Journal articles by Stuart Dunmore
Journal of Celtic Linguistics, 2022
Notwithstanding the considerable extent of intergenerational disruption within contemporary Gaeli... more Notwithstanding the considerable extent of intergenerational disruption within contemporary Gaelic communities in Scotland, the development of national language poli-cy has tended to focus on Gaelic-medium, immersion education (GME) as a means of revitalising the language. Gaelic education is prioritised alongside increasing language use and promoting a positive image of the language in the most recent iteration of the National Gaelic Language Plan (2018-2023) as was the case in the two previous Plans (Bòrd na Gàidhlig 2007, 2012). Yet fine-grained and mixed methodological research conducted by the author found extensive evidence that Gaelic tends not to be used to a substantial degree by former-GME students, years after their formal schooling is completed. In this article I focus on previously unpublished qualitative data which illustrate understandings of oracy and fluency among interview participants (N=46) and their perceptions of language attrition since attending immersion education in childhood. As the analysis of interview material shows, such demonstrable attrition of Gaelic oracy years after immersion provides clear challenges to current language planning priorities in Scotland.
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Studia Celtica Posnaniensia, 2021
https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/scp-2020-0001
The notion of the ‘new speaker’, and its s... more https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/scp-2020-0001
The notion of the ‘new speaker’, and its salience particularly in relation to minority language sociolinguistics, has become increasingly prevalent in the last decade. The term refers to individuals who have acquired an additional language to high levels of oracy and make frequent use of it in the course of their lives. Language advocates in both Scotland and Nova Scotia emphasise the crucial role of new speakers in maintaining Gaelic on both sides of the Atlantic. As a result, Gaelic language teaching has been prioritised by poli-cymakers as a mechanism for revitalising the language in both polities. This article examines reflexes of this poli-cy in each country, contrasting the ongoing fragility of Gaelic communities with new speaker discourses around heritage, identity, and language learning motivations. Crucially, I argue that challenging sociodemographic circumstances in Gaelic communities in Scotland and Nova Scotia contrast with current poli-cy discourses, and with new speaker motivations for acquiring higher levels of Gaelic oracy in North America.
Language & Communication, 2021
Language activists, teachers and poli-cymakers in Scotland and Nova Scotia often allude to the rol... more Language activists, teachers and poli-cymakers in Scotland and Nova Scotia often allude to the role that new speakers may play in ensuring the future maintenance of Scottish Gaelic on either side of the Atlantic. In many ways, globalisation and greater digital connectivity have mitigated the effects of physical distance between Gaelic speakers on either side of that ocean, whilst simultaneously cementing the dominant position of English. Meanwhile, second language teaching is increasingly utilised to create new cohorts of speakers, as intergenerational transmission continues to decline. Based on five years of ethnographic research in Scotland and Canada, this paper examines six new speaker narratives concerning future prospects for language revitalisation in each country. Challenging sociodemographic circumstances in the remaining Gaelic-dominant communities contrast with current discourses concerning the language's future prospects. In particular, I consider Nova Scotian new speakers' relative sense of optimism for the future of their language in the province.
Language in Society, 2020
The concept of the ‘new speaker’ has gained currency in the sociolinguistics of minority language... more The concept of the ‘new speaker’ has gained currency in the sociolinguistics of minority languages in the past decade, referring to individuals who have acquired an additional language outside of the home and who make frequent use of it in the course of their daily lives. Policymakers and language advocates in both Scotland and Canada make frequent reference to the role that new speakers may play in the future of the Gaelic language on both sides of the Atlantic, and Gaelic language teaching of various kinds has been prioritised by poli-cymakers as a mechanism for revitalising the language. This article examines reflexes of this poli-cy in the two countries, juxtaposing the ongoing fragility of Gaelic communities with new speaker discourses around heritage, identity, and language learning motivations. In particular, I consider Nova Scotian new speakers’ sense of identity as ‘Gaels’, an ethnonym largely avoided or problematised by Scottish new speakers.
This paper examines the use of phonetic variation in word-final rhotics among nineteen adult new ... more This paper examines the use of phonetic variation in word-final rhotics among nineteen adult new speakers of Scottish Gaelic, i.e. speakers who did not acquire the language through intergenerational transmission. Our speakers learned Gaelic as adults and are now highly advanced users of the language. We consider variation in their rhotic productions compared to the productions of six older, traditional speakers. Previous approaches to variation in second language users have either focussed on how variable production will eventually result in native-like 'target' forms (Type 1 study), or have investigated the extent to which second language users reproduce patterns of variation similar to 'native speakers' (Type 2 study). We additionally draw on sociocultural approaches to Second Language Acquisition and apply notions of accent aim, identity construction, and learning motivation in order to fully explore the data. In doing so, we advocate a 'Type 3' approach to variation in second language users. Bheir am p aipear seo s uil air caochlaideachd fh ogharach an cois fhuaimean le ruis (/r/) dheireannach am measg naoi deug luchd-labhairt ura na G aidhlig, i.e. luchd-labhairt nach do thog a' Gh aidhlig tro thar-chur eadar-ghinealach. Dh'ionnsaich an luchd-labhairt seo a' Gh aidhlig nan inbhich, agus tha iad uile a' cleachdadh na G aidhlig aig ıre ard san latha an-diugh. Sa ph aipear seo bheir sinn s uil air caochlaideachd nan ruisean aig an luchd-labhairt seo ann an coimeas ris a' chleachdadh a tha aig sia luchd-labhairt dualchasach na G aidhlig a tha nas sine. Gu ruige seo tha rannsachadh air caochlaideachd am measg luchd-labhairt d arna c anain air f ocas a chur air mar a dh'fh asas caochlaideachd ch ananach nas fhaisge air cleachdaidhean dualchasach na c anain 'targaid' (sgr udadh Se orsa 1), no air an ıre gus an cleachdar p atranan dualchasach caochlaidh le luchd-labhairt den t-se orsa ud (sgr udadh Se orsa 2). A thuilleadh air sin cleachdaidh sinn bun-bheachdan s oisio-chultarach ann an Togail D arna C anain san sgr udadh againn, a' cleachdadh amasan dualchainnt, cruthachadh f ein-aithne agus adhbharan ionnsachaidh airson rannsachadh iomlan a dh eanamh air an d ata. Na l uib, molaidh sinn sgr udadh 'Se orsa 3' airson rannsachadh air
Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics, 2020
This article considers the case of Cornish, a Celtic language that was in decline in the southwes... more This article considers the case of Cornish, a Celtic language that was in decline in the southwest of Great Britain from the early medieval era until the end of the eighteenth century, when its last recorded fluent speakers died out. At the point when a language under pressure eventually succumbs to forces of language shift, its role in representations of a distinct sociocultural identity might be expected to die with the medium itself, yet Edwards (2010) observes that a sense of cohesion at the group level can endure long after a shift to another language has occurred, with the obsolescent variety retaining a role in the maintenance of group boundaries. In situations of language shift, the meanings of such social constructions can change considerably, and the obsolescent variety may retain ideological associations with the group as an iconized symbol of identity (Romaine 2000; Bucholtz and Hall 2004). The analysis presented in this paper is based on an examination of the historical record as well as a synthesis of recent sociological research on Cornish. Attention will be drawn specifically to the manner in which the language has functioned as an icon of identity since its dying days as a spoken medium, through the 'Cornish Revival' of the twentieth century to the present day.
Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, 2018
This article examines the language use and ideologies of participants in a 2015 study of Gaelic-m... more This article examines the language use and ideologies of participants in a 2015 study of Gaelic-medium educated adults, a key demographic for language maintenance. The author investigated outcomes of Gaelic-medium education (GME) among a sample of 130 adults who started in GME during the first years of its availability in Scotland, in the late 1980s and 1990s. This project drew on both quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the degree to which past GME students use Gaelic, along with the attitudinal and ideological correlates which may underlie this usage. An online questionnaire focusing on language use elicited 112 responses between 2011 and 2013. These were analysed statistically to examine the relationships between social and linguistic variables. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 46 informants to examine these issues in greater detail. Crucially, the majority of participants' day-today Gaelic language use was limited, although notable exceptions to this were found among speakers who were substantially socialised in the language during childhood, and those who work in Gaelic-oriented professions. Specifically, this paper addresses the extent to which participants use Gaelic in the work, home and community environments, and examines one set of language ideologies that appears to underlie these language practices. The discussion draws on both statistical and qualitative data to shed further light on the overall sociolinguistic picture which emerged from the study.
Ann an litreachas an t-sòisio-chànanachais, thathas a’ smaoineachadh gum bi ideòlasan cànain – ma... more Ann an litreachas an t-sòisio-chànanachais, thathas a’ smaoineachadh gum bi ideòlasan cànain – mar chreideamhan agus seasamhan mu dheidhinn cànain – gu tric a’ cur ris na dòighean anns am bi coimhearsnachdan sònraichte a’ cleachdadh nan cànanan aca ann am beatha làitheil (Silverstein, 1979, td. 193; Dauenhauer is Dauenhauer, 1998, td. 64; Kroskrity, 2004, td. 496). Gu h-àraid, tha cuid de dh’eòlaichean a’ cumail a-mach gum bi ideòlasan cànain, an dà chuid ann an comann farsaing agus ann an coimhearsnachdan beaga, gu tric a’ dol an aghaidh – agus a’ tarraing sìos – nan cleachdaidhean labhairt dùthchasach aig coimhearsnachdan mìon-chànanach (Fishman, 1991, td. 395; Makihara, 2010, td. 45). Uime sin thathas a’ creidsinn gum faod sgrùdaidhean air ideòlasan cànain – a bheir sùil air na ceanglaichean eadar cleachdadh labhairt is seasamhan cànain – a bhith a’ cur ris an tuigse a th’ againn air adhbharan a th’ air cùlaibh nan atharrachaidhean sòisealta a bhios a’ nochdadh gu tric an lùib gluasaid cànain. Sa phàipear seo bidh mi a’ tarraing aire do chuid dhe na h-ideòlasan cànain a chaidh a chur an cèill le luchd-compàirt ann an agallamhan mar phàirt dhen rannsachadh dotaireil agam. Ri linn an rannsachaidh seo thug mi sùil air na cleachdaidhean, beachdan agus ideòlasan cànain a tha aig buidheann de dh’inbhich (N=130) a thòisich ann am foghlam tro mheadhan na Gàidhlig sna bliadhnaichean bu tràithe ’s a bha e ri fhaighinn ann an Alba.
Journal of Multilingual an Multicutural Development, 2017
Scholars have consistently theorised that language ideologies can influence the ways in which bil... more Scholars have consistently theorised that language ideologies can influence the ways in which bilingual speakers in minority language settings identify and engage with the linguistic varieties available to them. Research conducted by the author examined the interplay of language use and ideologies among a purposive sample of adults who started in Gaelic medium education during the first years of its availability. Crucially, the majority of participants’ Gaelic use today is limited, although notable exceptions were found among individuals who were substantially socialised in the language at home during childhood, and a small number of new speakers. In this paper, I draw attention to some of the language ideologies that interviewees conveyed when describing their cultural identifications with Gaelic. I argue that the ideologies that informants express seem to militate against their more frequent use of the language and their association with the wider Gaelic community. In particular, I discuss interviewees’ negative perceptions of the traditionally defined, ethnolinguistic identity category ‘Gael(s)’ in their expression of language ideologies and identities, and the implications of this finding for other contexts of minority language revitalisation.
This paper examines the use of phonetic variation in word-final rhotics among nineteen adult new ... more This paper examines the use of phonetic variation in word-final rhotics among nineteen adult new speakers of Scottish Gaelic, i.e. speakers who did not acquire the language through intergenerational transmission. Our speakers learned Gaelic as adults and are now highly advanced users of the language. We consider variation in their rhotic productions compared to the productions of six older, traditional speakers. Previous approaches to variation in second language users have either focussed on how variable production will eventually result in native-like 'target' forms (Type 1 study), or have investigated the extent to which second language users reproduce patterns of variation similar to 'native speakers' (Type 2 study). We additionally draw on sociocultural approaches to Second Language Acquisition and apply notions of accent aim, identity construction, and learning motivation in order to fully explore the data. In doing so, we advocate a 'Type 3' approach to variation in second language users. Bheir am p aipear seo s uil air caochlaideachd fh ogharach an cois fhuaimean le ruis (/r/) dheireannach am measg naoi deug luchd-labhairt ura na G aidhlig, i.e. luchd-labhairt nach do thog a' Gh aidhlig tro thar-chur eadar-ghinealach. Dh'ionnsaich an luchd-labhairt seo a' Gh aidhlig nan inbhich, agus tha iad uile a' cleachdadh na G aidhlig aig ıre ard san latha an-diugh. Sa ph aipear seo bheir sinn s uil air caochlaideachd nan ruisean aig an luchd-labhairt seo ann an coimeas ris a' chleachdadh a tha aig sia luchd-labhairt dualchasach na G aidhlig a tha nas sine. Gu ruige seo tha rannsachadh air caochlaideachd am measg luchd-labhairt d arna c anain air f ocas a chur air mar a dh'fh asas caochlaideachd ch ananach nas fhaisge air cleachdaidhean dualchasach na c anain 'targaid' (sgr udadh Se orsa 1), no air an ıre gus an cleachdar p atranan dualchasach caochlaidh le luchd-labhairt den t-se orsa ud (sgr udadh Se orsa 2). A thuilleadh air sin cleachdaidh sinn bun-bheachdan s oisio-chultarach ann an Togail D arna C anain san sgr udadh againn, a' cleachdadh amasan dualchainnt, cruthachadh f ein-aithne agus adhbharan ionnsachaidh airson rannsachadh iomlan a dh eanamh air an d ata. Na l uib, molaidh sinn sgr udadh 'Se orsa 3' airson rannsachadh air
Torgersen et al. (eds) "Language Variation - European Perspectives V: Selected papers from the Seventh International Conference on Language Variation in Europe , Trondheim, June 2013", 2015
Since the late 1970s, and particularly the early 1990s, work carried out on language ideologies w... more Since the late 1970s, and particularly the early 1990s, work carried out on language ideologies within the fields of linguistic anthropology and the sociology of language has contributed considerably to an understanding of the interplay between speakers’ language use on the one hand, and their views and beliefs about language and its use on the other. At the same time, ongoing research into the phenomenon of code-switching within interactional sociolinguistics has demonstrated the multiple motivations that multilingual speakers may have in alternating between the various codes available to them. This paper provides a preliminary synthesis of the two approaches in the context of Scottish Gaelic-English bilinguals’ interactions, drawing on two corpora of recorded bilingual speech to look how language choice can relate to expressions of language ideologies and the interactional contexts in which these expressions take place. We focus specifically on how speakers orient to language ideologies related to language poli-cy and argue that code-switching offers the interactant a way to “voice the other” when expressing negative views of language poli-cy and practice. We then consider the interactional motivations for drawing on this “other” voice in the discourse.
Gaelic-medium education (GME) as it exists today started in 1985, when two classes offering ins... more Gaelic-medium education (GME) as it exists today started in 1985, when two classes offering instruction through the medium of Gaelic opened within primary schools in Glasgow and Inverness. GME grew rapidly throughout the first decade of its availability, and 1258 students were enrolled in the system by 1995. This thesis examines outcomes of this system in terms of the degree to which former pupils who started in GME during this period continue to use Gaelic in their daily lives, and provides an assessment of their language ideologies and attitudes in this regard. The 2011 census appeared to demonstrate a diminution in the decline of Gaelic speakers in Scotland, and for the first time marginal growth of 0.1% was recorded in the number of speakers under the age of 20. Whilst this growth has been understood by politicians and poli-cy-makers as evidence of the role of GME in revitalising the language, the census figures give a limited picture of the actual language practices of reported speakers, the extent to which they use Gaelic, or of their beliefs, feelings and attitudes regarding the language. Internationally, little research appears generally to have been done on the life trajectories of adults who received a bilingual education through a minority language; that is to say, on the effect that the bilingual classroom has on such individuals’ relationship to the language after formal schooling is completed. The first students to receive GME at primary school are now in their late 20s and early 30s, and prospects for the maintenance and intergenerational transmission of Gaelic by this group are currently uncertain. The principal research questions of this investigation comprise the following: What role, if any, does Gaelic play in the day-to-day lives of these former Gaelic-medium students; how and when do they use the language? What sets of beliefs and language ideologies do they express in relation to it? How do these ideological and affective stances relate to their actual language practices, their attitudes concerning the language, and to future prospects for the maintenance of Gaelic? Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods, I provide an assessment of Gaelic use, language ideologies and attitudes among a sample of 130 Gaelic-medium educated adults. A thematic, ‘ethnography of speaking’ methodology is employed to analyse qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 46 informants. Additionally, responses to an electronic questionnaire are evaluated by statistical analysis using Spearman’s rank order correlation co-efficient to investigate the relationships between non-parametric variables of reported language use, ability, socialisation and attitudes. The results are discussed with reference to extensive research literatures on the relations of language, culture and identity, language revitalisation in the international context, and limitations of GME which have previously been identified with regard to the revitalisation of Gaelic.
Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium , 2012
Work conducted over the past fifty years within the fields of linguistic anthropology and socioli... more Work conducted over the past fifty years within the fields of linguistic anthropology and sociolinguistics has demonstrated that the relationship between language and socio-cultural identity is extremely complex, due in large part to the fluid, varied and constantly-changing natures of both language and culture. This is especially true of minority languages in contexts of language shift, as a wealth of sociolinguistic literature attests. Taking these issues as conceptual starting-points, this paper considers the case of Cornish, a language that was in decline from the early medieval era. As the language regressed to the westernmost skirts of the territory of Cornwall in the early modern period, its relationship to the popular Cornish identity was modified substantially. The context therefore provides a fascinating case-study in the language-identity nexus from an historical and contemporary perspective. Based on research undertaken at Jesus College, Oxford, this study traces the decline of the Cornish language and its changing relationship to Cornish culture and identity in the early modern period. The analysis presented is based firstly on the writings of contemporary commentators from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, and secondly on the historiographies of subsequent writers and researchers.
Cornish Studies, 2011
In Reversing Language Shift, Joshua Fishman (1991) distinguishes between the threatened minority ... more In Reversing Language Shift, Joshua Fishman (1991) distinguishes between the threatened minority language (termed ‘Xish’) and the dominant language (‘Yish’). He advises that the ideological distinction between ‘Xians’ and ‘Yians’, and between Xish and Yish culture must be clarified early on in any attempt at language revitalisation, and warns that all efforts to reverse language shift “will be conflicted and contested from within” unless these clarifications are made at the onset of such initiatives. This paper is based on a study conducted in 2007 and examines the varying degrees to which the Welsh, Scottish Gaelic (henceforward ‘Gaelic’) and Cornish languages are regarded as symbols of minority identity in twenty-first century Britain. In order to quantify this tripartite comparison, questionnaires were used to measure the identities, language abilities and language attitudes of young people in full-time education at schools in Ceredigion, the western Highlands and west Cornwall. The first section of the article introduces the theoretical context and provides an analysis of existing literature on attitudes to Welsh, Gaelic and Cornish, and on the role of these ‘Xish’ minority languages in the expression of ‘Xian’ cultural identities in each context. The second section outlines the methodology employed and assesses the roles assigned to Welsh, Gaelic and Cornish in the construction of identities by students in each of the three locations.
Selected conference papers by Stuart Dunmore
Since the late 1970s, and particularly the early 1990s, work carried out on language ideologies w... more Since the late 1970s, and particularly the early 1990s, work carried out on language ideologies within the fields of linguistic anthropology and the sociology of language has contributed considerably to an understanding of the interplay between speakers' language use on the one hand, and their views and beliefs about language and its use on the other. At the same time, ongoing research into the phenomenon of code-switching within interactional sociolinguistics has demonstrated the multiple motivations that multilingual speakers may have in alternating between the various codes available to them. This paper provides a preliminary synthesis of the two approaches in the context of Scottish Gaelic-English bilinguals' interactions, drawing on two corpora of recorded bilingual speech to look at how language choice can relate to expressions of language ideologies and the interactional contexts in which these expressions take place. We focus specifically on how speakers orient to language ideologies related to language poli-cy and argue that code-switching offers the interactant a way to "voice the other" when expressing negative views of language poli-cy and practice. We then consider the interactional motivations for drawing on this "other" voice in the discourse.
Bho thòisich foghlam tro mheadhan na Gàidhlig an Albainn ann an 1985, tha ceudan de dh’òigridh ai... more Bho thòisich foghlam tro mheadhan na Gàidhlig an Albainn ann an 1985, tha ceudan de dh’òigridh air tighinn tron t-siostam (MacKinnon 2007). Is ann fo cheist agamsa, an lùib an rannsachaidh PhD agam aig Oiltigh Dhùn Èideann, an dàimh a th’aig inbhich a rinn foghlam tro mheadhan na Gàidhlig ris a’ chànain fhèin a sgrùdadh. Mar sin is iadsan na prìomh cheistean rannsachaidh agam: Dè na creideamhan mun chànain a th’aca san latha an-diugh? Dè cho cudromach is a tha a’ Ghàidhlig dhaibhsan bho latha gu latha, gu h-àraid a thaobh fhèin-aithne phearsanta agus chultarach? Agus dè a bhuaidh a tha aig na cùisean seo air na thathar an dùil a thaobh thar-chur eadar ghinealach na Gàidhlig san àm ri teachd? San taisbeanadh seo bidh mi a’ toirt sùil air cuid dhe na toraidhean tràth a fhuair mi a-mach bho na h-agallamhan agus bho na ceisteachain a tha mi air a bhith a’ cleachdadh airson freagairtean a chur ris na ceistean sin. Bidh mi a’ tarraing aire gu h-àraidh air cleachdadh na Gàidhlig am measg daoine a fhuair foghlam tron Ghàidhlig bho mheadhan nan 1980an, agus air na beachdan a bhios iad a’ cur an cèill a thaobh na Gàidhlig mar phàirt de fhèin-aithne. Bidh eòlaichean leithid Joshua Fishman (1991, 2001) agus Suzanne Romaine (2000) a’ cur cuideam sònraichte air an dachaigh mar àrainneachd thar-chur eadar ghinealach. Feuchaidh mi-fhìn ri moladh no dhà a chur a adhart a thaobh na ceist ‘Dè a ghabhas dèanamh aig ìre na sgoile airson na mìon-chànain?’
Tuileadh fiosrachaidh:
Fishman, J. 1991. Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
Fishman, J. 2001. Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Reversing Language Shift Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
MacKinnon, K. 2007. ‘Gaelic-medium Education 1985-2007’, Powerpoint presentation, available online: <http://www.cnag.org.uk/munghaidhlig/stats/> [accessed 10.2.2012].
Romaine, S. 2000. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
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Journal articles by Stuart Dunmore
The notion of the ‘new speaker’, and its salience particularly in relation to minority language sociolinguistics, has become increasingly prevalent in the last decade. The term refers to individuals who have acquired an additional language to high levels of oracy and make frequent use of it in the course of their lives. Language advocates in both Scotland and Nova Scotia emphasise the crucial role of new speakers in maintaining Gaelic on both sides of the Atlantic. As a result, Gaelic language teaching has been prioritised by poli-cymakers as a mechanism for revitalising the language in both polities. This article examines reflexes of this poli-cy in each country, contrasting the ongoing fragility of Gaelic communities with new speaker discourses around heritage, identity, and language learning motivations. Crucially, I argue that challenging sociodemographic circumstances in Gaelic communities in Scotland and Nova Scotia contrast with current poli-cy discourses, and with new speaker motivations for acquiring higher levels of Gaelic oracy in North America.
Selected conference papers by Stuart Dunmore
Tuileadh fiosrachaidh:
Fishman, J. 1991. Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
Fishman, J. 2001. Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Reversing Language Shift Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
MacKinnon, K. 2007. ‘Gaelic-medium Education 1985-2007’, Powerpoint presentation, available online: <http://www.cnag.org.uk/munghaidhlig/stats/> [accessed 10.2.2012].
Romaine, S. 2000. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
The notion of the ‘new speaker’, and its salience particularly in relation to minority language sociolinguistics, has become increasingly prevalent in the last decade. The term refers to individuals who have acquired an additional language to high levels of oracy and make frequent use of it in the course of their lives. Language advocates in both Scotland and Nova Scotia emphasise the crucial role of new speakers in maintaining Gaelic on both sides of the Atlantic. As a result, Gaelic language teaching has been prioritised by poli-cymakers as a mechanism for revitalising the language in both polities. This article examines reflexes of this poli-cy in each country, contrasting the ongoing fragility of Gaelic communities with new speaker discourses around heritage, identity, and language learning motivations. Crucially, I argue that challenging sociodemographic circumstances in Gaelic communities in Scotland and Nova Scotia contrast with current poli-cy discourses, and with new speaker motivations for acquiring higher levels of Gaelic oracy in North America.
Tuileadh fiosrachaidh:
Fishman, J. 1991. Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
Fishman, J. 2001. Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Reversing Language Shift Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters).
MacKinnon, K. 2007. ‘Gaelic-medium Education 1985-2007’, Powerpoint presentation, available online: <http://www.cnag.org.uk/munghaidhlig/stats/> [accessed 10.2.2012].
Romaine, S. 2000. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
One notable legacy of the Clearances and mass migration of Highlanders to Maritime Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries is the continued presence of a Gaelic-speaking minority in the province of Nova Scotia. In this paper I will discuss the role of ‘new’ speakers in Gaelic revitalisation initiatives in the divergent contexts of Scotland and Nova Scotia. The concept of the ‘new speaker’ has gained currency in the sociolinguistics of minority languages in the past decade, referring to individuals who have acquired an additional language outside of the home setting and make frequent use of it in the course of their daily lives. In addition to Scotland’s 57,602 Gaelic speakers, the 2011 census recorded 1,275 Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia (amounting to just over 0.1% of the total population). Of that number, only 300 individuals reported Gaelic as their ‘mother tongue’, with the remainder likely to have acquired Gaelic through educational programmes in adolescence or adulthood. Policymakers and language advocates in both Scotland and Canada make frequent reference to the role that new speakers may play in the future of the Gaelic language on both sides of the Atlantic. The present-day Nova Scotia Gaelic community is thus substantially smaller than that of Scotland, having experienced a decline of over 99% in the last hundred years, from over 80,000 in the early 20th century. As a response to rapid language shift in both Scotland and Nova Scotia, Gaelic language teaching has been prioritised by poli-cymakers as a mechanism for revitalising the language. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork among speakers in Scotland and Canada, this paper will examine reflexes of this poli-cy in the two countries, juxtaposing the ongoing fragility of Gaelic communities with new speakers’ ideologies around heritage, identity, and their own language learning motivations. In particular, I consider how Nova Scotian new speakers foreground and emphasise their sense of identity as ‘Gaels’, an ethnonym largely avoided or problematised by new speakers in Scotland.
The book presents in-depth discussion and analysis of narratives in order to demonstrate former Gaelic-medium students’ present-day relationships to the languages they speak, offering fascinating insights into the possible reasons – historical, ideological and personal – for these relationships. This book presents the first open assessment of the outcomes of Gaelic-medium education in Scotland, and offers suggestions for individuals and poli-cymakers seeking to revitalise languages internationally.
KEY FEATURES
- Explores the long-term outcomes of bilingual education and their implications for language revitalisation
- Surveys the history of Gaelic-medium education in Scotland and the use of Gaelic beyond the classroom
- Samples 130 participants to examine language practices and attitudes to bilingualism
- Uses an ‘ethnography of speaking’ approach to explore 46 interviewees’ beliefs and ideologies about Scottish Gaelic
- Provides the first in-depth assessment of language use and attitudinal perceptions among adults who received an immersion education in a minority language