Basic Computer Science

Software Engineering Fundamentals

Programming Concepts

Introduction to OS and Hardware Basics

Basic Computer Science

Computer Science is the study of computation and

the principles that underlie the design of computer
systems. It involves the analysis of algorithms, the
development of programming languages, the
design of computer architecture, the study of
operating systems, and the exploration of artificial
intelligence and other fields.

Some key concepts and topics in computer

science:
Algorithms: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures
for solving problems. They are a fundamental
concept in computer science, and are used to
design efficient computer programs.
● Data Structures: Data structures are ways of
organizing and storing data in a computer
program. Common data structures include
arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, and
graphs.
● Programming Languages: Programming
languages are used to write computer programs.
Some popular programming languages include
C, C++, Java, Python, and JavaScript.
● Computer Architecture: Computer
architecture is the design of computer systems,
including the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, and input/output devices.
 Operating Systems: Operating systems are
software that manage computer hardware and
software resources. Examples include Windows,
macOS, and Linux.
 Databases: Databases are collections of
structured data that can be stored, queried, and
updated. Common database systems include
MySQL, Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server.
 Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence
(AI) is the study of how to make computers
perform tasks that would normally require
human intelligence, such as recognizing speech
or images, and making decisions.
 Computer Networks: Computer networks
are systems that allow computers to
communicate with each other. Examples
include local area networks (LANs) and the
Internet.
 Security: Security is the practice of
protecting computer systems and networks
from unauthorized access or attack. It
includes topics such as cryptography,
authentication, and network security.
 A central processing unit (CPU) is the main
component of a computer, responsible for
executing instructions and performing
calculations. Other key components include
memory, which stores data temporarily for
processing, and storage, which stores data
permanently for later use.
 Operating systems, such as Windows and
macOS, provide a user-friendly interface for
users to interact with their computers, manage
files, and run applications. Programming
languages, such as Python and Java, allow
developers to write software that can run on a
computer and perform a wide range of tasks.
 Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is a
type of volatile memory that stores data and
instructions temporarily while the computer
is running. RAM is fast and allows the CPU to
quickly access data, but it loses its contents
when the power is turned off.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM): ROM is a type

of non-volatile memory that stores firmware,

which is software that is permanently
programmed into the memory. ROM cannot
be modified or erased by the user.
Flash Memory: Flash memory is a type of non-volatile
memory that can be erased and reprogrammed. It is
used in many types of devices, such as USB drives and
solid-state drives (SSDs).
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): A hard disk drive is a type of
non-volatile storage that uses magnetic disks to store
data. HDDs are relatively cheap and can store a large
amount of data, but they are slower than other types of
storage and are susceptible to mechanical failure.
Cache Memory: Cache memory is a type of high-speed
memory that is used to store frequently accessed data
and instructions. It is typically located on the CPU or on
a separate chip on the motherboard.

Virtual Memory: Virtual memory is a technique used by

operating systems to allow programs to use more
memory than is physically available. The operating
system temporarily stores data that is not currently being
used in RAM on the hard disk, freeing up space in RAM
for other applications.
Binary: The binary number system is a base-2 system
that uses only two digits, 0 and 1. In binary, each digit
represents a power of 2.
Decimal: The decimal number system is a base-10
system that uses ten digits, 0 through 9.
Octal: The octal number system is a base-8 system
that uses eight digits, 0 through 7. In octal, each digit
represents a power of 8.
Hexadecimal: The hexadecimal number system is a
base-16 system that uses 16 digits, 0 through 9 and A
through F. In hexadecimal, each digit represents a
power of 16.
The Internet is a global network of computers and
servers that are connected to each other.
Worldwide Web: The World Wide Web, or simply the
web, is a part of the Internet that allows users to access
and share information through web pages, websites, and
hyperlinks.
Protocols: The Internet uses a set of protocols, such as
TCP/IP, HTTP, and DNS, to ensure that data is
transmitted securely and efficiently between devices.
Devices: The Internet can be accessed through a
variety of devices, including computers, smartphones,
tablets, and smart home devices.
Devices: The Internet can be accessed through a
variety of devices, including computers, smartphones,
tablets, and smart home devices.

Services: The Internet offers a wide range of services,

including email, social media, online shopping, video
streaming, online gaming, and more.

Security: Because the Internet is a public network, it is

vulnerable to security threats such as viruses, malware,
and hacking. To protect themselves, users should use
strong passwords, keep their software up to date, and
use antivirus and firewall software.
Data model: A data model is a way of organizing data in
a database. The two main types of data models are
relational and non-relational (also called NoSQL).
Relational databases organize data into tables with rows
and columns, while non-relational databases use other
structures, such as key-value pairs or documents.

Schema: A database schema is a blueprint for how data

is organized in a database. It defines the tables,
columns, relationships, and constraints that make up the
database.
Querying: Querying is the process of retrieving data
from a database. SQL (Structured Query Language) is
the most commonly used language for querying
relational databases. Non-relational databases use other
query languages, such as MongoDB's query language.

Indexing: Indexing is a technique used to speed up

database queries. It involves creating an index on one or
more columns in a table, which allows the database to
quickly find and retrieve the rows that match a particular
query.
ACID properties: ACID (Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability) is a set of properties that
ensure that database transactions are processed
reliably.
Atomicity ensures that all parts of a transaction are
completed or none at all.
Consistency ensures that the data is valid and follows
rules.
Isolation ensures that concurrent transactions do not
interfere with each other.
Durability ensures that data is permanently stored even
if there is a system failure.
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management
System. It is a type of database management system
that uses a relational data model to store and manage
data. In an RDBMS, data is organized into tables, which
are composed of rows and columns.
Data is stored in tables: An RDBMS stores data in
tables, which consist of rows and columns. Each row
represents a record, while each column represents a
specific attribute of the record.
Data is organized in a structured manner: RDBMS
follows a structured approach to store and manage data,
and the data is organized into tables and columns.
Data is easily accessible: The use of a relational data
model makes it easy to access and retrieve data from an
RDBMS. This is achieved through the use of SQL
(Structured Query Language) to perform queries on the
data.
Data is secure: An RDBMS provides security features
to ensure that only authorized users can access the
data. It also supports backup and recovery mechanisms
to protect against data loss.
Data is consistent: An RDBMS ensures data
consistency by enforcing constraints, such as
uniqueness and referential integrity, on the data.
Data can be shared: An RDBMS can be used by
multiple applications or users simultaneously, which
enables data sharing and collaboration.
Some popular examples of RDBMS include Oracle
Database, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, and
PostgreSQL. RDBMS are widely used in various
applications, such as e-commerce, financial systems,
inventory management, and many more, where
structured data management is required.
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a type of relational
database management system (RDBMS) that stores
data in tables with a well-defined schema. SQL
databases use a structured approach to store and
manage data, which means that data is organized into
tables with predefined columns, and each row
represents a single record. SQL databases use SQL
language to perform operations on the data, such as
querying, inserting, updating, and deleting records.
Examples of SQL databases include MySQL, Oracle,
and Microsoft SQL Server.
NoSQL, on the other hand, is a non-relational database
management system that is designed to handle large
volumes of unstructured and semi-structured data.
Unlike SQL databases, NoSQL databases do not use
tables with a predefined schema. Instead, they use a
flexible approach to data storage, where data is stored in
a variety of formats, including documents, key-value
pairs, and graphs. NoSQL databases can be
categorized into four types: document-oriented, key-
value, column-family, and graph databases. Examples of
NoSQL databases include MongoDB, Cassandra, and
Redis.
Backup and recovery: Backup and recovery is the
process of creating backups of a database to prevent
data loss in the event of a system failure. It is important
to have a backup strategy in place that includes regular
backups, off-site storage, and testing to ensure that the
backups are valid and can be restored if needed.
Security: Database security is the protection of the
database from unauthorized access, use, or
modification. It involves using access controls,
encryption, and other security measures to ensure that
only authorized users can access the database and that
the data is protected from theft or corruption.
Variables: Variables are used to store data in a
program. They can be of different data types, such as
integers, floating-point numbers, or strings.

Control structures: Control structures are used to

control the flow of a program. They include if-else
statements, loops, and switch statements.

Functions and methods: Functions and methods are

used to encapsulate reusable code. They can take
arguments and return values, and they help make code
more modular and easier to maintain.
Object-oriented programming: Object-oriented
programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that
uses objects as the basic building blocks of a program.
Objects have properties and methods, and they can
interact with each other to perform tasks.

Inheritance: Inheritance is a feature of OOP that allows

one class to inherit properties and methods from another
class. This makes it possible to create new classes that
are based on existing classes, which can help to reduce
code duplication.
Polymorphism: Polymorphism is another feature of
OOP that allows objects to take on different forms. This
means that a single method can be used to perform
different actions depending on the type of object that is
being used.
Exception handling: Exception handling is the process
of dealing with errors and exceptions in a program. It
involves using try-catch blocks to handle errors
gracefully and prevent crashes.
Data structures: Data structures are used to organize
and manipulate data in a program. They include arrays,
lists, stacks, queues, and trees.
Algorithms: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures
that are used to solve problems in a program. They can
be used to sort data, search for specific values, and
perform other operations.

Debugging: Debugging is the process of finding and

fixing errors in a program. It involves using tools such as
print statements, breakpoints, and debugging software
to identify and correct errors.
An operating system (OS) is a software that manages
computer hardware and software resources and provides
common services for computer programs. It acts as an
interface between the computer hardware and the user,
allowing users to interact with the computer system and
run applications.

User interface: The user interface of an operating system

is the way users interact with the system. It can be
graphical (such as Windows or macOS) or command-line
(such as Unix or Linux).
Process management: An operating system manages
multiple processes or programs running on a computer. It
allocates system resources, such as CPU time, memory,
and input/output devices, to these processes.

Memory management: An operating system manages

the computer's memory, allocating and deallocating
memory to programs as needed. It also provides
mechanisms for virtual memory, which allows programs to
use more memory than is physically available on the
computer.
File management: An operating system manages files
and directories on the computer's storage devices. It
provides mechanisms for creating, modifying, and
deleting files and directories, and for accessing and
sharing them between programs and users.
Device management: An operating system manages
computer hardware devices, such as printers, scanners,
and network adapters. It provides drivers and software
interfaces for these devices, allowing them to be used by
programs and users.
Security: An operating system provides mechanisms for
securing the computer system and protecting data from
unauthorized access. It includes features such as user
accounts, access control, encryption, and firewalls.
Networking: An operating system provides mechanisms
for networking, allowing computers to communicate with
each other over a network. It includes features such as
protocols, services, and network settings.
Virtualization: An operating system provides
mechanisms for virtualization, allowing multiple operating
systems or instances of an operating system to run on the
same computer hardware. This allows for better resource
utilization and more efficient use of hardware.
Updating and maintenance: An operating system
provides mechanisms for updating and maintaining the
system. This includes installing security updates, bug
fixes, and new features, as well as diagnosing and fixing
problems that occur on the system.
Software Engineering is the discipline concerned with the
application of engineering principles to the design,
development, maintenance, testing, and evaluation of
software. The goal of software engineering is to create
high-quality, efficient, and reliable software systems that
meet the needs of users and stakeholders.

Requirements Engineering: The process of eliciting,

analyzing, documenting, validating, and managing the
requirements of a software system.

Software Design: The process of creating a software

architecture that defines the components, interfaces, and
interactions of a software system.
Software Testing: The process of evaluating the quality
and performance of a software system to ensure that it
meets the requirements and specifications.
Software Maintenance: The process of modifying,
updating, and enhancing an existing software system to
improve its functionality, performance, and usability.
Software Project Management: The process of
planning, organizing, and controlling the resources and
activities required to develop and deliver a software
system.
Software Quality Assurance: The process of ensuring
that a software system meets the specified quality
standards and requirements.
Software Configuration Management: The process of
identifying, organizing, and controlling the changes to the
software system throughout its development and
maintenance life cycle.
Software Engineering Ethics: The principles and values
that guide the behavior of software engineers in their
professional practice, including responsibility, honesty,
fairness, and respect for the rights and interests of others.
Software Engineering Process Models: The formal
methods for organizing, managing, and executing the
software engineering activities, such as the Waterfall
model, the Agile model, and the DevOps model.
Software Engineering Tools and Technologies: The
software tools and technologies used to support the
software engineering activities, such as Integrated
Development Environments (IDEs), Version Control
Systems (VCS), and Automated Testing Tools.
Software testing methodology is the process of verifying
and validating software to ensure that it meets the
expected requirements, performs as expected, and is free
from defects.
Waterfall Model: This model follows a sequential process
of testing that starts from the requirement analysis phase
and ends with the maintenance phase. In this model,
testing is conducted after the development phase.
Agile Model: The Agile model emphasizes collaboration,
customer satisfaction, and iterative development. Testing
is done continuously throughout the development cycle,
and testing teams work closely with developers to identify
and fix defects.
V-Model: The V-Model is a variation of the Waterfall
model, where testing is done at every stage of the
software development lifecycle. In this model, testing is
planned in advance and is integrated into each phase of
development.
Incremental Model: In this model, the software is
developed in incremental stages, with each stage
consisting of a complete development cycle, including
testing. Testing is performed after each increment to
ensure that the software meets the requirements.
Spiral Model: The Spiral model is a risk-driven approach
to software testing. It emphasizes continuous feedback
and testing throughout the development cycle to identify
and mitigate risks.
Black Box Testing: This method involves testing the
software without knowledge of its internal workings. The
tester only tests the inputs and outputs of the software to
determine if it meets the expected requirements.

White Box Testing: This method involves testing the

software with knowledge of its internal workings. The
tester tests the internal components of the software to
ensure that it performs as expected.
Software development life cycle (SDLC) is the process of
developing software from conception to delivery. The
software life cycle modules can vary depending on the
specific SDLC model.
Requirements Analysis: This module involves gathering
and analyzing the requirements of the software to be
developed. It includes identifying stakeholders, gathering
functional and non-functional requirements, and
prioritizing them based on their importance.
Design: This module involves creating a high-level design
of the software, including the architecture, user interface,
and data structures. It includes creating detailed
specifications that will be used by the development team.
Development: This module involves writing and testing
the code that implements the design. It includes
developing the software in accordance with the
requirements and specifications identified in the previous
modules.
Testing: This module involves testing the software to
ensure that it meets the requirements and specifications.
It includes both functional and non-functional testing to
identify defects and ensure the software is of high quality.
Deployment: This module involves deploying the
software to the production environment. It includes
installation, configuration, and testing of the software in
the target environment.
Maintenance: This module involves maintaining the
software after deployment. It includes fixing defects and
enhancing the software to meet changing requirements.
Agile and Scrum are two related concepts used in
software development. Agile refers to a philosophy of
software development that values flexibility, collaboration,
and rapid response to change. Scrum is a specific
methodology within the Agile philosophy that provides a
framework for managing and completing software
development projects.
Agile emphasizes delivering working software quickly and
adapting to changes as they arise. This approach requires
frequent communication and collaboration between team
members, including customers and stakeholders. It also
requires an iterative approach to software development,
where the team continually refines and improves the
software through a series of short development cycles.
Scrum is a framework that provides a specific process for
implementing the Agile philosophy. It consists of several
key elements.
Scrum team: A cross-functional team consisting of
developers, testers, and other necessary roles.
Product backlog: A prioritized list of user stories and
features to be developed.
Sprint: A short development cycle, usually two to four
weeks, during which the team works to deliver a specific
set of features.
Sprint backlog: A list of tasks to be completed during the
sprint.
Daily Scrum: A daily meeting where team members
share progress, discuss issues, and plan for the day.
Sprint review: A meeting at the end of each sprint where
the team demonstrates the completed features and gets
feedback from stakeholders.
Sprint retrospective: A meeting at the end of each sprint
where the team reflects on the process and identifies
ways to improve.
Scrum provides a framework for managing software
development projects in a flexible and collaborative way,
allowing the team to respond quickly to changes and
deliver high-quality software. It is widely used in software
development, and its popularity has led to a variety of
tools and resources to support its implementation.