Artificial Intelligence

Introduction (unit-1)

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 Introduction

• What is AI?
• The foundations of AI
• A brief history of AI
• Types of AI
• The state of the art

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 What is Intelligence?
 Intelligence:
› “the capacity to learn and solve
problems” (Webster's dictionary)
› in particular,
 the ability to solve novel problems
 the ability to act rationally
 the ability to act like humans

 Artificial Intelligence
› build and understand intelligent entities
or agents
› 2 main approaches: “engineering”
versus “cognitive modeling”
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 What’s involved in Intelligence?
 Ability to interact with the real world
› to perceive, understand, and act
› e.g., speech recognition and understanding and
synthesis
› e.g., image understanding
› e.g., ability to take actions, have an effect
 Reasoning and Planning
› modeling the external world, given input
› solving new problems, planning, and making decisions
› ability to deal with unexpected problems,
uncertainties
 Learning and Adaptation
› we are continuously learning and adapting
› our internal models are always being “updated” 5
 e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals
Definition of AI in different text books
The automation of activities that we associate with human thinking,
activities such as decision-making, problem solving, learning ...' (Bellman,
1978)

'The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason,

and act' (Winston, 1992)

'The art of creating machines that perform functions that require

intelligence when done by people' (Kurzweil, 1990)

The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment,

people are better' (Rich and Knight, 1991)

'The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation

of intelligent behavior' (Luger and Stubblefield, 1993)
 History of AI
Year Milestone / Innovation

Karel Čapek play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in London,
1923
first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.

1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.
Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and
1950 published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first
1956
running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand
1964
natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

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 History of AI
Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries
1965
on a dialogue in English.
Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,
1969 equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the

1973 Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.
The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart(Stanely),
1979
was built.
Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.
1985
 History of AI
Major advances in all areas of AI −
•Significant demonstrations in machine learning
•Case-based reasoning
•Multi-agent planning
•Scheduling
1990
•Data mining, Web Crawler
•natural language understanding and translation
•Vision, Virtual Reality
•Games

The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion,
1997 Garry Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT

displays Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The
2000 robot Nomad explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates
meteorites.
 Success Stories
• Deep Blue defeated the reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov in
1997

• AI program proved a mathematical conjecture (Robbins conjecture) unsolved

for decades

• During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI logistics planning and
scheduling program that involved up to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people

• NASA's on-board autonomous planning program controlled the scheduling of

operations for a spacecraft

• Proverb solves crossword puzzles better than most humans

• Robot driving:Stanely car won DARPA grand challenge 2003-2007

• 2006: face recognition software available in consumer cameras

• 2010:IBM Watson defeated the two greatest jeopardy champions Brad Rutter
and Ken Jennings 12
 Types Of AI
• Artificial Narrow Intelligence - Weak AI
Involves applying AI only to specific tasks

• Artificial General Intelligence - Strong AI

Involves Machines that possess the ability to perform any
intellectual task that a human being can

• Artificial Super Intelligence - Super AI

Referring to the time when the capability of computers will surpass humans
 DEMAND FOR AI
• WHY ARE WE TALKING ABOUT AI NOW
 Contd…….
• More Computational power

• More Data

• Better Algorithms

• Broad Investment
 What can AI systems NOT do yet?
• Understand natural language robustly (e.g.,
read and understand articles in a newspaper)
• Surf the web
• Interpret an arbitrary visual scene
• Learn a natural language
• construct plans in dynamic real-time domains
• Exhibit true autonomy and intelligence

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 The State of the Art
 Computer beats human in a chess game.
 Computer-human conversation using speech
recognition.
 Expert system controls a spacecraft.
 Robot can walk on stairs and hold a cup of water.
 Language translation for webpages.
 Home appliances use fuzzy logic.
 ......
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 Some applications of AI
• Game Playing
Deep Blue Chess program beat world champion Gary Kasparov
• Speech Recognition
PEGASUS spoken language interface to American Airlines' EAASY SABRE reseration system, which allows users to obtain
flight information and make reservations over the telephone. The 1990s has seen significant advances in speech
recognition so that limited systems are now successful.
• Computer Vision
Face recognition programs in use by banks, government, etc. The ALVINN system from CMU autonomously drove a van
from Washington, D.C. to San Diego (all but 52 of 2,849 miles), averaging 63 mph day and night, and in all weather
conditions. Handwriting recognition, electronics and manufacturing inspection, photointerpretation, baggage inspection,
reverse engineering to automatically construct a 3D geometric model.
• Expert Systems
Application-specific systems that rely on obtaining the knowledge of human experts in an area and programming that
knowledge into a system.
• Diagnostic Systems
Microsoft Office Assistant in Office 97 provides customized help by decision-theoretic reasoning about an individual user.
MYCIN system for diagnosing bacterial infections of the blood and suggesting treatments. Intellipath pathology diagnosis
system (AMA approved). Pathfinder medical diagnosis system, which suggests tests and makes diagnoses. Whirlpool
customer assistance center.

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 (cont’d)
• Financial Decision Making
Credit card companies, mortgage companies, banks, and the U.S. government employ AI systems to detect fraud and
expedite financial transactions. For example, AMEX credit check. Systems often use learning algorithms to construct
profiles of customer usage patterns, and then use these profiles to detect unusual patterns and take appropriate action.
• Classification Systems
Put information into one of a fixed set of categories using several sources of information. E.g., financial decision making
systems. NASA developed a system for classifying very faint areas in astronomical images into either stars or galaxies
with very high accuracy by learning from human experts' classifications.
• Mathematical Theorem Proving
Use inference methods to prove new theorems.
• Natural Language Understanding
Google's translation of web pages. Translation of Catepillar Truck manuals into 20 languages. (Note: One early system
translated the English sentence "The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" into the Russian equivalent of "The vodka is
good but the meat is rotten.")
• Scheduling and Planning
Automatic scheduling for manufacturing. DARPA's DART system used in Desert Storm and Desert Shield operations to
plan logistics of people and supplies. American Airlines rerouting contingency planner. European space agency planning
and scheduling of spacecraft assembly, integration and verification.
• Robotics and Path planning
NASA’s Rover mission.
• Biology and medicine
Modeling of cellular functions, analysis of DNA and proteins.
• and…

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Intelligent Agents
 Agents
• An agent is anything that can be
viewed as perceiving its
environment through sensors
and acting upon that
environment through actuators
•
 Agents contd..
• Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for
sensors hands,legs, mouth, and other body
parts for actuators.

• Robotic agent: cameras and infrared range

finders for sensors various motors for
actuators.
 Agents and environments

• The agent function maps from percept histories to actions:

• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to produce f

• agent = architecture + program

•
• [f: P*  A]
 Vacuum-cleaner world

• Percepts: location and contents, e.g., [A,Dirty]

• Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp

 Rational agents
• An agent should strive to "do the right thing", based
on what it can perceive and the actions it can
perform. The right action is the one that will cause
the agent to be most successful
• Performance measure: An objective criterion for
success of an agent's behavior.
• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner
agent could be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of
time taken, amount of electricity consumed, amount
of noise generated, etc.
 Rational agents
• Rational Agent:

For each possible percept sequence, a rational

agent should select an action that is expected
to maximize its performance measure, given
the evidence provided by the percept
sequence and whatever built-in knowledge
the agent has.
 Rational agents
• Rationality is distinct from omniscience (all-
knowing with infinite knowledge)
• Agents can perform actions in order to modify
future percepts so as to obtain useful
information (information gathering,
exploration)
• An agent is autonomous if its behavior is
determined by its own experience (with ability
to learn and adapt)
 PEAS
• Consider, e.g., the task of designing an automated
taxi driver:
– Performance measure
– Environment
– Actuators
– Sensors
 the task of designing an
automated taxi driver
– Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip,
maximize profits

– Environment: Roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers

– Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

– Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer,

engine sensors, keyboard
• Agent: Medical diagnosis system
 Agent: Medical diagnosis system
• Performance measure: Healthy patient, minimize
costs, lawsuits

• Environment: Patient, hospital, staff

• Actuators: Screen display (questions, tests,

diagnoses, treatments, referrals)

• Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms, findings,

patient's answers)
• Agent: Interactive English tutor
 Agent: Interactive English tutor
• Performance measure: Maximize student's
score on test
• Environment: Set of students
• Actuators: Screen display (exercises,
suggestions, corrections)
• Sensors: Keyboard
 :Types of Agents:

• Table Driven Agents

• Simple Reflex Agents
• Model based Reflex Agents
• Goal based Agents
• Utility Based Agents
• Learning Agents
 Table Driven Agents:
• Table based information about the agent’s
percept.
• Mapping can be implemented by rule based
system, Nn methods.
• If table becomes very large learning the table
may take long time.
 Simple Reflex Agents or Percept
based
E
Agent Sensors
n
What the world is like v
now? i
o
r
Conditions action What action should I
n
rules do now?
m
e
Actuators
n
t

Information comes from sensors-Percepts

Changes the agent current state of the world
Triggers actions through the effectors
No notion of history,no internal representation,no strategic
planning
 Model based reflex Agents
Information comes from sensors-Percepts
Changes the agent current state of the world
• Based on the state of the world and knowledge(memory),it triggers actions through the
effectors.

Sensors
E
state
What the world is like n
How world evolves now? v
i
What my actions do
o
r
What action should I
n
do now?
Conditions action m
rules e
Actuators n
t

Agent
 Goal based Agents
Information comes from sensors-Percepts
Changes the agent current state of the world
• Based on the state of the world and knowledge(memory), and goals / intentions it chooses
actions through the effectors.

state Sensors
E
What the world is like n
How world evolves now? v
What it will be like if I do i
What my actions do
action A o
r
What action should I
n
do now?
GOALS m
e
Actuators n
t

Agent
 Utility based Agents
Information comes from sensors-Percepts
Changes the agent current state of the world
• Based on the state of the world and knowledge(memory), and goals / intentions it chooses
actions through the effectors.

Sensors
E
state
What the world is like n
How world evolves now? v
What it will be like if I do i
What my actions do
action A o
r
How happy I will be in
n
such a state
Utility m
e
What action should I n
do now?
t

Agent Actuators
 Environment types
• Fully observable (vs. partially observable): An agent's sensors
give it access to the complete state of the environment at
each point in time.
• Deterministic (vs. stochastic): The next state of the
environment is completely determined by the current state
and the action executed by the agent. (If the environment is
deterministic except for the actions of other agents, then the
environment is strategic)
• Episodic (vs. sequential): The agent's experience is divided
into atomic "episodes" (each episode consists of the agent
perceiving and then performing a single action), and the
choice of action in each episode depends only on the episode
itself.
•
 Environment types
• Static (vs. dynamic): The environment is unchanged
while an agent is deliberating. (The environment is
semidynamic if the environment itself does not
change with the passage of time but the agent's
performance score does)
• Discrete (vs. continuous): A limited number of
distinct, clearly defined percepts and actions.
• Single agent (vs. multiagent): An agent operating by
itself in an environment.
•
 Problem-Solving Agents
• Intelligent agents can solve problems by searching a state-
space
• State-space Model
– the agent’s model of the world
– usually a set of discrete states
– e.g., in driving, the states in the model could be towns/cities
• Goal State(s)
– a goal is defined as a desirable state for an agent
– there may be many states which satisfy the goal test
• e.g., drive to a town with a ski-resort
– or just one state which satisfies the goal
• e.g., drive to Mammoth

• Operators (actions, successor function)

– operators are legal actions which the agent can take to move from
one state to another
 Problem-Solving Agents
• Intelligent agents can solve problems by
searching a state-space

• State-space Model
– the agent’s model of the world
– usually a set of discrete states
– e.g., in driving, the states in the model could be
towns/cities
• Goal State(s)
– a goal is defined as a desirable state for an agent
– there may be many states which satisfy the goal
test
• e.g., drive to a town with a ski-resort
– or just one state which satisfies the goal
• e.g., drive to Mammoth

• Operators (actions, successor function)

– operators are legal actions which the agent can
take to move from one state to another
 The State-Space Graph
• Graphs:
– nodes, arcs, directed arcs, paths
• Search graphs:
– States are nodes
– operators are directed arcs
– solution is a path from start S to goal G
• Problem formulation:
– Give an abstract description of states, operators, initial
state and goal state.
• Problem solving:
– Generate a part of the search space that contains a
solution
Some example problems

• Toy problems and micro-worlds

– 8-Puzzle
– Missionaries and Cannibals
– Cryptarithmetic
– Remove 5 Sticks
– Water Jug Problem
• Real-world problems
 A Water Jug Problem
• You have a 4-gallon
and a 3-gallon water
jug

• You have a faucet

with an unlimited
amount of water

• You need to get

exactly 2 gallons in 4-
gallon jug
 Puzzle-solving as Search
• State representation: (x, y)
– x: Contents of four gallon
– y: Contents of three gallon

• Start state: (0, 0)

• Goal state (2, n)

• Operators
– Fill 3-gallon from faucet, fill 4-gallon from faucet
– Fill 3-gallon from 4-gallon , fill 4-gallon from 3-gallon
– Empty 3-gallon into 4-gallon, empty 4-gallon into 3-gallon
– Dump 3-gallon down drain, dump 4-gallon down drain
Production Rules for the Water Jug Problem
1 (x,y)  (4,y) Fill the 4-gallon jug
if x < 4
Fill the 3-gallon jug
2 (x,y)  (x,3)
if y < 3 Pour some water out of the 4-gallon jug

3 (x,y)  (x – d,y)
Pour some water out of the 3-gallon jug
if x > 0

4 (x,y)  (x,y – d) Empty the 4-gallon jug on the ground

if x > 0
Empty the 3-gallon jug on the ground
5 (x,y)  (0,y)
if x > 0 Pour water from the 3-gallon jug into the 4-
gallon jug until the 4-gallon jug is full
The Water Jug Problem (cont’d)

8 (x,y)  (x – (3 – Pour water from the 4-gallon jug into the 3-

y),3) gallon jug until the 3-gallon jug is full

if x + y ≥ 3 and x >
0 Pour all the water from the 3-gallon jug into
the 4-gallon jug

9 (x,y)  (x + y, 0) Pour all the water from the 4-gallon jug into
the 3-gallon jug
if x + y ≤ 4 and y >
0

10 (x,y)  (0, x + y)
if x + y ≤ 3 and x >
 8 puzzle of the tiles on the
• State: 3 x 3 array configuration
board.
• Operators: Move Blank Square Left, Right, Up or
Down.
– This is a more efficient encoding of the operators than
one in which each of four possible moves for each of the
8 distinct tiles is used.
• Initial State: A particular configuration of the
board.
• Goal: A particular configuration of the board.
 The 8-Queens Problem

Place eight queens

on a chessboard
such that no
queen attacks
any other!
 Missionaries and Cannibals
There are 3 missionaries, 3 cannibals, and
1 boat that can carry up to two people
on one side of a river.
• Goal: Move all the missionaries and
cannibals across the river.
• Constraint: Missionaries can never be
outnumbered by cannibals on either
side of river, or else the missionaries are
killed.
• State: configuration of missionaries and
cannibals and boat on each side of river.
• Operators: Move boat containing some
set of occupants across the river (in
either direction) to the other side.
 Missionaries and Cannibals Solution

Near side Far side

0 Initial setup: MMMCCC B -
1 Two cannibals cross over: MMMC B CC
2 One comes back: MMMCC B C
3 Two cannibals go over again: MMM B CCC
4 One comes back: MMMC B CC
5 Two missionaries cross: MC B MMCC
6 A missionary & cannibal return: MMCC B MC
7 Two missionaries cross again: CC B MMMC
8 A cannibal returns: CCC B MMM
9 Two cannibals cross: C B MMMCC
10 One returns: CC B MMMC
11 And brings over the third: - B MMMCCC
 Cryptarithmetic
• Find an assignment of digits (0, ..., 9) to letters so
that a given arithmetic expression is true.
examples: SEND + MORE = MONEY and
FORTY Solution: 29786
+ TEN 850
+ TEN 850
----- -----
SIXTY 31486
F=2, O=9, R=7, etc.

• Note: In this problem, the solution is NOT a

sequence of actions that transforms the initial state
into the goal state; rather, the solution is a goal
node that includes an assignment of digits to each
of the distinct letters in the given problem.
 Remove 5 Sticks

• Given the following

configuration of sticks,
remove exactly 5
sticks in such a way
that the remaining
configuration forms
exactly 3 squares.
 Task Domains of AI
• Mundane Tasks:
– Perception
• Vision
• Speech
– Natural Languages
• Understanding
• Generation
• Translation
– Common sense reasoning
– Robot Control
• Formal Tasks
– Games : chess, checkers etc
– Mathematics: Geometry, logic,Proving properties of programs
• Expert Tasks:
– Engineering ( Design, Fault finding, Manufacturing planning)
– Scientific Analysis
– Medical Diagnosis
– Financial Analysis

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 Next Topics
• Uninformed search
– Breadth-first, depth-first
– Uniform cost
– Iterative deepening
• Informed (heuristic) search
– Greedy best-first
– A*
– Memory-bounded heuristic search
– And more….
• Local search and optimization
– Hill-climbing
– Simulated annealing
– Genetic algorithms