Percobaan ini dilakukan untuk menentukan tetapan penurunan titik beku asam asetat dan menentukan massa molekul relatif dari zat X. Metode yang digunakan dalam percobaan ini adalah metode penurunan titik beku. Pada percobaan ini digunakan pelarut berupa asam asetat murni dan zat terlarut yaitu naftalena dan zat X. Jika ke dalam suatu pelarut ditambahkan zat terlarut maka suhunya akan semakin rendah. Pada percobaan ini, variabel bebas yang digunakan adalah massa zat terlarut, yaitu massa naftalena yang digunakan dalam penentuan tetapan titik beku asam asetat dan massa zat X untuk penentuan massa molekul relatif zat non elektrolit. Sedangkan variabel terikat yang digunakan adalah penurunan titik beku. Pada praktikum ini juga digunakan metode praktikum dan pelarut yang sama merupakan variabel kontrolnya. Untuk mengetahui hubungan antara penurunan titik beku dengan massa molekul relatif digunakan metode analisis menggunakan persamaan Clausius Claypeyron. Hasil yang diperoleh dalam percobaan ini yaitu nilai K f (tetapan penurunan titik beku) dari asam asetat sebesar 69,938°C/m dan massa molekul relatif dari zat X sebesar 1126,742 g/mol.

ABSTRAK Viskositas adalah ukuran yang menyatakan kekentalan suatu fluida yang menyatakan besar kecilnya gesekan dalam fluida. Semakin besar viskositas fluida, maka semakin sulit suatu fluida untuk mengalir dan juga menunjukkan semakin sulit suatu benda bergerak dalam fluida. Viskositas fluida dinotasikan dengan ŋ (eta) sebagai rasio tegangan geser. Viskositas cairan adalah fungsi dari ukuran dan permukaan molekul, gaya tarik antar molekul dan struktur cairan. Viskositas disebabkan karena ada gaya kohesi antar partikel cair. Alat yang digunakan utuk mengukur besar nilai viskositas adalah viskometer dan waktu yang diperlukan oleh sejumlah tertentu cairan untuk mengalir melalui pipa kapiler dengan gaya yang disebabkan oleh berat cairan. Viskositas dipengaruhi oleh suhu, gaya tarik antar molekul,ukuran serta jumlah molekul yang terlarut. Einsten menurunkan sebuah persamaan yang menggambarkan hubungan antara volume zat terlarut dengan viskositas larutan, dengan persamaan tersebut akan diperoleh jari-jari Gliserin sebesar 3,093 x 10-8 Å Dan melalui persamaan Mark-Houwink dapat ditentukan massa molekul Amilum ABSTRACT Viscosity is a measure that states the viscosity of a fluid which states the size of friction within the fluid. The greater the viscosity of the fluid, the more difficult of a fluid to flow and also showed the harder an object moves in a fluid. Viscosity of the fluid is denoted by ŋ (eta) as the ratio of shear stress. The viscosity of the fluid is a function of the size and surface molecules, tensile strength between molecules and the structure of the liquid. Viscosity is because there is the cohesive forces between the particles of liquid. Tool used to measure the viscosity is great value viscometer and the time required by a certain amount of fluid to flow through a capillary tube with the force caused by the weight of the liquid. Viscosity is affected by temperature, the attraction between molecules, the size and number of molecules are dissolved. Einstein revealed an equation that describes the relationship between the volume of the solute to the viscosity of the solution, with the equation obtained Glycerin fingers. And through the Mark-Houwink equation can be determined the molecular weight of starch.

1 DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION
2 ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISMS
3 THERMODYNAMICS: CORROSION TENDENCY AND
ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
4 THERMODYNAMICS: POURBAIX DIAGRAMS
5 KINETICS: POLARIZATION AND CORROSION RATES
6 PASSIVITY
7 IRON AND STEEL
8 EFFECT OF STRESS
9 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
10 CORROSION IN SOILS
11 OXIDATION
12 STRAY-CURRENT CORROSION
13 CATHODIC PROTECTION
14 METALLIC COATINGS
15 INORGANIC COATINGS
16 ORGANIC COATINGS
17 INHIBITORS AND PASSIVATORS
18 TREATMENT OF WATER AND STEAM SYSTEMS
19 ALLOYING FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE;
STAINLESS STEELS
20 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
21 ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
22 MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
23 NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
24 COBALT AND COBALT ALLOYS
25 TITANIUM
26 ZIRCONIUM
27 TANTALUM
28 LEAD
29 APPENDIX

Chitin and chitosan are considerably versatile and promising biomaterials. The deacetylated chitin derivative, chitosan is more useful and interesting bioactive polymer. Despite its biodegradability, it has many reactive amino side groups, which offer possibilities of chemical modifications, formation of a large variety of useful derivatives that are commercially available or can be made available via graft reactions and ionic interactions. This study looks at the contemporary research in chitin and chitosan towards applications in various industrial and biomedical fields.

1. Uniform (general) corrosion
2. Galvanic (two–metal) corrosion
3. Thermogalvanic corrosion
4. Crevice corrosion (including deposit corrosion)
5. Pitting, pitting corrosion
6. Selective attack, selective leaching (de–alloying)
7. Intergranular corrosion (including exfoliation)
8. Erosion corrosion
9. Cavitation corrosion
10. Fretting corrosion
11. Stress corrosion cracking
12. Corrosion fatigue

This research was funded by, and implemented within, a UK national research organisation, while the author was the KE and Impact Evaluation Manager responsible for assessing impact on a £15m UK government-funded research programme.

This work was also submitted as the authors MBA dissertation which was accepted and awarded in 2009.

ABSTRACT: A methodology and methods ‘toolbox’ is proposed for conducting impact research and assessment from within research programmes. The emphasis is upon how to clarify and assess the wider impacts from the early stages onwards.

The approach explicitly acknowledges, and attempts to address, the known issues and challenges of impact assessment while drawing upon the resources and opportunities available to research managers and researchers within such programmes.

The study has two triangulating foundations. Firstly, it examines the academic literature to help identify and design the pilot methodology and methods. Secondly it trials these in a real programme to both test and improve them.

The study was conducted over one year within one leading UK research organisation, where two research programmes (and around 60 research projects of £15m total value) were being assessed for their impacts. The study draws upon actual impact management experience and reflection, prospective (ex ante) and retrospective (ex post) assessments, participatory contributions from leading researchers undergoing assessment, and consultation with external users. The findings of this study outline the pilot and its first iteration. Recommendations are made for improvement to the methodology and methods.

A subsequent follow-on bid to UK government incorporating the impacts identified from implementing this methodology, successfully led to a further £15m of government funding.

It is expected the pilot methodology and methods will be applicable to other organisations, conducting and funding such research programmes, required to research and assess the wider research impacts.

Although primary focus of implemetation trials was upon research in physical sciences, technology, high-tech engineering, computing/IT, and environment, the wider literature study, the methodology design and justification, the methods proposed and used, and the resulting general recommendations and lessons are expected to apply more broadly to many other research areas, where the impact is to be found more widely in the society, economy, government or public sector or within organizations, policies, professions or the public.

Interest in this work is expected from research programme managers, impact managers and assessors, management consultants advising in this area, and government funding managers, all seeking to embed a developing approach to understand, capture, and enhance wider impact.

Sol-gel protective coatings have shown excellent chemical stability, oxidation control and enhanced corrosion resistance for metal substrates. Further, the sol-gel method is an environmentally friendly technique of surface protection and had showed the potential for the replacement of toxic pretreatments and coatings which have traditionally been used for increasing corrosion resistance of metals. This review covers the recent developments and applications of sol-gel protective coatings on different metal substrates, such as steel, aluminum, copper, magnesium and their alloys. The challenges for industrial productions and future research on sol-gel corrosion protective coatings are also briefly discussed.

ABSTRAK: Adsorpsi merupakan suatu proses penyerapan oleh padatan tertentu terhadap zat tertentu yang terjadi pada permukaan zat padat karena adanya gaya tarik atom atau molekul pada permukaan zat padat tanpa meresap kedalam. Peristiwa adsorpsi dipengaruhi oleh luas permukaan, sifat fisik dan sifat kimia adsorben. Percobaan ini dilakukan untuk menentukan luas permukaan spesifik secara sederhana berdasarkan bilangan iodin, mempelajari sifat adsorpsi larutan oleh zat padat dan menentukan persamaan adsorpsi pada suhu tetap. Penentuan iodin dilakukan dengan menentukan luas permukaan dari karbon yang didapatkan dari angka iodin berdasarkan dari hasil titrasi. Daya adsorpsi didapatkan dari hubungan antara jumlah asam asetat yang terabsopsi terhadap konsentrasi sisa. Hal ini diketahui dari hasil titrasi. ABSTRACT : Adsorption is a process of absorption by certain solids to certain substances that occur on solid surfaces because of their attractive force of atoms or molecules on solid surfaces without seep into. Events adsorption is influenced by the surface area, the nature of the physical and chemical properties of the adsorbent. This experiment was conducted to determine the specific surface area is simply based on iodine, studying the adsorption properties by solid solution and determine the equation of adsorption at a constant temperature. Iodine determination is done by determining the surface area of the carbon obtained from iodine number is based on the results of the titration. Adsorption capacity is obtained from the relationship between the amount of acetic acid adsorbed to the residual concentration. It is known from the results of titrations. I. PENDAHULUAN Adsorpsi merupakan suatu proses penyerapan oleh padatan tertentu terhadap zat tertentu yang terjadi pada permukaan zat padat karena adanya gaya tarik atom atau molekul pada permukaan zat padat tanpa meresap kedalam. Bila gas atau uap bersentuhan dengan permukaan padatan yang bersih, maka gas atau uap tadi akan teradsorpsi pada permukaan padatan tersebut. Permukaan padatan disebut sebagai adsorben, sedangkan gas atau uap disebut sebagai adsorbat [1]. Dibawah kondisi normal, permukaan dari sebuah padatan tertutupi oleh suatu zat yang berkecenderungan untuk menyerap (seperti karbon,hidrokarbon,sulfur, dan air) yang utamanya berasal dari gas atmosphere. Suatu padatan, menyerap gas pada awalnya membutuhkan permukaan padatan yang bersih. Untuk menghasilkan permukaan yang bersih, salah satu cara yaitu pemanasan padatan yang kuat menggunakan vacuum.prosedur tersebut disebut outgassing. Meskipun dengan pemanasan tidak semua kontaminan dapat terserap. Cara yang lebih baik adalah menguapkan padatan pada vacuum dan mengkondensasikannya seperti lapisan tipis pada permukaan sebuah padatan [2].

Nanotechnology can be used to modify the drug permeation/penetration of encapsulated substances, through the manipulation of many different factors, including direct contact with the skin surface and controlled release. In general, nanoparticles cannot cross the skin barrier, which can be explained by the cell cohesion and lipids of the stratum corneum, the outermost skin layer. The device most commonly used to study the transport of substances and nanoparticles across the skin is the Franz vertical diffusion cell, followed by the substance quantification in the receptor fluid or determination of the amount retained in the skin. Microscopy techniques have also been applied in skin penetration or permeation experiments. This chapter will present the fundamental considerations regarding the transport of encapsulated substances and/or nanoparticles across the skin, the experimental models applied in these studies and a review of the main studies reported in the literature in order to allow the reader to gain insight into the current knowledge available in this area. * Reprinted (Adapted) with permission from Rouse et al., 2007. Since the skin is an organ with multiple layers, it can be used during in vitro skin permeation/penetration studies with its two basic layers, epidermis and dermis (full-thickness skin) or it can be submitted to treatments that separate its layers supplying different types of membranes (split-thickness skin) to be used for in vitro studies [26, 42, 43]. The choice of the membrane is related to the focus of the study (permeation or penetration). In the full-thickness skin membranes only the subcutaneous tissue is removed [26, 42, 43]. On the other hand, split-thickness skin can be obtained in several ways [26, 42, 43] and the isolation of one specific layer of a skin sample with a controlled thickness can be made using heat and force (heat-separated epidermis), dermatome (dermatomed skin) or enzymatic processes (trypsin-isolated stratum corneum) [44, 45]. Epidermis and stratum corneum membranes are more fragile and some mass balance techniques, such as tape stripping, cannot be applied [27]. Divergences can be found in the literature concerning the effect that these processes can have on the skin characteristics. Some studies have demonstrated that the skin barrier is reestablished with the hydration of these membranes [46, 47]. On the other hand, some reports have claimed that the viability of the skin and the flow through the epidermis can be disturbed by these processes [26, 48, 49].

This section helps you distinguish extensive from intensive properties and identify substances by their properties. It teaches you how to differentiate the three states of matter. It also defines a physical property and lists examples of physical properties and physical changes.

Rust is composed of iron oxides. In colloquial usage, the term is applied to red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron andchloride in an environment deprived of oxygen -rebar used in underwater concretepillars is an example -which generates green rust. Several forms of rust are distinguishable visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Rust consists of hydrated iron(III) oxides Fe2O3·nH2O and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide FeO(OH)·Fe(OH)3.

A series which presents the current state of the art of chosen sectors of analytical chemistry. Written at professional and reference level, it is directed at analytical chemists, environmental scientists, food scientists, pharmaceutical scientists, earth scientists, petrochemists and polymer chemists. Each volume in the series provides an accessible source of information on the essential principles, instrumentation, methodology and applications of a particular analytical technique.

ANALYSIS OF OILS AND FATS by Farhang Hamid
TYPES OF OILS AND FATS
fats test
oil test
Types of Oils and Fats
Preparation of Test Sample
Determination of Moisture Content
Determination of Specific Gravity
Determination of Refractive Index
Determination of Flash Point
Pensky Martin Closed cup Method
6.2 Hexane Residue by Gas Chromatography Method Determination of Colour
Determination of Melting Point of Fat
Determination of Saponification Value
Determination of Unsaponifiable Matter
Determination of Acid Value
Determination of Iodine Value
Determination of Reichert Meissl and Polenske value Bellier Test (Turbidity Temperature – acetic acid method)
Test for Sesame Oil ( Baudouins Test)
Test for Cotton seed Oil ( Halphens Test)
Determination of Cloud Point of Palmolein
Test for presence of Rice Bran Oil
Test for presence of Linseed oil ( Hexabromide Test) Polybromide
test for Mustard Oil
Determination of Fatty Acid Composition by GLC Test for presence of Animal Body Fat in Vegetable Fat Microscopic Examination of Fat Crystals
Separation of Cholestrol by Reverse phase Chromatography
Unusual fatty acids(A.B.F) by Gas Liquid chromatography Test for Refined Winterized Salad Oil
Test for Teaseed Oil in Olive Oil
Test for presence of Olive Residue Oil in Olive Oil Test for Semisiccative Oil in Olive Oil
Determination of 9, 10 Epoxy and 9, 10 Dihydroxy Stearic Acid in Salseed Fat
Test For Presence of Mineral Oil Holdes
Test
Thin Layer Chromatography Test Test for presence of Castor Oil Test for presence of Argemone Oil Test for presence of Karanja Oil
Test for presence of Hydrocyanic Acid
Test for presence and determination of Tricresyl Phosphate Determination of Phosphorous in Soya bean Oil Determination of Nickel in Vanaspati
Determination of Carotenoid content in raw Palm Oil
Test for presence of Rancidity
Isolation and identification of Oil Soluble Colours
Test for presence of Beef Fat in Lard ( Pork Fat)