ECOSYSTEM

Population
• The group of interbreeding individual of same species
residing in same geographical area .

• For example, all foxes living in an area form a

population.

• Another example, all roses growing in an area form

another population.
 Biotic Community

• Population of different species found in same geographical

area are collectively called biotic community

• All the foxes, roses, grasshoppers, snakes, hawks, deer,

and skunks living in one area each form their individual
populations, but together make up a community
 ECOSYSTEM
•The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935).
•Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and function
•Ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of Interacting with one another
and with their non living environment exchanging energy and matter
•Ecosystem consist of the living community and non- living factors of the
environment. It is therefore the totality of the system in which life proceed
•Ecosystem is equal to living community plus non-living factors of the environment
•Ecosystem refers to the smallest unit of the biosphere that has all the
characteristics to sustain life. It can also be described as an assemblage of
populations grouped into communities and interacting with each other and their
local environment
•Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek
words Oikos- home + logos- study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms
in their natural home interacting with their surroundings
Characteristics of Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology
• Nature of ecosystems depends upon the species biodiversity of the
ecosystem
• More complex the ecosystem, more diverse is the species of plants
and animals in that particular ecosystem
• Function of an ecosystem depends upon energy flow and material
cycle through and within the system.
• The energy requirement by the ecosystem depends upon the
complexity of an ecosystem, If ecosystem is complex, less energy
from outside will be required to maintain it .
• As the ecosystem moves form less complex to more complex states,
the energy accumulation goes on increasing
Structure of Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic

Temperature, Sunshine,
Wind
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Decomposers
(green plants)

1 consumers 2consumers 3 consumers

(e.g. Goat) 1 carnivores 2 carnivores
(e.g. Dog) (eg Hyenna)
Components of the ecosystem
There are 2 basic elements in a given ecosystem
1. Living or biotic element
2. Non-living or abiotic element

Biotic component
Living parts of ecosystem can be sub-divided into
(a) Autotrophs: - are the green plants which are the
primary producers because they are able to convert the
atmospheric sunlight through photosynthesis to
manufacture their own food
b) Heterotrophs: - they cannot synthesize their own food from
sunlight and then depend on the primary producers (green
plants). They are thus consumers. There are 3 levels of
consumers:-
1) Herbivores (plant eaters) :- They feed directly on
producers and hence also known as primary consumers. e.g.
rabbit, insect, man.
2) Carnivores (meat eaters) :- They feed on other
consumers. If they feed on herbivores they are called
secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and if they feed on other
carnivores (snake, big fish etc.) they are known as tertiary
carnivores/consumers.
3. Omnivores:- They feed on both plants and animals. e.g.
humans, rat, fox, many birds
4.Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They
feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of living
organisms, their castoff and partially decomposed matter
e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc

(c) Decomposers: They derive their nutrition by breaking

down the complex organic molecules to simpler organic
compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients. Various
bacteria and fungi are decomposers
• Abiotic component
Comprises the non-living, in-animate parts called physical
environment.
The physical and chemical components of an
ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.
It include
• Climate (Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Sunshine,
Wind and Evapotranspiration)
• Geographical factors
• Energy
• Nutrients
• Toxic substance
Physical factors
• Sunlight and shade
• Intensity of solar flux
• Duration of sun hours
• Latitude and altitude
• Annual rainfall
• Wind
• Water availability
• Water current
• Soil type
• Average temperature
• Maximum and minimum temperature
Chemical factors
• Carbon
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus
• Potassium
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Levels of toxic substances
• Salt causing salinity
• Sulphur
• Various organic substance present in the soil or water
largely influenced the functioning of the ecosystem
Functional Attributes
• Food chain
• Food web
• Energy flow
• Biogeochemical cycle
• Primary and secondary production
• Ecosystem development and regulation
Food Chains
• The sequence of eating and being eaten is known as food chain
• The producers, consumers, and decomposers of each ecosystem
make up a food chain
• The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a
definite manner and their interaction along with population size are
expressed together as trophic structure
• Each level is known as a trophic level at a given time
• The amount of living matter at each trophic level is known as
standing crop or standing biomass
• There are many food chains in an ecosystem
In each transfer some energy is lost

Therefore the shorter the food chain the greater the energy available to that
population.

Food chains are of two basic types:

1. THE GRAZING FOOD CHAIN:

This type of food chain starts from the green plant which goes to
grazing herbivores and on carnivores

Grass……….Grasshopper………Frog………..Snake…….Hawk

2. THE DETRITUS (ERODED) FOOD CHAIN :

It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and

decomposers consume. Partially decomposed organic matter and
even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their
predators. An example of the detritus food chain is seen in a
Mangrove estuary.
• A large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into
water. The leaf fragments are eaten by saprotrophs.

• Saprotrophs are those organisms which feeds on dead

organic matter.

• These fallen leaves are colonized by small algae , which

are also consumed by the saprotrophs or detritivores
consisting of small crabs , mollusks, shrimps ,insects larvae
, nematodes and fishes.

• These detritivores are eaten by large carnivorous fishes

Leaflitter……algae….crabs…..small carnivorous fish……..…large carnivorous fish (Mangrove

ecosystem)
Dead organic matter……fungi…..bacteria (Forest ecosystem)

Thus the grazing food chain derives its energy basically

from plant. While in detritus food chain it is obtained from
plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and
tertiarily from carnivores .

Both the food chains occur together in natural ecosystem,

but grazing food chain usually predominates.
Characteristics of food chain

• In a food chain, there is repeated eating in which each

group eats the smaller one and is eaten by the larger
one

• In a food chain there is unidirectional flow of energy

from sun to producer and then series of consumers
• Usually 80-90% of potential energy is lost as a heat at
each transfer

• Usually there are 4-5 trophic levels in the food chain,

shorter food chain will provided greater energy

• A food chain is always straight

• Omnivores generally occupy more than 1 trophic level in

a food chain
Example of a Food Chain
 Food web
• Food web is the network of food chains where different types of organisms
are connected at different trophic levels ,so that option of eating and being
eaten at each trophic level.
Food web
 Significance of food web
• The food web provides alternate pathways of food availability. e.g. if
particular crop is destroyed due to some disease ,the herbivores in that area
do not perish as these can graze on other types of crop or herbs .greater
the no of these alternate pathways more stable is the ecosystem.

• These also help in checking over population of highly fecundity species of

plants and animals .

• Food webs also help in ecosystem development

 Ecological Pyramids

• An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid or energy pyramid) is a

graphical representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem,
starting with producer at base and successive trophic levels forming the
apex.
• Term Ecological Pyramids coined by Charles Elton

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

• Pyramid of Number
• Pyramid of Biomass
• Pyramid of Energy
 Pyramid of number
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of
individuals in each population in a food chain. Often it is drawn from the
autotrophic level up.
• A pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of a
certain species affects another.
• Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger than any
of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon ascending the
pyramid.
• There are exceptions, however for example, in a tree community, a single
tree could support many different populations of larger numbers.
 Pyramid of number

Grassland
Ecosystem

Pyramid of number in grassland ecosystem is upright

 Parasitic Food chain Forest Ecosystem

Pyramid of number in Parasitic Food chain Ecosystem is Inverted and

Pyramid of number in Forest Ecosystem is Spindle shaped
 Pyramid of Biomass

• Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level

• Biomass weight is determined after dehydration
• Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
• Measured in Kg, grams or pounds
 Pyramid of Energy
• Shows the energy available at each trophic level.
• The size of the blocks represents the proportion of productivity.
• Measured in Joules or Calories
Grassland Ecosystem
 Energy flow in an ecosystem
Energy flow is the key function of an ecosystem

• There is unidirectional flow of energy

• During each transfer 80-90% energy is lost in a form of heat in metabolic

reaction e.g. respiration and excretion

• 10-20% of energy is available in next trophic level

• There is corresponding decrease in biomass

• Energy follows 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can be converted from one
form to another form.

Second law of thermodynamics

Every Energy transformation involves dissipation or degradation of energy

from concentrated to dispersed form due to metabolic functions ,So that only
part of energy is stored in the biomass
 Lindeman’s energy flow model

Solar radiation (118872) Decomposition 3.0 Decomposition (Trace)

Decomposition 0.5

Autotrophs
Gross Herbivores Carnivores Not
utilized
production (G.P/15) (G.P/3.0) 1.2

(G.P/111)

Respiration 1.8
Respiration 23 Not utilized 70 Not utilized 7

Respiration 4.5
Producers can utilize only 0.1 % (111.0 gcal/cm2 /yr out of 118,872
g.al./cm2/year) of incident solar radiation in their primary gross production or
total photosynthesis.

Out of this gross production, about 21% is consumed in metabolic functions of

the autotrophs e.g respiration, growth and reproduction; 63% remains
unutilized and about 3% is utilized in the process of decomposition so that
only 13-14% (i.e. 15g.cal./cm2/year)of PG is available to the herbivores.

At herbivores, out of 15 g. cal./cm2/year, about 30% is utilized in metabolic

reaction ( even more than autotrophs); 47% of energy available unutilized and
3% of it is utilized in decomposition so that only 20% energy of autotrophs is
utilized in secondary net production of primary carnivores.

Process is repeated during transfer of energy from the primary to secondary

carnivores and so on.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms

Photosynthetic organisms convert CO2 to organic molecules that

are used by heterotrophs

Carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments, solutes

in oceans, plant and animal biomass, the atmosphere, and
sedimentary rocks

CO2 is taken up and released through photosynthesis and

respiration

Volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels also contribute CO 2 to the

atmosphere
Figure 55.14b

CO2 in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis

Photo- Cellular
synthesis respiration

Burning
of fossil
fuels and
wood Phyto-
plankton
Consumers

Consumers

Decomposition
Nitrogen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is an important nutrient cycle which is shown in the figure

given below.

The reservoir of phosphorus lies in the rocks ,fossils. etc which is excavated
by man for using it as a fertilizer.
 Phosphorus Cycle
(Contd.)
Farmers use the phosphate fertilizers indiscriminately and as result excess
phosphorus are lost as run –off , which cause the problem of eutrophication or
over nourishment of lakes leading to algal blooms

A good proportion of phosphates moving with surface run-off reaches the oceans
and lost into the deep sediments.

Limited supply of phosphorus lying in phosphate rocks of this earth are thus over-
exploited by man and a large part is taken out of the normal cycle due to loss into
oceans.

Human beings are making the phosphorus cycle acyclic.

Sea birds, on the other hand , are playing an important role in phosphorus cycling.
They eat sea-birds which are rich in phosphorus rich and the droppings or excreta
of the birds return phosphorus on the land.

The Guano deposits on the coasts of Peru are very rich sources of phosphorus.
 Ecological Succession
• Is defined as an orderly process of changes in community structure and
function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment
and ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.

• The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as seral
stages or seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is
called pioneer community.
 Characteristics of ecological
succession

• A continuous change in the kinds of animals and plants towards stability .

• Increase in the species diversity
• Biotic succession on a bare ground progress towards increasing wetness,
while biotic succession in open water progress towards increasing dryness
• An increase in the organic matter and biomass
 On basis of different substrata
ecological succession

• Hydrosere (water)
• Mesosere (moderate moisture)
• Xerosere (dry area with little moisture)
 Xerosere

• Lithosere ( rocky surface)

• Psammosere (coastal soil)

• Halosere (saline soil)

 Process
• Nudation
• Invasion
• Competition and coaction
• Reaction
• Stabilization
Nudation : it is the development of a bare area without any life form
The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc or due to
drought, glaciers, frost etc or due to overgrazing ,disease outbreak, agricultural/
industrial activities

Invasion : it is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare

area through dispersal or migration followed by ecesis or establishment.
Dispersal of the seed , spores etc is brought about by wind, water , insect or
birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and
reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form group or
aggregation

Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is

competition , both inter specific and intraspecific for space , water and nutrition.
They influence each other in a number of ways known as coaction

Reaction: The living organisms grow , use water and nutrients from the
substratum , and in turn , they have strong influence on the environment which is
modified to a large extent and this known as reaction. The modifications are very
often such that they become unsuitable for the existing species and favor some
new species , which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral
communities
Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less
Stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment

The climax community is characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually

beneficial) linkages between organisms and are maintained quite efficiently per unit
available energy
 Hydrosere

• Free floating stage (pioneer )

• Rooted floating stage
• Reed swamp stage
• Sedge meadow stage
• Woodland stage
• Forest (climax)
• The pioneer community consist of phytoplanktons, which are free floating
algae , diatoms etc.
• Gradually these replaced by rooted submerged plants followed by rooted-
floating plants
• Growth of these plants keep on adding organic matter to the substratum by
death and decay and thus layer of soil builds up and shallowing of water
takes place
• Then reed swamp stage follows in which the plants are partly in water and
partly on land. This is followed by a sedge meadow stage of grasses then
by woodland consisting of shrubs and trees and finally by a forest acting as
climax
 Xerosere

• Lichen ( pioneer)
• Mosses
• Herbs
• Shrubs
• Forest ( climax)
• This type of succession starts on bare rocks , which lacks water and organic
matter.
• The pioneer community here is crustose and foliose lichens .
• These lichens produce some weak acid and help in disintegrating the
rock ,known as weathering.
• Their growth help in building up gradually some organic matter, humus and
soil.
• Then comes the community of mosses, followed by herbs , shrubs and
finally the forest trees
• Throughout this gradual process there is slow build of organic matter and
water in the substratum
• Thus succession tends to move towards mesic conditions (moderate
condition) irrespective of the fact, whether in started from dry ( xeric ) condition
or a moist ( hydric) condition and it culminates in a stable climax
community , which is usually a forest.
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