. It links the nose to the larynx. It
wavelengths provides a pathway for not only air but also food.

- Light energy to chemical energy LARYNX- it is a funnel-shaped organ that links

the pharynx to the trachea. It is composed of
Respiration: nine-cartilage (cricoid cartilage, thyroid
cartilage, a pair of arytenoid cartilage,
- Is a catabolic process where the breakdown of epiglottis, a pair of cuneiform and
molecules (glucose) is included. corniculate cartilages) connected by extrinsic
and intrinsic muscles and certain ligaments. It is
- Occurs inside the cells of all living organisms sometimes known as the “voice box” because
it contains the vocal cords that produce sound
- Takes place in mitochondria when vibrated by air.

- Utilizes oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. TRACHEA- or windpipe, is a cylindrical tube

approximately 5 inches long that serves as a
- Occurs 24 hours a day but is more evident passageway for air to reach the lungs.
during the night when photosynthesis is not

happening.
BRONCH I- subdivisions of the trachea. The first The Inhalation process - During inhalation, the
subdivision is the primary bronchi, each inserted diaphragm is contracted, resulting in the
into the lungs through a slit-like opening called lowering and flattening of its dome-shaped. In
HILUM. addition, the intercostal muscles contract,
causing the ribcage to rise and enlarge. These
BRONCHIOLES - smallest subdivisions of the changes increase the volume of the thoracic
bronchi. Their distal ends lead to small ducts, cavity and cause the lungs to inflate.
which in turn lead to the air sacs.
The Exhalation process - the intercostal
ALVEOLAR SACS - composed of several muscles relax, and the diaphragm relaxes by
microscopic out pockets called ALVEOLI- the going back to its dome-shaped position. When
functional units of the lungs where actual gas this happens, the thoracic cavity returns to its
exchange occurs. It consists of a single layer of original resting size. Then, the abdominal
squamous epithelium surrounded by a network muscles contract against the diaphragm, further
of capillaries (pulmonary blood capillaries). increasing the pressure within the thoracic
cavity, thus causing the lungs to contract to
LUNGS - are cone-shaped organs that compress the air within the air sacs and causing
completely fill the pleural spaces of the thoracic the air to be expelled from the lungs. So the
cavity. Each lung is enclosed by a saclike lungs deflate when the muscles relax.
membrane known as PLEURA (the inner
pleura/visceral pleura- is tightly attached to the CONTROL CENTER OF BREATHING
lung surface while the outer pleura/parietal
pleura- attach to the thoracic cavity). Medulla oblongata-that stimulates the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract,
At the base of the lungs is a muscular shelf making us inhale.
known as DIAPHRAGM- that separates the
abdominal cavity (contains the viscera like Pons- smoothens the basic rhythm of inhalation
stomach and small intestine) and the thoracic and exhalation set by the medulla keeping the
cavity (contains the heart and lungs). breathing in tune with the body's needs.

The total lung capacity may be expressed as

the sum of the four volumes:
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
-Tidal volume - the volume of air moved into (CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM)
and out of the lungs during normal breathing
- responsible for transporting materials
-Inspiratory reserve - the maximum volume throughout the entire body. It transports
beyond the tidal volume that can be inspired in nutrients, water, oxygen and hormones
one deep breath to billions of body cells and carries away
wastes such as carbon dioxide that
-Expiratory reserve - the maximum volume body cells produce.
beyond the tidal volume that can be forcefully
exhaled following a normal expiration Parts of the Circulatory System

-Residual volume - the air that remains in the •The Heart

lungs following a forceful expiration.
•The Blood

•The Blood Vessels

THE MECHANISM OF BREATHING

BREATHING - is the process of drawing air into

the lungs (inhalation) and expelling it
(exhalation).
Circulatory System Human Circulatory system

1. Closed-loop system in vertebrates

➔ blood is largely separated from the
body’s other extracellular fluid THE HEART
compartment, the interstitial fluid,
which is the fluid bathing the cells. The heart is a muscular pumping organ located
➔ The blood flows through arteries, veins, medial to the lungs along the body’s midline in
and capillaries, and the exchange of the thoracic region. The bottom tip of the heart,
substances occurs between the blood known as its apex, is turned to the left, so that
and the body cells through the thin walls about 2/3 of the heart is located on the body’s
of the capillaries. left side with the other 1/3 on right. The top of
2. Open Circulatory System in the heart, known as the heart’s base, connects
Invertebrates to the great blood vessels of the body: the
➔ circulatory fluid bathes the internal aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, and
organs directly even though it may be pulmonary veins.
moved about with a pumping heart
➔ an elongated beating heart pushes the It is a four-chambered muscular organ that
hemolymph through the body and serves as the pumping station of the circulatory
muscle contractions help to move fluids system. It sits between the lungs and above the
diaphragm.
(a) Fish have the simplest circulatory systems of
the vertebrates: blood flows unidirectionally from It is about the size of your fist and is composed
the two-chambered heart through the gills and mostly of cardiac muscle tissue.
then to the rest of the body.
PERICARDIUM - Membrane Covering of the
(b) Amphibians have two circulatory routes: Heart. It is a loose-fitting sac that covers the
one for oxygenation of the blood through the heart. It is composed of two layers: fibrous
lungs and skin, and the other to take oxygen to pericardium (outer, tough membrane) and
the rest of the body. The blood is pumped from a serous pericardium (inner, smooth membrane).
three-chambered heart with two atria and a
single ventricle. The Chambers of the Heart (4)

(c) Reptiles also have two circulatory routes; Right atrium- receives deoxygenated blood
however, blood is only oxygenated through the coming from body except the lungs
lungs. The heart is three chambered, but the
ventricles are partially separated, so some Left atrium- receives oxygenated blood from
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood the lungs
occurs except in crocodilians and birds.
Right Ventricle- pumps deoxygenated blood to
(d) Mammals and birds have the most efficient the lungs
heart with four chambers that completely
separate the oxygenated and deoxygenated Left Ventricle- pumps oxygenated blood to all
blood; it pumps only oxygenated blood through parts of the body
the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs
interatrial septum- separates the right and left
atrium

interventricular septum- separates the right

and left ventricle
 The Valves of the Heart (4) Man’s circulatory system is described as CLOSE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
VALVES- are flaps of muscles that prevent the
blood from back flowing into the heart PULMONARY CIRCULATION- is the portion of
the cardiovascular system that carries
2 atrioventricular valves (tricuspid valve and deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the
bicuspid /mitral valve)- located between the atria lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the
and the ventricles, prevent the blood from back heart.
flowing into the atria when the ventricles
contract. Right atrium→Right Ventricle→Pulmonary
Artery→LUNGS→Pulmonary Veins→Left Atrium
2 semilunar valves- (aortic semilunar valve and
pulmonary semilunar valve)- found within the
aorta and pulmonary artery, prevents the
blood from back flowing into the ventricles SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION- is the portion of the
cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated
blood away from the heart, to the body, and
returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Blood vessels connected to the Heart
Left atrium→Left Ventricle→Aorta→Head and
Vena cava- the largest vein that conveys Neck region→Superior vena cava→Right
deoxygenated blood from the body except for atrium→Lower part of the body→Inferior vena
the lungs back to the right atrium cava→Right atrium

Superior vena cava- conveys DB from head

and neck region back to RA
THE BLOOD
Inferior vena cava- conveys DB from the lower
portion of the body back to RA ➔ The average human body is 4 to 5 liters
of blood.
Pulmonary artery- conveys DB from RV to the ➔ As a liquid connective tissue, it
lungs transports many substances through the
body and helps to maintain homeostasis
Aorta- the largest artery that conveys OB from of nutrients, wastes, and gases.
the LV to the body ➔ Blood is made up of red blood cells,
white blood cells, platelets, and liquid
Pulmonary veins- convey OB from the lungs to plasma.
the LA
PLASMA - is the non-cellular or liquid portion of
Coronary arteries-branches of the aorta that the blood where the RBC, WBC, and platelets
curl across the heart, supplying the heart with are suspended.
the blood it needs
➔ It is composed of water that serves as a
solvent, salts like sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and plasma
Pacemaker of the Heart- it is a specialized proteins like albumin, immunoglobulin
region in the heart muscle that maintains the and fibrinogen that maintains that
heart’s pumping rhythm. It is the SA Node osmotic balance and has an important
(Sinoatrial Node). It is a neuromuscular tissue role in blood clotting
situated within the walls of the right atrium.
Controls the heartbeat.
ERYTHROCYTES/RED BLOOD CELLS Eosinophils contain digestive enzymes that are
specialized for digesting viruses that have
➔ the most common type of blood cell and been bound by antibodies in the blood.
make up about 45% of blood volume.
➔ produced inside the bone marrow from Basophils release histamine to intensify allergic
stem cells like in the ribs, breastbone, reactions and help protect the body from
and pelvis at the astonishing rate of parasites.
about 2 million cells every second.
➔ Its production is controlled by a Agranular Leukocytes: The two major classes
hormone known as ERYTHROPOIETIN. of agranular leukocytes are lymphocytes and
➔ Each RBC circulates for about 120 days monocytes.
and then breaks down.
➔ Red Blood Cells are responsible for Lymphocytes include T cells and natural killer
carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. cells that fight off viral infections and B cells that
➔ Red Blood Cells pick up oxygen in the produce antibodies against infections by
lungs and transport it to all the body pathogens.
cells.
➔ After delivering the oxygen to the cells it Monocytes develop into cells called
gathers up the carbon dioxide (a waste macrophages that engulf and ingest pathogens
gas produced as our cells are working) and dead cells from wounds or infections.
and transports carbon dioxide back to
the lungs where it is removed from the
body when we exhale (breathe out).
➔ There are about 5-6 million RBCs per THROMBOCYTES/PLATELETS
millimeter of blood.
➔ are small cell fragments responsible for
LEUKOCYTES/WHITE BLOOD CELLS - the clotting of blood.
➔ Platelets form in the red bone marrow
➔ make up a very small percentage of the from large megakaryocyte cells that
total number of cells in the bloodstream periodically rupture and release
but have important functions in the thousands of pieces of membrane that
body’s immune system. become the platelets.
➔ They are usually described as the ➔ do not contain a nucleus and only
“soldiers of the body” because they fight survive in the body for up to a week
invading microorganisms of the body in before macrophages capture and digest
two ways: PHAGOCYTOSIS and them.
ANTI-BODY FORMATION. ➔ There are 250,000-400,000 platelets per
➔ There are 5,000-10,000 of WBC per millimeter of blood.
millimeter of blood.
➔ Leukocytes arise in the same bone BLOOD TYPE- or blood group is a classification
marrow that produce the erythrocytes of blood based on the presence or absence of
called TOTIPOTENT stem cell but it is inherited antigenic substances, which may be
also produced in some lymphoid organs proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or
(thymus, spleen and tonsils). There are glycolipids, depending on the blood group
two major classes of white blood cells: system.
granular leukocytes and agranular
leukocytes. Blood types are inherited and represent
contributions from both parents. The main blood
Granular Leukocytes: The three types of types are A, B, AB, and O.
granular leukocytes are neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils. These blood groups are named for the antigens
present in the plasma membrane of the RBC
Neutrophils contain digestive enzymes that while in another case, the blood plasma contains
neutralize bacteria that invade the body. antibodies that can react with the antigens of the
blood.
 dorsalis pedis artery- at the anterosuperior
aspect of the foot.

Main similarities n differences

BLOOD VESSELS - are elastic channels that
are part of the circulatory system and function to
transport blood throughout the body.
Digestion:
•ARTERIES/arterioles- transport blood away
from the heart, transport oxygenated blood
only except for pulmonary artery Plants can make their own food, while animals
don't.
•VEINS/VENULES- transport blood back to the
heart, transport deoxygenated blood except for Both uses the process of breaking down food for
pulmonary veins better nutrient absorption

•CAPILLARIES- are the smallest and thinnest of Respiration:

the blood vessels in the body and also the most
common. They can be found running throughout Plants don't have respiratory organs like animals
almost every tissue of the body and border the
edges of the body’s avascular tissues. Plants don’t have respiratory systems like
Capillaries connect to arterioles on one end animals
and venules on the other.
Both produce ATP and require glucose as the
BLOOD PRESSURE- is the force created by the starting molecule
contraction of the ventricles of the heart.
Circulatory
When the ventricles contract, blood is forced
into the artery. This force stretches the elastic Both have water as the solvent in their transport
walls of the artery. system

When the ventricles relax, the pressure is Both have parts that help them move
reduced and the artery snaps back to its substances all around their bodies
original size.
water only flow once in plants, while other blood
The rhythmic stretching of the artery caused by flows twice in some animals (pulmonary,
the pressure of the blood within as the ventricles systemic)
contract is called PULSE.

Pulse is readily distinguished in the following

parts of the body:

radial artery- on the radial side of the wrist

temporal artery-at the temple above and to the

outer side of the eye

carotid artery- on the side of the neck

brachial artery-on the inner side of the biceps

femoral artery- on the groin

popliteal artery-behind the knee