MODULE 3

INDUCTIVE & CAPACITIVE SENSORS

Contents
• Inductive Sensors- Principle of operation, construction details,
Sensitivity and Linearity of the Sensor
• Types, characteristics and applications of LVDT
• Induction potentiometer
• Variable reluctance transducer
• Synchros, microsyn
• Capacitive Sensors, characteristics of Capacitive transducers
• Proximity sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensors
Inductive Sensors
• Inductive sensors are non-contact devices used to detect the
presence or position of metal objects.
• They operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction and
are widely used in industrial applications due to their robustness,
reliability, and ability to function in harsh environments.
Construction and Working Principle
• Inductive sensors work by generating a magnetic field and detecting changes in this field caused by the presence
of a metallic object.
• The sensor contains an oscillator circuit that generates an alternating current (AC) signal.
• This AC signal flows through a coil(typically wound around the ferrite core), creating an alternating magnetic field
around the coil..
• The alternating current in the coil produces an alternating magnetic field that extends from the sensor's face.
• When a metallic object enters the magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in the object due to electromagnetic
induction.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field, which opposes the original magnetic field generated by the
sensor.
• The presence of the metallic object and the resulting eddy currents cause a change in the amplitude of the
oscillations in the sensor's coil.
• This change in amplitude is detected by the sensor's internal circuitry.
• The sensor processes the change in amplitude to determine the presence or proximity of the metallic object.
• An output signal is generated, which can be used to trigger other devices or systems.
 Factors Affecting Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the sensor's ability to detect small changes in the position or presence of a metallic
object. It is typically defined as the ratio of the change in the sensor's output signal to the change in the
input (position or proximity of the target object).
1. Coil Design:
The number of turns in the coil and the wire gauge affect the sensor's magnetic field strength and, consequently, its
sensitivity.
More turns generally increase sensitivity but may also increase the size and power consumption.
2. Oscillator Frequency:
The frequency of the AC signal driving the coil can impact sensitivity. Higher frequencies can provide better
sensitivity for detecting small objects or fine details.
3. Material of the Target:
The type of metal being detected affects sensitivity. Ferromagnetic materials (like iron and steel) are detected more
easily than non-ferromagnetic metals (like aluminum or copper).
4. Distance:
Sensitivity decreases as the distance between the sensor and the target increases. The sensor is most sensitive at
close range.
5. Shielding and Environmental Factors:
External magnetic fields and nearby metallic objects can interfere with the sensor's operation, affecting its
sensitivity.
 Factors Affecting Linearity
Linearity refers to the relationship between the sensor's output signal and the actual position
or distance of the target.
1.Coil and Core Geometry:
The shape and placement of the coil and the core can significantly impact linearity. Uniform magnetic field
distribution leads to better linearity.
2.Signal Processing:
The design of the demodulator, comparator, and other signal processing components can affect linearity.
Advanced signal processing techniques can improve linearity.
3.Target Movement:
The type of movement (linear or angular) and the path of the target relative to the sensor can affect
linearity. Sensors are often optimized for specific types of movement.
4.Temperature Stability:
Changes in temperature can affect the sensor's components, leading to non-linear behavior. Temperature
compensation techniques are used to maintain linearity.
5.Calibration:
Proper calibration ensures that the sensor's output remains linear over its operating range. Calibration
compensates for any non-linearities introduced during manufacturing or due to environmental factors.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER
• Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure
displacement.
• LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which
is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.

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LVDT- Architecture

• LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core.

• The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form, while the core is secured to the
object whose position is being measured.

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LVDT- Architecture

• The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow form.
• A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form.
• The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown.
• Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils,
inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

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LVDT- Architecture

• The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each
other.
• If the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will be in
the anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages
between the two secondary coil.

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LVDT- Architecture
A reliable and accurate sensing device
that converts linear position or
motion to a proportional electrical
output.

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LVDT

The cross sectional view of the

DC LVDT at left shows the built-in
signal conditioning electronics
module. The module is secured
with a potting compound that is
not shown in this drawing

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Working of LVDT:
Case 1:
On applying an external force which is the displacement,
if the core remains in the null position itself without
providing any movement then the voltage induced in both
the secondary windings are equal which results in net
output is equal to zero

Esec1-Esec2=0
Working of LVDT:
Case 2:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron
core tends to move in the left hand side direction then
the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater
when compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil
2.
Therefore the net output will be
Esec1-Esec2
Working of LVDT:
Case 3:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core
moves in the right hand side direction then the emf induced
in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf
voltage induced in the secondary coil 1.
The net output voltage will be
Esec2-Esec1
LVDT Operation

Case1:
If the core at the center, eO1=eO2, eO=0
Case 2:
When the core is away from center
toward eO1, is greater than eO2 and the
output voltage eO will have the polarity
eO1. eO = eO1 - eO2
Case 3:
When the core is away from center
toward S2, eO2 is greater than eO1 and the
output voltage eO will have the polarity
eO2. eO = eO2 – eO1

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LVDT Operation
• Voltage induced in the secondary coils is given by

where M1 and M2 are the respective mutual inductances.

• The net secondary voltage eO is then given by

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LVDT Operation
That is, the output ac voltage inverts as
the core passes the center position
The farther the core moves from center,
the greater the difference in value
between eO 1 and eO2, consequently the
greater the value of eO.
Thus, the amplitude of eO is a function of
the distance the core has moved, and the
polarity or phase indicates which
direction is has moved.
If the core is attached to a moving object,
the LVDT output voltage can be a measure
of the position of the object.

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Advantages of LVDT:

1)Infinite resolution is present in LVDT

2)High output
3)LVDT gives High sensitivity
4)Very good linearity
5)Ruggedness
6)LVDT Provides Less friction
7)Low hysteresis
8)LVDT gives Low power consumption.
LVDT
The disadvantages of LVDT are as follows:

• Very high displacement is required for generating high

voltages.
• Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic
field.
• Its is greatly affected by temperature changes

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Applications of LVDTs
• LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from
fraction millimeter to centimeter.
• Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as
a device to measure force, weight and pressure,

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Characteristics of LVDT:
 Numerical

The output of an LVDT is connected to a 5V voltmeter through an amplifier whose amplification

factor is 250. An output of 2mV appears at the terminal of LVDT when the core moves through a
distance of 0.5mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the LVDT and that of the whole set up. The milli-
voltmeter scale has 100 divisions. The scale can be read to 1/5 of a division. Calculate the resolution
of the instrument in mm.

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 Numerical

Solution:

Sensitivity of LVDT = Output voltage / Displacement = 2mV/0.5mm

= 4 mV/mm
Sensitivity of instrument = Amplification factor * Sensitivity of LVDT
= 1000 mV/mm
1 scale division = 5/100 = 50 mV
Minimum voltage that can be read by the voltmeter = 1/5 * 50 = 10mV
Resolution of the instrument = 1/1000 * 10 = 1 x 10-2 mm

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 INDUCTION POTENTIOMETER
• An induction potentiometer, also known as an inductive position sensor or an inductive
potentiometer, is a type of sensor used to measure the position of a moving object. It
works based on the principle of electromagnetic induction and provides an electrical
output proportional to the position of a target.
• An induction potentiometer is a rotary type linear-variable inductor with two concentrated
windings wound on the stator and on the rotor.

• The rotor windings are excited with an AC, inducing voltage in the stator windings.
• The amplitude of the output is dependent on mutual inductance between the two coils,
where the mutual inductance itself is dependent on the relative positions of the coils, as
determined by the angle of rotation.
Working Principle
• When an AC current flows through the primary coil, it generates an alternating magnetic
field around the coil.
• The alternating magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil(s) according to
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The magnitude of the induced voltage depends
on the position of the movable core or target.
• As the target moves relative to the coils, it changes the inductive coupling between the
primary and secondary coils.
• This movement causes a change in the induced voltage in the secondary coils, which can be
measured.
• The induced voltage in the secondary coils is proportional to the position of the target.
• The output signal from the secondary coil(s) is processed to provide a voltage or current
that corresponds to the position of the target.
• This output can be linear or non-linear depending on the design of the sensor.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
• Non-Contact Measurement: Since the target does not need to physically contact the coils, wear
and tear are minimized, leading to longer sensor life.
• High Accuracy and Resolution: Capable of providing precise measurements of position.
• Robustness: Can operate in harsh environments with dust, dirt, and moisture without significant
degradation in performance.
• Durability: No moving parts in direct contact, leading to high reliability and low maintenance.
Disadvantages
• Complexity: More complex to design and implement compared to simple resistive
potentiometers.
• Sensitivity to External Magnetic Fields: Can be affected by strong external magnetic fields, which
may cause measurement errors.
• Cost: Generally more expensive than traditional potentiometers.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
TRANSDUCER
• A variable reluctance sensor commonly called a VR sensor is a transducer that measures
changes in magnetic reluctance. Magnetic reluctance is defined as the ratio of
magnetomotive force (mmf) to magnetic flux.
• The variable reluctance transducer operates on the principle of magnetic reluctance,
which is the opposition to the creation of a magnetic field in a material. Reluctance is
analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit but applies to magnetic circuits
• Variable reluctance sensors are used to measure position and speed of moving metal
components. This sensor consists of a permanent magnet, a ferromagnetic pole piece, a
pickup coil, and a rotating toothed wheel.
• As the wheel rotates, the reluctance of the flux path through the coil changes, and the flux
linkage through the coil changes, which results in a change in voltage that is measured by
an external circuit. The path of the flux generated by the permanent magnet varies as the
toothed ring rotates in the field of the VR sensor.
Operation

1.Magnetic Field Creation:

1. When an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) flows through the coil, it creates a
magnetic field in the magnetic core.
2.Reluctance Variation:
1. The moving element (such as a gear tooth or a ferromagnetic vane) changes the air gap in
the magnetic circuit, altering the magnetic reluctance.
2. As the air gap changes, the reluctance of the magnetic path changes.
3.Induced Voltage:
1. The change in reluctance causes a change in the magnetic flux through the coil.
2. According to Faraday's Law of Induction, a changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the
coil.
3. The induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux, which is
related to the position or velocity of the moving element.
• When the tooth of the wheel is close to the pole of the magnet, reluctance is minimum
and as it moves away, reluctance increases and becomes maximum.
• Reluctance Low----Flux High
• An AC voltage is generated, the amplitude and frequency of which depends on the speed
of the wheel.
• The amplitude of this AC voltage also depends on the air gap i.e. the distance between the
sensor and the wheel tooth.
• The voltage decreases as the air gap increases and the voltage increases as air gap
decreases.
• This AC signal from the sensor can be processed further to obtain the digital output.
• The major disadvantage of variable reluctance sensors is the decreasing signal strength as
wheel rotation slows and approaches lockup.
SYNCHRO
• The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft into an electric
signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor.
• In control systems, a synchro is a type of rotary electrical transformer used for measuring the angle of a
rotating machine or for transmitting the angular position of a shaft.
• Synchros are used in various applications where precise angular position information is needed.
• The error occurs in the system because of the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter and the
control transformer are the two main parts of the synchro.
• Synchros operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
• A synchro transmitter consists of a rotor (input shaft) and a stator (stationary part).
• When the rotor turns, it induces a voltage in the stator windings, which is proportional to the angular position.
• This induced voltage is then transmitted to a synchro receiver, which interprets the signal and aligns its rotor
to match the transmitted angle.
 Synchros System Types
The synchro system is of two types. They are
1.Control Type Synchro.
2.Torque Transmission Type Synchro.

Torque Transmission Type Synchros

• This type of synchros has small output torque, and hence they are
used for running the very light load like a pointer. The control
type Synchro is used for driving the large loads.
Control Type Synchros System
• The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional
control systems. Their systems consist two units. They are
1.Synchro Transmitter
2.Synchro receiver
 Synchro Transmitter -
•Construction
A synchro transmitter (TX) is a crucial component in control systems, especially for
applications requiring precise measurement and transmission of angular positions.
• It converts the mechanical angular position of a shaft into an electrical signal.
• The stator of the synchros is made of steel for reducing the iron losses. The stator is
slotted for housing the three phase windings.
• The axis of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from each other. The coils of the stator
windings are connected in star.
• The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in shape, and a concentric coil is wound on it.
• The AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip rings.
 Working of Synchro Transmitter
In control systems, synchro transmitters and control transformers are often used together
to provide accurate angular position feedback and control.
1.Input Shaft Rotation:
1. The rotor of the synchro transmitter is mechanically connected to the input shaft.
2. As the shaft rotates, the rotor turns with it.
2.Electromagnetic Induction:
1. The rotor has a single-phase winding, which is excited with an AC voltage.
2. This creates a rotating magnetic field.
3.Voltage Induction in Stator Windings:
1. The stator consists of three-phase windings arranged in a star configuration.
2. The rotating magnetic field from the rotor induces voltages in the stator windings.
3. The magnitude and phase of these induced voltages are proportional to the rotor's angular position.
4.Generation of Electrical Signal:
1. The induced voltages form a three-phase AC signal.
2. This signal is transmitted to other synchro devices, such as control transformers or receivers.
 Control Transformer (CT)
Working
It is used to provide an error signal for control systems by comparing the electrical signals from the transmitter with the reference
signals. it comprises a rotor and a stator, but it is designed to detect angular discrepancies.
1. Receiving Reference Signal:
1. The control transformer receives the three-phase AC signal from the synchro transmitter.
2. Rotor Position:
1. The rotor of the control transformer is connected to the reference position.
2. The rotor winding is typically unexcited and acts as a pickup coil.
3. Voltage Induction in Stator Windings:
1. The stator windings are excited by the incoming three-phase signal from the transmitter.
2. When the rotor position does not match the transmitter's reference position, a voltage is induced in the stator windings.
4. Error Signal Generation:
1. The induced voltage is the error signal, representing the angular discrepancy between the transmitter and the reference
position.
2. This error signal is used to adjust the position of the controlled element, minimizing the error.
Interaction Between Synchro Transmitter and Control Transformer
5. Signal Transmission:
1. The synchro transmitter converts the angular position of the input shaft into a three-phase AC electrical signal.
2. This signal is sent to the control transformer.
6. Error Detection:
1. The control transformer receives the signal and compares it with the reference position of its rotor.
2. If there is a discrepancy between the transmitted angle and the reference angle, an error signal is generated.
7. Error Correction:
1. The error signal is used in a control system to adjust the position of the controlled element (e.g., a servo mechanism) to
match the reference position.
2. The control system aims to reduce the error signal to zero, ensuring precise alignment.
Application of Synchro
In an aircraft autopilot system:
1.Synchro Transmitter: Mounted on the aileron, converts its position
into an electrical signal.
2.Control Transformer: Located in the autopilot control unit, receives
the signal from the transmitter.
3.Error Signal: If the aileron position does not match the desired
position, the control transformer generates an error signal.
4.Correction: The autopilot system uses the error signal to adjust the
actuator controlling the aileron, aligning it with the desired position.
 MICROSYN
• Microsyn, a term often associated with high-precision inductive position
sensors, is a type of miniature synchro used primarily for accurate angular
position measurement.
• These devices are commonly used in aerospace, defense, and other
industries requiring precise, reliable position sensing
• This is a variable-reluctance transducer used to detect small
motions, giving output signals as low as 0.01° of changes in
angles.
Construction of Microsyn
Rotor is cylindrical and typically made of ferromagnetic material to facilitate magnetic flux.
•The rotor has windings (usually single-phase) that are excited with an AC voltage.
•This creates a magnetic field when current passes through.
•The rotor is mounted on a shaft, which is connected to the mechanical component whose position is
being measured.

Stator is made of ferromagnetic material, providing a magnetic path for the flux generated by the rotor.
• The stator contains three-phase windings arranged in a star configuration.
• These windings are positioned at 120-degree intervals around the stator.
• The stator is typically stationary, enclosing the rotor and providing a path for the magnetic flux.
Working of Microsyn
• The rotor is excited with an AC voltage, creating a rotating magnetic field.
• This magnetic field induces voltages in the stator windings.
•As the rotor turns, the relative position between the rotor and stator changes.
•The induced voltages in the stator windings vary with the angular position of
the rotor.
•These voltages are typically sinusoidal and phase-shifted relative to each
other.
• The induced voltages are processed to determine the angular position of
the rotor.
•The output is usually an analog signal proportional to the angular
displacement.
Application of microsyn
• Aircraft Aileron Position Measurement:
• A Microsyn is connected to the aileron control mechanism.
• As the aileron moves, the rotor of the Microsyn rotates accordingly.
• The rotor's movement induces voltages in the stator windings.
• These voltages are processed to determine the exact position of the aileron.
• The position data is sent to the aircraft's flight control system, allowing for
precise control and feedback.
Application
• Microsyn transducers are extensively used in
applications involving gyroscopes.
CAPACITIVE SENSOR
• The principle operation of capacitive sensor is based upon the familiar equation
for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

= permittivity of space
K= relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates, k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media,
approximately =1 for air.

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CAPACITIVE SENSOR
• The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which
may be caused by

i. Change in overlapping area, A.

ii. Change in the distance d between the plates.
iii. Change in dielectric constant.
• These changes are caused by physical variables like pressure, displacement,
force, etc. .
• Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the
plates changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.

44
 Measurement of Linear
Displacement
1. Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

2. Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two

plates.

45
Change in Area of Plates
Parallel Plates
• Examining the equation for capacitance, it is found that the
capacitance is directly proportional to the area, A of the
plates.
• Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area
of plates.

l = length of overlapping part of plates; m

w = width of overlapping part of plates; m

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Change in Area of Plates
Cylindrical Capacitor

• L= length of overlapping part of the cylinders, m.

• b(D2) – inner diameter of the outer circle, m
• a(D1) – outer diameter of the inner circle, m

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Change in Area of Plates
• Hence this type of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate
to large displacements say from 1 mm to several cm.

• The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between

capacitance and displacement.

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Change in Area of Plates
Measurement of Angular Displacement
• The angular displacement changes the effective area between
the plates and thus changes the capacitance.
• The capacitance is maximum when the two plates are
complete overlapped. i.e. when θ = 180 degree.

49
Change in Area of Plates
Measurement of Angular Displacement

50
 Change in Distance b/w
Plates
• One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured is applied to the other
plate which is movable.
• Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between the plates
the response of this transducer is not linear.
• Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely small
displacements.

51
 Change in Distance b/w
Plates
• Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not
constant but varies over the range of the
transducer.
• It is only approximately linear over a small range of
displacement.
• The linearity can be closely approximated by use of
a piece of dielectric material like mica having a high
dielectric constant, such as, a thin piece of mica.

52
Change in Distance b/w Plates

Using Cantilever Spring Plate Using Quartz Diaphragm

53
Change in Distance b/w
Plates
Differential Arrangement
• A linear characteristic curve can be achieved by using
differential arrangement.
• Three plates, P1 and P2 are fixed and M is movable to which
the displacement to be measured is applied.
• Thus we have two capacitors, whose differential output is
taken.

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Change in Distance b/w
Plates

55
Change in Distance b/w
Plates

56
Change in Distance b/w
Plates

57
Change in Dielectric Constant
• It has a dielectric relative permittivity

58
Change in Dielectric Constant

59
Numerical
An electrode-diaphragm pressure transducer has plates whose area is 5 x
10-3 m2 and whose distance between plates is 1 X 10-3 m. Calculate its
capacitance if it measures air pressure. The dielectric constant of air is k =1.

kA o
C
d
(1) (5 x10  3 m 2 ) (8.854 x 10  12 F / m)

1 x10  3 m
44.25 pF

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Numerical
A capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragm of
area 750mm2 separated by a distance of 3.5mm. A
pressure of 900 kN/m2 when applied to the top of a
diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6mm. The
capacitance is 370pF when no pressure is applied to the
diaphragms. Find the value of capacitance after the
application of a pressure of 900 kN/m2

ECE1005 - Module 4 – 61
• C1 and C2 are the capacitance before and after application of pressure
• d1 and d2 be the distance between the diaphragm for the corresponding pressure
value
• C1 = εA/ d1 and C2 = εA/ d2
• d1 = 3.5mm, d2 = 3.5 – 0.6 = 2.90mm
• C2 / C1 = d1/ d2 ; C2 = C1 x (d1/ d2 )
• C2 = 370(3.5/2.9) = 446.5 pF

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PROXIMITY SENSOR
• A proximity sensor is an electronic solid-state device used to indicate
the presence of an object without making physical contact.
• The proximity sensor is a very useful device in hazardous areas such
as oil refineries and not so hazardous areas such as car door detection
systems.
• Proximity sensors do not use any type of physical moving parts
instead they allow signals to transmit through them when something
that is being monitored comes in close proximity of the sensing area.
Inductive Proximity Sensor
• Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
magnetism when a fluctuating current induces the voltage in a target
object.
• The inductive proximity sensor contains a certain type of solid-state
control system.
• It contains an oscillator circuit that generates a high-frequency
magnetic field. When the metal object enters the field, it disturbs the
magnetic field, this disturbance results in a change of state in the
high-frequency circuit.
• The oscillator generates an electromagnetic field that radiates out
from the sensing face, inducing eddy currents in nearby metallic
objects. This causes a change in the oscillation amplitude that
triggers a change in the output state.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• The capacitive proximity sensor is similar to the inductive proximity sensor and uses the variation
of capacitance between sensor and the object being detected
• The main difference between the two, capacitive proximity sensor produces an electrostatic field
instead of a magnetic field and the sensing area of the capacitive proximity sensor can be
actuated by both conductive and non-conductive materials.
• A capacitive proximity sensor contains a high-frequency oscillating circuit along with a sensing
surface formatted by two metal plates.
• When an object or some type of material gets in the sensing range it disturbs the electrostatic
field of the metal plates, changing the capacitance of the proximity sensor, this change results in a
change of state in the operation of the proximity sensor.
Applications
• phones, recycling plants,
• self-driving cars,
• anti-aircraft systems, and
• assembly lines.
ULTRASONIC SENSORS

• Ultrasound is a mechanical radiation with a

A plane wave (intensity Ii) with frequency above the human hearing range (about
normal incidence on a boundary 20 kHz).
® Partially reflected (Ir) &
® partially transmitted (It) • As for any radiation, when ultrasound strikes an
object, part is reflected, part is transmitted, and part
is absorbed

• In addition, when the radiation source moves

relative to the reflector, there is a shift in received
frequency (Doppler effect)

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Ultrasonic distance measurement: • Properties of ultrasound radiation & object
Basic arrangement interaction have been applied to the
measurement of several physical quantities
such as DISTANCE, FLOW RATE,….

• Applications
Penetration power for ultrasound permits
non-invasive such as
® Explosive and radioactive environments
® Medical applications
® Prevents contamination of the medium

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70
 Transit time ultrasonic sensors
Sensors determine the distance from the
transducer to an impedance discontinuity by
measuring the elapsed time between the
emission and reception of a signal burst.

® Emit an ultrasonic burst and measure the elapsed time between transmission and
reception
® Reflecting surface must be parallel to the sensing face-i.e., perpendicular to the direction
of sensing
® Frequency is selected according to the range and reflector surface
(Greater ranges need low frequencies because of the increased attenuation)
® For example:23 kHz for a 30 m range & 40 kHz for a 12 m range
® Smooth and Nonporous surfaces preferred
® Transit time sensors yield highly linear and accurate outputs when measuring
distance

Applications:
• Ultrasonic attenuation have been applied to air or foam bubble detectors in plastic, glass,
or metal tubing

• Ultrasonic sensors are not suitable for outdoor use (air turbulence may blow of echoes) 71
Uses

• To estimate arterial blood flow rate noninvasively

• Used in industry to measure liquids, gases, and two-phase or
multiphase fluids
• Distance:20mm to 10m
• The distance can be calculated with the following formula:
• Distance L = 1/2 × T × C
• where L is the distance, T is the time between the emission and
reception, and C is the sonic speed. (The value is multiplied by 1/2
because T is the time for go-and-return distance.)
Grain Detection

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UAV Navigation

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UAV Navigation

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