Chapter 4.

SOIL EROSION
• Soil is the upper most weathered and
disintegrated layer of the earth’s crust which is
composed of minerals and several organic
substances.
• In general, the depth of soil varies from place
to place.
• However, the top 30cm soil depth is very
useful for human being and wild life.
• This top layer is continuously exposed to the
actions of soil erosion.
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 4.1 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion
• The rainfall, runoff, wind, soil slope, plant
cover and presence or absence of
conservation measures etc… are the factors
which influence the rate of soil erosion from a
particular place or region.
• All these factors can be grouped under the
following three heads. These are Energy,
Resistance and Protection.

02/04/2025 2
• Energy: It includes, the potential ability of rainfall,
runoff and wind to cause erosion ;and those factors
which directly affect the power of the erosive agents
such as reduction in the length of runoff or wind
blow through the construction of terraces, bunds
etc… in case of water erosion and wind breaks or
shelter belts in case of wind erosion.
• Resistance: It refers to that group of factors, which
affect the soil erodibility and thereby the soil erosion.
The chemical and mechanical properties of soil are
counted as factors in this direction. These factors,
basically encourage the infiltration rate of the soil
and thereby reduction in runoff and ultimately
decrease soil erodibility. Cultivation decreases the
erodibility of clay soil, but increases to that of sandy
soil.
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• Protection: This group of factors focuses on the plant
cover. The plant cover intercepts the falling of
raindrops before reaching them on the ground
surface and thus reducing their impact on soil. In
addition the plant cover also reduces the runoff and
wind velocity as a result the soil erosion also gets
affected accordingly.
• If the soil properties such as nutrients, texture and
thickness of soil remain unchanged through out the
time, then it is assumed that rate of soil loss and soil
formation are in balance.

02/04/2025 4
 4. 2. WATER EROSION
• Removal of soil from one part to another
usually downhill, by the action of water .
• Water erosion is more serious when the soil is
bare, steep slope, agricultural land tilled along
the slope, etc…

02/04/2025 5
 Types of Water Erosion
 Splash Erosion (Raindrop Erosion)
 Sheet Erosion
 Rill Erosion
 Gully Erosion
 Stream Bank Erosion
 Tunnel Erosion

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 1. Rain splash erosion
 It is also termed as Raindrop erosion. It
occurs due to the raindrop impact on a soil
surface resulting the detachment and
transportation of soil particles.
 In the process of this form of erosion
falling raindrops strike the soil mass and
cause the detachment of primary soil
particles or the disintegration (breaking
down) of the soil into smaller sizes.
 The effect of raindrop in causing erosion mainly
dependent on the slope of the field, the type of soil ,
intensity of rain fall and rainfall characteristics such
as raindrop diameter, the angle of the falling raindrop.
 The following figures show soil movement as caused
by raindrop splash under different conditions.
 Vertical rainfall

Inclined rainfall

Sloping land

Raindrop velocities are about 6 - 9m/s and the kinetic energy of the falling
raindrop is the function of its mass and velocity as expressed
K.E = 1/2 mv2
 2. SHEET EROSION
 Sheet erosion is a removal of thin layer of soil by
surface flow (runoff) which has a uniform depth
covering the whole area.
 Overland flow velocities are about 0.3 to 0.6 m/s
3. RILL EROSION
 Rills are small channels produced by running
water which concentrate its action on specific
route. The damage of rill erosion might be
determined by two factors:
I. The spacing of rills
II. The extent of the area affected

 Rills are formed as overland flow & runoff

water concentrates in streamlets while
moving downhill. The runoff removes soil from
the edges (sides) as well as the beds of the
streamlets. It is also common that rills occur
between crop rows or along tillage marks.
4. GULLY EROSION
 Gullies can be defined as a process in
which a large concentration of running
water creates channels, which, as a result
of scouring and caving. Gullies are too
large to be erased by ordinary tillage. They
are characterized by an over fall at the
gully head (Head cut) that advances
upstream.
• Typical gulley erosion (on cultivated wheat farm)

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 CLASIFICATION OF GULLY EROSION

Gullies can be classified in terms of shape, size or

depending on whether they are active or inactive.

i) Shape

U-Shaped: - formed in relatively soft materials. It is

deep relatively straight sided channels that develop
the soil material is uniformly friable throughout the
profile.

V- Shaped: - formed in relatively hard materials. It is

steep sided channel that develop in cohesive, tight
sub-soil that resists cutting.
ii) Size: - Gullies can be described as small,
medium or large according to depth.
Small - 1m or less deep
Medium - 1 to 5m deep
Large- 5m or more deep
iii) Active and Inactive
Active: Gullies in which erosion keeps the
sides bare of vegetation.
Inactive: Gullies the sides of which are
stabilized by vegetation.
5. SREAM BANK EROSIN
 Is consists of soil removal from stream banks or soil
movement in the channel. It appears that erosion
along banks of perennial streams occurs both during
and between rainstorms.
 This type of erosion has advantage and disadvantage.

Advantage
 Bottom land soils which are removed by this type of
erosion are very productive and there is no chance of
deposition close to the original site.
E.g. Blue Nile
 Disadvantage
 Causes bridge failure by removing soil materials which are
holding the bridge footings
 Transportation of sediments in streams accomplished by
suspension, saltation and bed load movement
• Suspension - Particles moving with out contact with the bed

• Saltation - Particles moving being bouncing with the bed

• Bed load - particles (sediment) are moving in almost

continuous contact with the stream bed. Particles might move
in the form of being rolled or pushed by the force of water.
Cont..
 6.Tunnel Erosion
Tunnel erosion appears as a series of tunnels that for
beneath the soil surface
• It is both a chemical and physical erosion process
• Associated with changes in catchment hydrology or
uneven saturation of clay sub-soils.
• Usually associated with sodic soils derived from
Triassic sandstone, Permian mudstones and re-
deposition of these sediments in Quaternary deposits.

02/04/2025 20
Basic Gully Treatment Measures
 Mainly, there are two ways of basic
gully treatment measures.
1. Prevention of gully formation:
Small gullies in initial stages can also
be easily controlled and are more
economical Therefore, in gully control,
emphasis should be given to:
• Proper land-management practices
• Retention and infiltration of surface
water
 2. Diversion of runoff above the gully
area
This is the simplest; cheapest and
safest gully control method. The basic
aim of diversions is to:
• Reduce the surface water entering
into the gully
• Protect critical planted areas from
being washed away.
When diverting water, the outlet point
must be safe from erosion; otherwise
a new gully could form.
CHECK DAM
 The most commonly applied
engineering measure is the check-
dam. Forces acting on a check-dam
depend on design and type of
construction material. Since gullies,
generally, are eroded from relatively
soft soils, it is easier to design
effective porous check-dams than
non-porous ones.
 Estimation of maximum discharge and
dimensions for check-dam
Rational formula:
Where = Coefficient (0.20 to 0.50).
A =the catchment area of the gully

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥=Maximum
above the proposed check-dam (Km2)
discharge of the
catchment (m3/s)
I = Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
If there is no intensity map for the
country, use Kresnik, or the general run-
off equation and
Manning velocity formula.
Kresnik formulas:

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑎∗32𝐴0.5+𝐴0.5……….for A > 300ha

1. Main Kresnik formula

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 25 ∗ 𝐴0.5 ……………..for A < 20ha

2. Simple Kresnik formula

Where: - 𝑎 = Coefficient (0.6 - 2.0

depending on land use type)
If there is no intensity map for the
country, use Kresnik, or the general run-
off equation and
Manning velocity formula.
Kresnik formulas:

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑎∗32𝐴0.5+𝐴0.5……….for A > 300ha

1. Main Kresnik formula

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 25 ∗ 𝐴0.5 ……………..for A < 20ha

2. Simple Kresnik formula

Where: - 𝑎 = Coefficient (0.6 - 2.0

depending on land use type)
 The shape of a waterway can be: parabolic, trapezoidal,
rectangular or triangular (V-shaped). Grass-waterways can
only be used on slopes of < 20% and where flow velocities do
not exceed 1.8 m/s.
• For trapezidal cross sections:
Area(A) = bd +z
wetted Perimeter (P) =
Hydraulic radius (R) =
Top width :t =b+2dz , Total depth (D)= d+20%d
T= b+ 2Dz
• Freeboard =20%d , Freeboard is Vertical distance between
the highest water level anticipated in the design and the top
of the retaining banks. It is a safety factor to prevent the
overtopping of structures.
Example 1: - Given Area to be drained: 0.5 ha
cultivated field in humid tropics. Slope: 18%;
C= 0.4 & I= 213mm/hr. Find a proper waterway
including its type and size and flow velocity within safe
limits.
Solution:-

- Peak flow: 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐶𝐼𝐴/3.6

100ha=1kmsquar=0.5/100

Q = [(0.4)*(213)*(0.5)]/360= 0.118cumecs.
Selection of waterway: Since the slope is 18% a
parabolic grass waterway is appropriate.
So; the intended size of channel needs to be either
narrowed or reduced. Assuming waterway is 1 m wide
(t) as before and 12cm deep (reduced) the calculations
are as follows:
4.3 Wind erosion mechanism
 Wind erosion is the process of
detachment, transportation, and
deposition of soil material by wind.
• Causes of Wind erosion

The basic causes of wind erosion are:-

1. If the soil is loose, finely divided, and dry
2. If the soil surface is smooth and bare and
3. The wind near to the ground is strong.
Types of Soil Movement
Wind carries soil in three ways, those are:
Suspension, Saltation and Surface
Creep.
Suspension:
→ Soil particles and aggregates less than
0.05mm in diameter (silt size and smaller)
are kept suspended by the turbulence of air
currents.
→ Suspended dust does not drop out of the
air in quantity unless rain washed it out or
the velocity of the wind is drastically reduced.
 Saltation:
 Intermediate-sized grains, approximately 0.05
to 0.5 mm in diameter(very fine, fine, and
medium sand sizes), move in a series of short
leaps .
 The jumping grains gain a great deal of
energy and may knock other grins into the air
or bounce back themselves.
 These saltating grains are the key to wind
erosion.
 They drastically increase the number of both
smaller and larger grins that move in
suspension and in surface creep .
 They drastically increase the number of both
smaller and larger grins that move in
Surface Creep:
 Soil grains larger than 0.5 mm in diameter
cannot be lifted into the wind stream, but the
grins slide and roll on the earth’s surface .
 Aggregates, clods, and particles lager than
1mm in diameter remain in place on the
eroding surface and form a protective
covering, often called desert pavement or lag
gravel.
Fig. 4.1 Modes of soil particle transport by wind during erosion
Wind Erosion Damage:
Wind erosion damage includes loss of soil depth,
textural change, nutrient and productivity losses,
abrasion, air pollution, and sedimentation.
Measures to control wind erosion
Three primary means to control or reduce erosion
or damage from wind are:-
 By providing Barrier
 By forming ridges and
 By remaining vegetative cover
 1. Providing barrier: -

These barriers reduce the soil

transported by:
 Providing a stable barrier to stop
saltation of soil particles.
 Trapping particles creeping along the
ground and
 Reducing wind speeds below the
threshold velocity along the ground for
a distance of ten times (10x) the
barrier height.
2. Forming ridges/ Surface roughening
Helps to control erosion by:
 covering the surface with soil clods that
are too large to be lifted by the wind
 Making the surface sufficiently rough with
tillage ridges and furrows that can trap
any loose soil that may be moving.
 Ridges absorb and deflect wind energy
and trap moving soil particles. Surface
roughening alone is inadequate for sandy
soils because they produce few clods.
 3. Remaining vegetative cover: -

Vegetation cover helps to control erosion by:

 Acting as a blanket that prevents the wind
from picking up any soil particles.
 Absorbing the force of the wind and reducing
the wind speed at ground level.
 Trapping eroded soil particles and reducing
the amount of bombardment on the soil
surface.
 4.4. Estimating Soil Loss
4.4 Prediction of Soil Loss by Water Erosion
 Various trials have been so far made for estimating
soil loss and predicting it. But the Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE) has got pronounced
application, due to the incorporation of well
known parameters facilitating for soil erosion and
loss.

02/04/2025 42
 Components of USLE
• Erosion is a function of:
• Erosivity and Erodibility

RAINFALL Physical Management

characteristic
Energy Land Crop
management manageme

A R K LS P C
Fig. 4.1 Diagram for erosion = f (erosivity,
erodibility)
43
02/04/2025 44
 Procedure for Using the USLE

• Determine the R factor.

• Based on the soil texture determine the K value. If there is
more than one soil type in a field and the soil textures are
not very different, then use the soil type that represents the
majority of the field. Repeat for other soil types as
necessary.
• Divide the field into sections of uniform slope gradient and
length. Assign an LS value to each section.
• Choose the crop type factor and tillage method factor for
the crop to be grown. Multiply these 2 factors together to
obtain the C factor.
• Select the P factor based on the support practice used.
• Multiply the 5 factors together to obtain the soil loss per
acre.
02/04/2025 45
 R - factor
• The rainfall erosivity factor is usually
determined from: EI30 or K.E.> 25 indices.
• More preferable for tropical regions is K.E.>
25.
• Therefore, K.E.> 25 = R. in an appropriate Unit.
• Care should be taken when computing the
indices since it is an Emperical formula.
• The Indices were originally designed in British
units.

02/04/2025 46
 • Convenient units of conversion should be
adopted while calculating for EI30 or KE>25.
• To estimate soil loss erosivity index due to a
particular storm these methods can be used;
and to estimate weekly, monthly, annual soil
losses, summation must be taken in to
account.

n m
1 1
R   [ ( E )( I 30 ) k ] *
n j 1 k 1 100
02/04/2025 47
 units

• EI30 = K.E. X I30 • K.E.= 916 + 331 log I (Foot –

tons/acre-inch).

• K.E.= 916 + 331 log I (Foot –

tons/acre) after multiplied by rainfall
amount.

• I30 = inch/hr.
• EI30 = Foot – tons-inch/acre-hr.

02/04/2025 48
• R = average annual rainfall erosivity in hundreds of
ft-ton -in * (acre-h-Yr)-1 and the division by 100 is
made for convenience of expressing the units.
• E = total kinetic energy
• I30 = maximum 30-min rainfall intensity
• J = index of number of storms in each year
• n = number of years used to obtain average R
• m = number of storms in each year and
• R = average annual rainfall erosivity
• K = rainfall amount in that rainfall event at d/t
times.

02/04/2025 49
• But for design purposes, the rainfall which is
historically serious in the area is considered
and the intensity of such is obtained. The EI30
of the same can also be considered and thus,
the required design for conservation measure
is done.

02/04/2025 50
 The K factor
• Is a soil erodibility factor.
• It is the soil loss per hectare per erosivity index
from a field of 9% slope and 22.1m slope length.
**
• determined by considering the soil loss from
continuously cultivated fallow land with out the
influence of crop cover or management.
• Various local Emperical equations are available,
but largely in error for the other areas.
• Monographs are used to compute the k factor.

02/04/2025 51
 • **K = Ao
S * (∑ EI) Where, K = Soil erodibility
factor
• Ao = Observed soil loss
• S = Slope factor
100 K 2.1M 1.14 (10  4 )(12  a )  3.25(b  2)  2.5(c  3)..............4.4
• Applicable for soils containing less than 70%
silt and very fine sand.

02/04/2025 52
Where, K = soil erodibility factor (K) expressed as
ton*acre-1per erosivity unit,or ton- acre-
h*[hundreds of acre-ft-ton-in]-1.
M = (% silt +%very fine sand) x (100-%clay),
M = particle size parameter
a = percent organic matter,
b = soil structure code (very fine granular, 1;
fine granular, 2; medium or coarse granular, 3;
blocky or massive, 4),
c= Profile permeability class (rapid, 1; moderate to
rapid, 2; moderate, 3; slow to moderate, 4; slow, 5;
very slow, 6).
 Procedure to Estimate K from soil properties
using Nomograph developed from the
regression equation For estimating K from soil
properties, You need to estimate,
1. organic matter content
2. percentage sand (0.1 to 2 mm)
3. percentage of silt to very fine sand
4. soil structure
5. permeability
• Nomographs

02/04/2025 55
Example: 4.3. (a) Find K (erodibility factor)
value using the nomograph, for a soil having
silt + v. fine sand = 65%
sand = 5%
OM = 2.8%
structure = fine granular
permeability = slow to moderate
Answer, (K = 0.31)

(b) Using the regression equation and K value

of the nomograph result of the above
example, determine the %clay for the same
soil sample.
a) Solution :_ K value from below table
K= 0.31


The Topographic factors, LS

• LS =(  /22.13) m (65.41 sin2 ß + 4.58 sin ß +
0.065)
• Where; LS = topographic factor, dimensionless
•  = slope length, m
• ß = the angle of slope
• m = variable that depends on
steepness of land slope its value as stated at
top.

02/04/2025 58
 The C factor
• The cropping factor is the ratio of the soil loss
from land cropped under specified conditions to
the corresponding loss from continuously fallow
and tilled land. The C factor varies from 0.01 to
1.0 with 1.0 applied to continuously fallow, tilled
land.The c factor a function of sub-factors of:
• C = Cplu x Ccc x Csc x Csr x Csm
• Where: Cplu= prior to land use factor
• Ccc = canopy cover factor
• Csc = Surface cover factor
02/04/2025 59
 Csr = Surface Roughness factor
Csm = Antecedent moisture
 Canopy Cover (Ccc):
It expresses the effect of vegetative canopy on
changing the rainfall energy impacting the soil
surface. Usually decreases the energy. Ccc is a
function of the fraction of surface covered by canopy
and the average canopy height.
 Surface Cover (Csc):
Surface cover decreases erosion by reducing the
transport capacity of the runoff water [by reducing
velocities and causing ponding for deposition] and by
decreasing the soil area exposed to raindrop action.
 Surface Roughness (Csr):
Surface roughness also affects erosion by
influencing the amount of water retained or
detained on the soil surface and by reducing the
runoff velocity.
 Antecedent Moisture (Csm):
Influences soil loss through its influence on
erosion and runoff.
 The influence of these sub-factors can be
grouped under three general categories:
1. Above-ground effects [Ccc]
2. Surface effects, including ground cover [Csc] and
surface roughness [Csr].
3. Below-ground effects, including root mass as
growth occurs, incorporated residue and soil
moisture [Csm and Cplu]
Table 4.3 C values for some tillage and cropping systems (After Wischmeier and Smith,
1978)
 The p factor
 The P-factor refers to the practices that are
used to control erosion.
 The conservation practice consists of mainly
contouring, terracing, and strip cropping, in
which contouring appears to be most effective
practice on medium slope ranging from 2 to 7
percent. If neither contouring nor strip
cropping practises are used nor no other
conservation measures are available, the value
is 1.0.

02/04/2025 64
• The conservation practice factor, P, can be
found from the following equation

p  pc x ps x pt .

Where; Pc = contouring factor

Ps = Strip cropping factor
Pt = Terrace sedimentation factor

02/04/2025 65
 Table: 4.1. The conservation practices factor (P) for contouring, strip cropping and terracing

S.No. Slope (%) Values of conservation practices factor (P)

Contouring Strip cropping, Terracing

pc ps pt
1 1. – 2.0 0.6 0.3 -
2 2.1 – 7.0 0.5 0.25 0.10
3 7.1 – 12.0 0.6 0.30 0.12
4 12.1 – 18.0 0.8 0.40 0.16
5 18.1 – 24.0 0.9 0.45 -

Table: 4.2. Soil Loss Tolerance Rates

Soil Erosion Class Potential Soil Loss (tons/acre/year)

Very Low (tolerable) <3

Low 3–5

Moderate 5 - 10

High 10 - 15

Severe >15
 Table: 4.3. Management Strategies to Reduce Soil Losses

Factor Management Strategies Remark

R The R Factor for a field cannot be altered. It is caused by nature

K The K Factor for a field cannot be altered. It is caused by nature

Terraces may be constructed to reduce the slope Terracing requires additional investment and will cause some
length resulting in lower soil losses. inconvenience in farming. Investigate other soil conservation
practices first.

LS

The selection of crop types and tillage methods that Consider cropping systems that will provide maximum
result in the lowest possible C factor will result in protection for the soil. Use minimum tillage systems where
less soil erosion. possible.

The selection of a support practice that has the Use support practices such as cross slope farming that will
lowest possible factor associated with it will result in cause deposition of sediment to occur close to the source.
lower soil losses.
P
Example 4.3. A 130m long field with 5% slope is
under continuous corn managed with chisel
plowing in eastern Ohio. The soil is silt loam (10%
coarse and medium sand, 10% very fine sand,
20% clay, and 60% silt) with 2.5% of soil organic
matter content. The structure is fine granular and
the saturated hydraulic conductivity is 40mmh-1.
Estimate the average annual soil loss if the field is
contoured and strip cropped with no terraces.
(Given R = 2100)
Solution: 1. Erosivity, R = 2100
2. Soil Erodibility
K = 2.8 × 10−5 × M1.14 × (12 − a) + 0.43 × (b − 2) + 0.33 × (c − 3)/100
M = (%silt + %very fine sand) × (100 − %clay) = (60 + 10) × (100 − 20) = 7200
a = 2.5; b = 3; c = 3
K = 2.8 × 10−5 × (5600)1.14 × (12 − 2.5) + 0.43 × (3 − 2) + 0.33 × (3 − 3)/100 = 0.0542

3. Topographic Factor

4. Cover-Management Factor
C value for continuous corn under chisel plow = 0.20
5. Support Practice Factor:
Pc = 0.50; Ps = 0.25; Pt = 1 for no terraces
P = Pc × Ps × Pt = 0.50 × 0.25 × 1 = 0.125
A = R × K × LS × C × P = 2100 × 0.0542 × 1.106 × 0.20 × 0.125 =
3.15 Mgha−1
Example 4.4. Estimate the soil loss if the cropped
field had been managed without contouring and
strip cropping?
Solution: Under these new conditions, P value
would be equal to 1.
A = R × K × LS ×C × P = 2100×0.0707×1.106×0.20×1
= 32.84Mgha−1
The elimination of contouring and strip cropping
dramatically increased the average annual soil loss
by about 8 times.
 Application of universal soil loss equation (USLE)
• It predicts the soil loss;
• It helps in selection of the agricultural
practices and
• It provides recommendations on crop
practice to be used.

02/04/2025 71
 Limitations of universal soil loss equations
(USLE)
 It predicts average annual soil loss: - This equation
computes less value than the measured, especially
when rainfall occurs at high rate.
 It does not compute gully erosion: - The USLE is
employed for assessing the sheet and rill erosion
 It does not compute sediment deposition: - This
equation estimates only soil loss but not the soil
deposition.

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