CSE3155 DATA COMMUNICATION AND

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Module-1.2
Physical Layer

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Functions of Physical Layer
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: characteristics of
Interface between devices and types of transmission media.
• Representation of bits: It encodes the bit stream into electrical or
optical signal.
• Data rate: Transmission rate, number of bits sent each second.
• Synchronization of bits: Sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
• Line configuration: Connection of devices to the media. Point-to-point
or multipoint connection.
• Physical topology: How devices are connected to make a network?
• Transmission mode: It defines direction of the transmission between
two devices. Ex. Simplex , half-duplex or full duplex mode).
Transmission Media
Transmission Media and Physical Layer
Transmission Media
• Transmission media are located below the
physical layer.

• A transmission medium can be

broadly defined as anything that can
carry information from a source to a
destination.

• Computers use signals to represent data.

• Signals are transmitted in form of

electromagnetic energy.
Factors to be considered while choosing Transmission
Medium

• Transmission Rate

• Cost and Ease of Installation

• Resistance to Environmental Conditions

• Distances
Categories of transmission media
 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a

conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP and STP cables

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Adv:
• Ordinary telephone wire
• Cheapest
• Easiest to install
• It has high speed capacity
• 100 meter limit

Dis adv:
• Bandwidth is low when compared
with Coaxial Cable
• Provides less protection from
interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Adv:
• Metal braid or sheathing that
reduces interference
• Easy to install
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Higher capacity than unshielded
twisted pair
• Increases the signaling rate

Disadv:
• More expensive
• Harder to handle
(thick, heavy)
• Difficult to manufacture
Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than those in twisted-pair cable, in part because
the two media are constructed quite differently.
• Inner conductor is a solid wire outer conductor serves both as a
shield against noise and a second conductor.
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone
networks where a single coaxial network could carry
10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital
telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could
carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
• However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely
been replaced today with fiber-optic cable.
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable
Guided Media – Coaxial Cable

 Applications:
 Analog telephone networks

 Cable TV networks

 Traditional Ethernet LAN – 10Base2, 10Base5

 Optical Fiber Cable

• Higher bandwidth
• Less expensive
• Immune to electrical noise
• More secure – easy to notice an attempt to intercept
signal
• Physical characterizes
– Glass or plastic fibers
– Very thin (thinner than human hair)
– Material is light
Fiber Construction

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 Optical fiber

• Uses reflection to guide light

through a channel
Jacket

• Core is of glass or plastic

surrounded by Cladding

• Cladding is of less dense glass or

plastic

An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three

concentric sections: the core, the cladding, and the jacket(outer part of the
cable).

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Guided Media –Optical Fiber Cable

 Applications:
 Backbone networks – SONET
 Cable TV – backbone
 LAN
 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
 100Base-X
Unguided Media

Wireless transmission waves

 Radio Waves
 Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the
sky mode, can travel long distances.
 Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When
an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that
 the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
 Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium
frequencies, can penetrate walls.
 Its frequency is between 3 kHz to 1GHz.

 It is simple to install and has high attenuation.

Microwave
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
are called microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional.

• Line-of-site

• High speed/High Frequency

• Cost effective

• Easy to implement

• Weather can cause interference

Infrared Waves

 Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.

 Can not penetrate walls.
Used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
Data and Signals

One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the
form of electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium.
Whether you are collecting numerical statistics from another computer,
sending animated pictures from a design workstation, etc.. you are working
with the transmission of data across network connections.
Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that
can be transmitted over a network.
For example, a photograph must first be changed to a form that
transmission media can accept.
Analog and Digital

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data

refers to information that is continuous; digital data
refers to information that has discrete states. Analog
data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
Analog and Digital Data
Data can be analog or digital.

For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands
gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are
continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and
the minutes will change suddenly from 10:05 to 10:06.
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on
continuous values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in
the air. This can be captured by a microphone sampled and converted to a
digital signal.
Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in
computer memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a
digital signal for transmission across a medium
Analog and Digital Signals

Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal
has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from
value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along
its path. A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of
defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and
0.

Figure : Comparison of analog and digital signals

Analog Signals

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
• Sine Wave
• Wavelength
• Time and Frequency Domain
• Composite Signals
• Bandwidth
Digital Signals
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information
can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be
encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital
signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send
more than 1 bit for each level.

• Bit Rate
• Bit Length
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels
 Example

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We
calculate the number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
 Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect.

 The imperfection causes signal impairment.

 This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium

is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received.

 Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and

noise.

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Causes of impairment

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Attenuation

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal travels through a medium,

it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a
while.
Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate
for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
Figure below shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Figure : Attenuation
Decibel

To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the
decibel. The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of one signal at two
different points. Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and
positive if a signal is amplified.

Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

 Example

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is

reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation
(loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

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 Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This
means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as

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Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in phase.
In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from
what they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not
the same.

Figure : Distortion
Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal
noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an
extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that
comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

Figure: Noise
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the signal
power to the noise power. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as:

SNR = average signal power

average noise power

SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted
(noise). A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR
means the signal is more corrupted by noise.

Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel

units, SNRdB, defined as
SNRdB= 10log10 SNR
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the
values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

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 Example

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

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Figure Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

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DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast

we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate
depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available

2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two Categories:
• Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

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 Nyquist Theorem
 Sampling Theorem is a principle of reproducing a
sample rate, that is at least twice the frequency of the
original signal.
 This principle is very important in all analog-to-digital
conversion and is applied in digital audio and video to
minimize a problem referred to as Aliasing.
 In digital communication, signals are representations of
information that are transmitted from one point to
another in a digital format.
 Nyquist Sampling is a critical theorem that is used to
derive the frequency of the signal to reconstruct
without aliasing.
 Aliasing refers to the distortion or unwanted noise that
may destroy a signal’s integral value.

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 It states that to reconstruct a continuous analog signal
from its sampled version accurately, the sampling rate must be
at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal.
This ensures that there are enough samples taken per
unit of time to capture all the details of the original waveform
without introducing aliasing, which can cause distortion or
artifacts in the reconstructed signal.
The Formula for Nyquist Sampling Theorem can be given as
fs>=2fm
Where,
fs​refers to frequency signal
fm​refers to max frequency

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Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a transmission
system by calculating the bit rate directly from the number of bits
in a symbol (or signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first harmonic).

Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel:

C = 2 B log2L
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
L=Levels in signal
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Characteristics of Nyquist Sampling Theorem
 The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem is an essential
principle for digital signals to avoid a type of distortion
known as Aliasing.
 Sampling is a process of converting a signal into a
sequence of digital values.
 Aliasing can be prevented with a variety of anti-aliasing
tools, such as low-pass filters that filter out high
frequencies.
 The Sampling Theorem states that a signal can be
exactly reproduced if it is sampled at a frequency F,
where F is greater than twice the maximum frequency in
the signal.
 It is also known as the Nyquist-Shannon theorem or the
Whittaker-Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem.
 The sampling theorem is critical to prevent aliasing in a
waveform.

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Applications of Nyquist Theorem
 Sampling Rate: It is used to provide the minimum sampling rate
for signal reconstruction.
 Audio: It is used to capture analog or simple audio from digital
mediums.
 Digital Transmission: It is used to provide accurate digital data
transmission in digital mediums.
 Image Sampling: It is quite helpful in image sampling by
measuring the twice of original size of Image.
 Reducing Aliasing in Audio Signals: It can successfully
reproduce audio signals without aliasing.
 FM Radio Signals: It is used to sample FM radio signals by the
nyquist formula.
 Data Compression: It can reduce the size of data without
content or information loss.
 Medical Imaging: It is majorly used in medical instruments such
as MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and CT Scans (Computed
Tomography),.

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 Example

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate
can be calculated as:

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 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of
levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we
have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

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Noisy Channel and Shannon Capacity

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of

the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
For noisy channel the capacity C (highest data rate) is calculated as:

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of

the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data through
this channel.

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 Example

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

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The Shannon’s Capacity theorem
It states that
“Shannon’s Channel Capacity theorem States that the
maximum rate at which information can be transmitted over a
communication channel of a specified bandwidth in the presence of
noise”
 In simple terms, Shannon’s channel capacity tells us the
theoretical highest limit in which any channel can
transmit signals with the presence of noise.

 It tells us about any channel’s capacity and its

limitations.

 Shannon’s channel capacity theorem is a fundamental

concept in Digital Signals, It can tell us about the upper
bound of any channel.

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56
Terms related to Shannon Capacity
 Channel: A channel is a medium used to transmit signals, data or
any information.
 Noise: A noise is any unwanted signal which can negatively impact
the quality of any transmission.
 Shannon’s limit: Shannon’s limit is a theoretical limit which tells us
the maximum capacity for a signal to be transmitted through a
channel.
Statement of the Theorem
Shannon’s Channel Capacity theorem States that the maximum
rate at which information can be transmitted over a communication
channel of a specified bandwidth in the presence of noise.
C=Blog2(1+S/N)
•C is the channel capacity in bits per second.
•B is the bandwidth of the channel.
•S is the average received signal.
•N is the average power or noise.
•S/N is the signal to noise ratio.

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Applications of Shannon’s Channel Capacity :
 Telecommunications: The Shannon theorem helps maintain the
capacity of any telecommunication channel which can help in error-
less communication and aid engineers, or system architects to build a
better model.
 In wireless communication: The Shannon theorem helps us
calculate the maximum data that can be transferred in a wireless
channel without error or data loss.
 Digital Signals: Shannon theorem is also used in signals to calculate
the amount of information that can be recovered from a signal with a
particular noise.
 Audio and Video compression: Shannon theorem is also widely
used in audio and video compression to derive an upper bound for
the compression of data or data communication signals.
 Storage and Maintenance of data: Shannon theorem helps us
understand a mathematical derivation for storing and maintaining
data efficiently and preventing data loss by implementing concepts
such as Quantization.

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Advantages of Shannon Capacity :
 Structured framework: Shannon’s theorem breaks down
communication processes into components such as sender,
message channel, noise, receiver and feedback

 Enables enhanced communication: It helps to boost the

communication by outlining the major aspects that may cause an
error in communication and makes the functioning easier.

 Clarity and Simplicity: It provides a straightforward way of

communication and can be understood by any new scholar or
practitioner.

 Flexible: Shannon capacity provides a wide range of applications

ranging from high speed data transfer to simple voice
communication

 Cost effective: Shannon capacity allows us to use noisy

channels which are more cost effective as compared to noiseless
channel.

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Disadvantages of Shannon Capacity :
 Longer delays: Shannon capacity may cause delays
considering it requires theoretical proof to proceed with the
communication inside a channel.
 Error rate Increases with Information rate: Shannon
theorem may be error prone if the amount of information
increases.
 Errorless Channel: Due to noise an errorless channel
may not be possible considering this theorem only
provides conceptual proof.
 Increased Complexity: Shannon capacity theorem may
increase complexity since deriving a channel capacity
requires complex and expensive methods which can
largely impact the complexity of data communication.
 Limited Scope: Shannon theorem only considers noise
while modern communication faces a lot of other
challenges such as interference, fading, packet loss and
security concerns.
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PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance

of the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
service, an overall measurement of network performance,

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Jitter
Bandwidth

One characteristic that measures network

performance is bandwidth. However, the term can
be used in two different contexts with two different
measuring values:
bandwidth in hertz
bandwidth in bits per second.
Bandwidth in Hertz & in bits per second

Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite

signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we can
say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a
channel, a link, or even a network can transmit. For example, one can say the
bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
 Throughput

The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they
are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with ‘T’ always less than ‘B’.
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to
the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 200
kbps through this link.
Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one point to another.
However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure may be reduced to 100 cars per minute.
The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.
Latency (Delay)

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source.
We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.

Latency = propagation time +transmission time

+queuing time + processing delay
 Bandwidth-Delay Product

Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link. what is very
important in data communications is the product of the two, the bandwidth-
delay product.

Figure : Concept of bandwidth-delay product

Note
The bandwidth-delay product defines the
number of bits that can fill the link.
Jitter

 Jitter is variation in packet arrival time.

 Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example).
 If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45
ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application
that uses the packets endures jitter.
MULTIPLEXING
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across
a single data link.
 As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Categories of multiplexing
Dividing a link into channels
 Uses of Multiplexing
Multiplexing is used for a variety of purposes in data communications to
enhance the efficiency and capacity of networks.
 Efficient Utilization of Resources: Multiplexing allows multiple signals to
share the same communication channel, making the most of the available
bandwidth. This is especially important in environments where bandwidth
is limited.
 Telecommunications: In telephone networks, multiplexing enables the
simultaneous transmission of multiple telephone calls over a single line,
enhancing the capacity of the network.
 Internet and Data Networks: Multiplexing is used in internet
communications to transmit data from multiple users over a single
network line, improving the efficiency and speed of data transfer.
 Satellite Communications: Multiplexing helps in efficiently utilizing the
available bandwidth on satellite transponders, allowing multiple signals to
be transmitted and received simultaneously.
Frequency-division multiplexing

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and
television transmission.
 In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk,
due to the fact that in this type of multiplexing the
bandwidth is divided into frequency channels.
 In order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused
strips of bandwidth must be placed between each
channel.
 These unused strips between each channel are known
as guard bands.
Wavelength-division multiplexing

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a
multiplexing technology used to increase the capacity of
optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a
different wavelength.

Each signal is carried on a different wavelength of light,

and the resulting signals are combined onto a single
optical fiber for transmission.

At the receiving end, the signals are separated by their

wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their
respective destinations.
 WDM is used in a wide range of applications, including
telecommunications, cable TV, internet service providers,
and data centers.
 It enables the transmission of large amounts of data over
long distances with high speed and efficiency.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics
to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from the different sources are combined to
form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers.
 At the receiving end, the De-multiplexer separates the
signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
 Time-division multiplexing
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

6.78
Twisted Pair Cable
This cable is the most commonly used and is
cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be
installed easily, and they support many different
types of network.
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to
provide voice and data channels,LANs,DSLs.

Twisted Pair is of two types :

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Time-division multiplexing
 Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing
wherein FDM, instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in
the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared.

 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

 In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same

frequency (bandwidth) at different times.

6.80
 Time-division multiplexing
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

 Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

 Synchronous TDM : Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division

Multiplexing where the input frame already has a slot in the output
frame.
 Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of
time slots. Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame
has no data to send, a slot remains empty in the output frame.

 In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the

beginning of each frame.

6.81
  Statistical TDM: Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is
full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.
 In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular
data in the slot that is being sent to the output frame.

6.82
Spread spectrum
Spread Spectrum is a wireless communication technology that
distributes the transmitted signal across a larger bandwidth than the
original signal. This approach improves communication security and
dependability by increasing the signal’s resistance to interference,
eavesdropping, and jamming.
 Spread spectrum is a method of transmitting radio signals over a wide
range of frequencies.
 It spreads the signal over a broader bandwidth than the minimum
required to send the information, which provides advantages such as
increased resistance to interference, improved security, and enhanced
privacy.
 This method uses air as a medium and extends bandwidth to create a
protective envelope for signals, reducing the risk of interception or
jamming.
 The ‘spread code’ is a patterned series of numbers that enlarges the
original signal’s bandwidth.
 This method is typically used in situations where secure transmission is
crucial.
Principles of Spread Spectrum process
 To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the
bandwidth allocated to each station should be much
larger than needed.
 The spreading process occurs after the signal is
created by the source.

Conditions of Spread Spectrum are

 The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where
modulated signal BW is much larger than the
baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide
band scheme.
 A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum
spreading and the same code is to be used to
despread the signal at the receiver.
Characteristics of Spread Spectrum
 Higher channel capacity.
 Ability to resist multipath propagation.
 They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized
person.
 They are resistant to jamming.
 The spread spectrum provides immunity to
distortion due to multipath propagation.
 The spread spectrum offers multiple access
capabilities.

Techniques used for Spread Spectrum

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

 In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS),

different carrier frequencies are modulated by the
source signal i.e.
 M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal.
 At one moment signal modulates one carrier
frequency and at the subsequent moments, it
 modulates other carrier
A pseudorandom frequencies.
code generator generates
Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern for each
hopping period Th.
 The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used
for the hopping period and is passed to the
frequency synthesizer.
 The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that
frequency.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

Advantages of FHSS
 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on
distance.
 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS
 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in
GHz).
 Complex and expensive Digital frequency
synthesizers are required.
Applications of FHSS
 FHSS is used in Bluetooth
 Military Communications
 Walkie-Talkies
 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
 Remote Controls
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)
 In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, the bandwidth
of the original signal is also expanded by a different
technique.
 Each data bit is replaced with n bits using a
spreading code called chips, and the bit rate of the
chip is called as chip-rate.
 The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the original
signal.
In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used.
 The original data is multiplied by chips (spreading
code) to get the spread signal.
 The required bandwidth of the spread signal is 11
times larger than the bandwidth of the original
signal.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)
Advantages of DSSS
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to
FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS
 Processing Gain is lower than FHSS.
 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between
the transmitter and receiver.
Applications of DSSS
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Cellular Networks
 Satellite Communication
 Wireless Sensor Networks
END OF MODULE 1.2