Chapter 5

Introduction to filters

• A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals

with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate
the others.
• As a frequency-selective device, a filter can be
used to limit the frequency spectrum of a signal to
some specified band of frequencies.
• Filters are the circuits used to allow to us to select
one desired signal out of a multitude of broadcast
signals in the environment.
• Filters are classified in two types:- Passive filters
and active filters
• A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only
passive elements R, L and C.
• It is said to be an active filter if it consists of active
elements (such as transistors and op amps) in
addition to passive elements R, L and C.
• There are four types of filters whether passive or
active:
• Low pass filters: These filters rejects all
frequencies above cut-off frequency fc .
• The pass band or transmission band for the LP
filters is the frequency range 0 to fc and the stop
band or attenuation band is the frequency range
above fc.
• High pass filters: These filters rejects all
frequencies below cut-off frequency fc .
• The pass band or transmission band for the HP
filters is the frequency range above fc and the stop
band or attenuation band is the frequency range
below fc.
• Band pass filters: These filters allow
transmission of frequencies between two
designated cut off frequencies and reject all
other frequencies.
• It has two cut off frequencies and will have the
pass band fc2-fc1. Fc1 is called as the lower cut
off frequency while fc2 is called the upper cut
off frequency.
• Band stop or Band Elimination filters: These
filters pass all frequencies lying outside a certain
range, while it attenuates all frequencies
between the two frequencies fc1 and fc2.
• The passive may also classified as
• i)Constant – K or prototype filters: A network is said to be
of the constant K- type if the series impedance Z1 and shunt
impedance Z2 of the network satisfies the relation.
Z1Z2= K2
• Where K is real constant independent of frequency. K is
often termed as design impedance Ro of the filters .Thus
Z1Z2= K2 = Ro2
• The constant K- type filter is also known as the prototype
because other more complex networks can be derived from
it.
• ii) m-derived filters: in such network Z1Z2 ≠ K2 ≠ Ro2 but the
same characteristic impedance as the corresponding
constant – K filters network and have much sharper
• Constant – k low pass filters: A network is said to be of the
constant K- type if the series impedance Z1 and shunt impedance
Z2 of the network satisfies the relation.
Z 1 Z 2 = K2
• A general configuration of a constant – K low pass filter as T or π
network

• Fig . A general configuration of a constant – K low pass filter as a) T

network b ) π network
• The pass band is given by -1< <0
• Example 1. Design a low pass filter (both π and T networks)
having a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz to operate with a terminated
load resistance of 200Ω.

• The π and T networks of this filter are shown as follows

• Constant – k high pass filters: can be obtained by changing the
positions of series and shunt impedances of the network shown in
figure below. The general configurations of constant K high pass
filter in figure below where Z1= 1/ jωC and Z2= jωL

• Fig. The general configurations of constant K high pass filter a) T

network b) π network
• Example 2. Design a high pass filter (both π and T networks)
having a cut-off frequency of 2kHz to operate with a terminated
load resistance of 300Ω.
• Example 3. Find the component of π – network constant –K high
pass filter having cut- off frequency of 8 kHz and nominal
characteristic impedance of 600Ω.
Constant –K Band pass filters
• A general configuration of the constant –K band pass filter has
shown in figure below. A band pass filter is a series connection of
a low pass filter and high pass filter, in which the cut-off frequency
fc1 of the high pass filter is less than the cut –off frequency fc2 of
the low pass filter.
• Example 4. Design a constant –K band pass filter with cut off
frequencies of 3kHz and 7.5kHz and nominal characteristic
impedance or Ro= 900Ω.
 RC Low Pass Filter Circuit

• A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF can be easily

made by connecting together in series a single Resistor with a
single Capacitor as shown below.
•In this type of filter arrangement the input signal ( VIN ) is
applied to the series combination (both the Resistor and Capacitor
together) but the output signal ( VOUT ) is taken across the
capacitor only.
• The reactance of a capacitor varies inversely with
frequency, while the value of the resistor remains
constant as the frequency changes.
• At low frequencies the capacitive reactance, ( XC ) of the
capacitor will be very large compared to the resistive
value of the resistor, R.
•This means that the voltage potential, VC across the capacitor

will be much larger than the voltage drop, VR developed across

the resistor. At high frequencies the reverse is true with V C

being small and VR being large due to the change in the

capacitive reactance value.
• We also know that the capacitive reactance of a
capacitor in an AC circuit is given as:

•Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is called impedance,

symbol Z and for a series circuit consisting of a single resistor in
series with a single capacitor, the circuit impedance is calculated
as:
•Then by substituting our equation for impedance above
into the resistive potential divider equation gives us:
Example 1
A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω
in series with a capacitor of 47nF is connected across a
10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output voltage
( VOUT ) at a frequency of 100Hz and cut-of frequency.
Passive High Pass Filter
• A High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass
filter circuit as the two components have been
interchanged with the filters output signal now being
taken from across the resistor.

• The reactance of the capacitor is very high at low

frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit
and blocks any input signals at VIN until the cut-off
frequency point ( ƒC ) is reached.
•Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor
has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit
allowing the entire input signal to pass directly to the output as
shown below in the filters response curve. Cut-off Frequency isgiven
by

•The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated

as:
Example 2
•Calculate the cut-off or “breakpoint” frequency ( ƒc ) for
a simple passive high pass filter consisting of an 82pF
capacitor connected in series with a 240kΩ resistor.
Passive Band Pass Filter
• Passive Band Pass Filters can be made by connecting together a
low pass filter with a high pass filter. Band Pass Filters can be
used to isolate or filter out certain frequencies that lie within a
particular band or range of frequencies.
• One simple use for these types of passive filters is in audio
amplifier applications or circuits such as in loudspeaker crossover
filters or pre-amplifier tone controls.
• By connecting or “cascading” together a single Low Pass Filter
circuit with a High Pass Filter circuit, we can produce another
type of passive RC filter that passes a selected range or “band” of
frequencies that can be either narrow or wide while attenuating
all those outside of this range.
Band Pass Filter Circuit

•The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band

pass filter can be found using the same formula as that for
both the low and high pass filters.
• Example 3.
• A band pass filter is to be constructed using RC
components that will only allow a range of frequencies
to pass above 1 kHz (1,000Hz) and below 30 kHz
(30,000Hz). Assuming that both the resistors have
values of 10kΩ, calculate the values of the two
capacitors required.
The High Pass Filter Stage
• The value of the capacitor C1 required to give a cut-off
frequency ƒL of 1 kHz with a resistor value of 10kΩ is
calculated as:
The Low Pass Filter Stage
• The value of the capacitor C2 required to give a cut-off
frequency ƒH of 30 kHz with a resistor value of 10kΩ is
calculated as:

• Then, the values of R2 and C2 required for the low

pass stage to give a cut-off frequency of 30 kHz are, R =
10kΩ and C = 530pF. However, the nearest preferred
value of the calculated capacitor value of 530pF is
560pF, so this is used instead.
• With the values of both the resistances R1 and R2
given as 10kΩ, and the two values of the capacitors C1
and C2 found for the high pass and low pass filters as
15nF and 560pF respectively, then the circuit for our
simple passive Band Pass Filter is given as.
• Completed Band Pass Filter Circuit