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    Counterexamples in Topology
    Counterexamples in Topology
    Counterexamples in Topology
    Ebook474 pages4 hours

    Counterexamples in Topology

    By Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach

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    According to the authors of this highly useful compendium, focusing on examples is an extremely effective method of involving undergraduate mathematics students in actual research. It is only as a result of pursuing the details of each example that students experience a significant increment in topological understanding. With that in mind, Professors Steen and Seebach have assembled 143 examples in this book, providing innumerable concrete illustrations of definitions, theorems, and general methods of proof. Far from presenting all relevant examples, however, the book instead provides a fruitful context in which to ask new questions and seek new answers.
    Ranging from the familiar to the obscure, the examples are preceded by a succinct exposition of general topology and basic terminology and theory. Each example is treated as a whole, with a highly geometric exposition that helps readers comprehend the material. Over 25 Venn diagrams and reference charts summarize the properties of the examples and allow students to scan quickly for examples with prescribed properties. In addition, discussions of general methods of constructing and changing examples acquaint readers with the art of constructing counterexamples. The authors have included an extensive collection of problems and exercises, all correlated with various examples, and a bibliography of 140 sources, tracing each uncommon example to its origin.
    This revised and expanded second edition will be especially useful as a course supplement and reference work for students of general topology. Moreover, it gives the instructor the flexibility to design his own course while providing students with a wealth of historically and mathematically significant examples. 1978 edition.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateApr 22, 2013
    ISBN9780486319292
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      Counterexamples in Topology - Lynn Arthur Steen

      Counterexamples in Topology

      Lynn Arthur Steen

      Professor of Mathematics, Saint Olaf College

      and

      J. Arthur Seebach, Jr.

      Professor of Mathematics, Saint Olaf College

      DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.,

      New York

      Copyright

      Copyright © 1970, 1978 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

      All rights reserved.

      Bibliographical Note

      This Dover edition, first published in 1995, is an unabridged and unaltered republication of the work published by Springer-Verlag New York Inc., New York, 1978, under the title Counterexamples in Topology, Second Edition. The first edition was published in 1970 by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., New York.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Steen, Lynn Arthur, 1941-

      Counterexamples in topology / Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr.

      p.cm.

      Originally published: 2nd ed. New York : Springer-Verlag, cl978.

      Includes bibliographical references (p. - ) and index.

      ISBN-13: 978-0-486-68735-3 (pbk.)

      ISBN-10: 0-486-68735-X (pbk.)

      1. Topological spaces. I. Seebach, J. Arthur II. Title.

      QA611.3.S74 1995

      514’.3—dc20

      95-12763

      CIP

      Manufactured in the United States by Courier Corporation

      68735X08

      www.doverpublications.com

      Preface

      The creative process of mathematics, both historically and individually, may be described as a counterpoint between theorems and examples. Although it would be hazardous to claim that the creation of significant examples is less demanding than the development of theory, we have discovered that focusing on examples is a particularly expeditious means of involving undergraduate mathematics students in actual research. Not only are examples more concrete than theorems—and thus more accessible—but they cut across individual theories and make it both appropriate and necessary for the student to explore the entire literature in journals as well as texts. Indeed, much of the content of this book was first outlined by undergraduate research teams working with the authors at Saint Olaf College during the summers of 1967 and 1968.

      In compiling and editing material for this book, both the authors and their undergraduate assistants realized a substantial increment in topological insight as a direct result of chasing through details of each example. We hope our readers will have a similar experience. Each of the 143 examples in this book provides innumerable concrete illustrations of definitions, theorems, and general methods of proof. There is no better way, for instance, to learn what the definition of metacompactness really means than to try to prove that Niemytzki’s tangent disc topology is not metacompact.

      The search for counterexamples is as lively and creative an activity as can be found in mathematics research. Topology particularly is replete with unreported or unsolved problems (do you know an example of a Hausdorff topological space which is separable and locally compact, but not σ-compact?), and the process of modifying old examples or creating new ones requires a wild and uninhibited geometric imagination. Far from providing all relevant examples, this book provides a context in which to ask new questions and seek new answers. We hope that each reader will share (and not just vicariously) in the excitement of the hunt.

      Counterexamples in Topology was originally designed, not as a text, but as a course supplement and reference work for undergraduate and graduate students of general topology, as well as for their teachers. For such use, the reader should scan the book and stop occasionally for a guided tour of the various examples. The authors have used it in this manner as a supplement to a standard textbook and found it to be a valuable aid.

      There are, however, two rather different circumstances under which this monograph could most appropriately be used as the exclusive reference in a topology course. An instructor who wishes to develop his own theory in class lecture may well find the succinct exposition which precedes the examples an appropriate minimal source of definitions and structure. On the other hand, Counterexamples in Topology may provide sufficiently few proofs to serve as a basis for an inductive, Moore-type topology course. In either case, the book gives the instructor the flexibility to design his own course, and the students a wealth of historically and mathematically significant examples.

      A counterexample, in its most restricted sense, is an example which disproves a famous conjecture. We choose to interpret the word more broadly, particularly since all examples of general topology, especially as viewed by beginning students, stand in contrast to the canon of the real line. So in this sense any example which in some respect stands opposite to the reals is truly a Gegenbeispiel. Having said that, we should offer some rationale for our inclusions and omissions. In general we opted for examples which were necessary to distinguish definitions, and for famous, well known, or sinaply unusual examples even if they exhibited no new properties. Of course, what is well known to others may be unknown to us, so we acknowledge with regret the probable omission of certain deserving examples.

      In choosing among competing definitions we generally adopted the strategy of making no unnecessary assumptions. With rare exception therefore, we define all properties for all topological spaces, and not just for, for instance, Hausdorff spaces.

      Often we give only a brief outline or hint of a proof; this is intentional, but we caution readers against inferring that we believe the result trivial. Rather, in most cases, we believe the result to be a worthwhile exercise which could be done, using the hint, in a reasonable period of time. Some of the more difficult steps are discussed in the Notes at the end of the book.

      The examples are ordered very roughly by their appropriateness to the definitions as set forth in the first section. This is a very crude guide whose only reliable consequence is that the numerical order has no correlation with the difficulty of the example. To aid an instructor in recommending examples for study, we submit the following informal classification by sophistication :

      The discussion of each example is geared to its general level : what is proved in detail in an elementary example may be assumed without comment in a more advanced example.

      In many ways the most useful part of this book for reference may be the appendices. We have gathered there in tabular form a composite picture of the most significant counterexamples, so a person who is searching for HausdorfT nonregular spaces can easily discover a few. Notes are provided which in addition to serving as a guide to the Bibliography, provide added detail for many results assumed in the first two sections. A collection of problems related to the examples should prove most helpful if the book is used as a text. Many of the problems ask for justification of entries in the various tables where these entries are not explicitly discussed in the example. Many easy problems of the form justify the assertion that … have not been listed, since these can readily be invented by the instructor according to his own taste.

      In most instances, the index includes only the initial (or defining) use of a term. For obvious reasons, no attempt has been made to include in the index all occurrences of a property throughout the book. But the General Reference Chart (pp. 170–179) provides a complete cross-tabulation of examples with properties and should facilitate the quick location of examples of any specific type. The chart was prepared by an IBM 1130 using a program which enables the computer to derive, from the theorems discussed in Part I, the properties for each example which follow logically from those discussed in Part II.

      Examples are numbered consecutively and referred to by their numbers in all charts. In those few cases where a minor but inelegant modification of an example is needed to produce the desired concatenation of properties, we use a decimal to indicate a particular point within an example: 23.17 means the 17th point in Example 23.

      The research for this book was begun in the summer of 1967 by an undergraduate research group working with the authors under a grant from the National Science Foundation. This work was continued by the authors with support from a grant by the Research Corporation, and again in the summer of 1968 with the assistance of an N.S.F. sponsored undergraduate research group. The students who participated in the undergraduate research groups were John Feroe, Gary Gruenhage, Thomas Leffler, Mary Malcolm, Susan Martens, Linda Ness, Neil Omvedt, Karen Sjoquist, and Gail Tverberg. We acknowledge that theirs was a twofold contribution: not only did they explore and develop many examples, but they proved by their own example the efficacy of examples for the undergraduate study of topology.

      Finally, we thank Rebecca Langholz who with precision, forbearance, and unfailing good humor typed in two years three complete preliminary editions of this manuscript.

      Preface to the Second Edition

      In the eight years since the original edition of Counterexamples appeared, many readers have written pointing out errors, filling in gaps in the reference charts, and supplying many answers to the rhetorical question in our preface. In these same eight years research in topology produced many new results on the frontier of metrization theory, set theory, topology and logic.

      This Second Edition contains corrections to errors in the first edition, reports of recent developments in certain examples with current references, and, most importantly, a revised version of the first author’s paper Conjectures and counterexamples in metrization theory which appeared in the American Mathematical Monthly (Vol. 79, 1972, pp. 113–132). This paper appears as Part III of this Second Edition by permission of the Mathematical Association of America.

      We would like to thank all who have taken the time to write with corrections and addenda, and especially Eric van Douwen for his extensive notes on the original edition which helped us fill in gaps and correct errors. The interest of such readers and of our new publisher Springer-Verlag has made this second edition possible.

      Contents

      Part IBASIC DEFINITIONS

      1.General Introduction

      Limit Points

      Closures and Interiors

      Countability Properties

      Functions

      Filters

      2.Separation Axioms

      Regular and Normal Spaces

      Completely Hausdorff Spaces

      Completely Regular Spaces

      Functions, Products, and Subspaces

      Additional Separation Properties

      3.Compactness

      Global Compactness Properties

      Localized Compactness Properties

      Countability Axioms and Separability

      Paracompactness

      Compactness Properties and Ti Axioms

      Invariance Properties

      4.Connectedness

      Functions and Products

      Disconnectedness

      Biconnectedness and Continua

      5.Metric Spaces

      Complete Metric Spaces

      Metrizability

      Uniformities

      Metric Uniformities

      Part IICOUNTEREXAMPLES

      1.Finite Discrete Topology

      2.Countable Discrete Topology

      3.Uncountable Discrete Topology

      4.Indiscrete Topology

      5.Partition Topology

      6.Odd-Even Topology

      7.Deleted Integer Topology

      8.Finite Particular Point Topology

      9.Countable Particular Point Topology

      10.Uncountable Particular Point Topology

      11.Sierpinski Space

      12.Closed Extension Topology

      13.Finite Excluded Point Topology

      14.Countable Excluded Point Topology

      15.Uncountable Excluded Point Topology

      16.Open Extension Topology

      17.Either-Or Topology

      18.Finite Complement Topology on a Countable Space

      19.Finite Complement Topology on an Uncountable Space

      20.Countable Complement Topology

      21.Double Pointed Countable Complement Topology

      22.Compact Complement Topology

      23.Countable Fort Space

      24.Uncountable Fort Space

      25.Fortissimo Space

      26.Arens-Fort Space

      27.Modified Fort Space

      28.Euclidean Topology

      29.The Cantor Set

      30.The Rational Numbers

      31.The Irrational Numbers

      32.Special Subsets of the Real Line

      33.Special Subsets of the Plane

      34.One Point Compactification Topology

      35.One Point Compactification of the Rationals

      36.Hilbert Space

      37.Fréchet Space

      38.Hilbert Cube

      39.Order Topology

      40.Open Ordinal Space [0, Γ) (Γ < Ω)

      41.Closed Ordinal Space [0, Γ) (Γ < Ω)

      42.Open Ordinal Space [0, Ω)

      43.Closed Ordinal Space [0, Ω]

      44.Uncountable Discrete Ordinal Space

      45.The Long Line

      46.The Extended Long Line

      47.An Altered Long Line

      48.Lexicographic Ordering on the Unit Square

      49.Right Order Topology

      50.Right Order Topology on R

      51.Right Half-Open Interval Topology

      52.Nested Interval Topology

      53.Overlapping Interval Topology

      54.Interlocking Interval Topology

      55.Hjalmar Ekdal Topology

      56.Prime Ideal Topology

      57.Divisor Topology

      58.Evenly Spaced Integer Topology

      59.The p-adic Topology on Z

      60.Relatively Prime Integer Topology

      61.Prime Integer Topology

      62.Double Pointed Reals

      63.Countable Complement Extension Topology

      64.SmirnoVs Deleted Sequence Topology

      65.Rational Sequence Topology

      66.Indiscrete Rational Extension of R

      67.Indiscrete Irrational Extension of R

      68.Pointed Rational Extension of R

      69.Pointed Irrational Extension of R

      70.Discrete Rational Extension of R

      71.Discrete Irrational Extension of R

      72.Rational Extension in the Plane

      73.Telophase Topology

      74.Double Origin Topology

      75.Irrational Slope Topology

      76.Deleted Diameter Topology

      77.Deleted Radius Topology

      78.Half-Disc Topology

      79.Irregular Lattice Topology

      80.Arens Square

      81.Simplified Arens Square

      82.Niemytzki’s Tangent Disc Topology

      83.Metrizable Tangent Disc Topology

      84.Sorgenfrey’s Half-Open Square Topology

      85.Michael’s Product Topology

      86.Tychonoff Plank

      87.Deleted Tychonoff Plank

      88.Alexandroff Plank

      89.Dieudonne Plank

      90.Tychonoff Corkscrew

      91.Deleted Tychonoff Corkscrew

      92.Hewitt’s Condensed Corkscrew

      93.Thomas’ Plank

      94.Thomas’ Corkscrew

      95.Weak Parallel Line Topology

      96.Strong Parallel Line Topology

      97.Concentric Circles

      98.Appert Space

      99.Maximal Compact Topology

      100.Minimal Hausdorff Topology

      101.Alexandroff Square

      102.Zz

      103.Uncountable Products of Z+

      104.Baire Product Metric on RΩ

      105.Ii

      106.[0, Ω) × II

      107.Helly Space

      108.C[0, 1]

      109.Box Product Topology on RΩ

      110.Stone-Čech Compactification

      111.Stone-Čech Compactification of the Integers

      112.Novak Space

      113.Strong Ultrafilter Topology

      114.Single Ultrafilter Topology

      115.Nested Rectangles

      116.Topologist’s Sine Curve

      117.Closed Topologist’s Sine Curve

      118.Extended Topologist’s Sine Curve

      119.The Infinite Broom

      120.The Closed Infinite Broom

      121.The Integer Broom

      122.Nested Angles

      123.The Infinite Cage

      124.Bernstein’s Connected Sets

      125.Gustin’s Sequence Space

      126.Roy’s Lattice Space

      127.Roy’s Lattice Subspace

      128.Cantor’s Leaky Tent

      129.Cantor’s Teepee

      130.A Pseudo-Arc

      131.Miller’s Biconnected Set

      132.Wheel without Its Hub

      133.Tangora’s Connected Space

      134.Bounded Metrics

      135.Sierpinski’s Metric Space

      136.Duncan’s Space

      137.Cauchy Completion

      138.Hausdorff’s Metric Topology

      139.The Post Office Metric

      140.The Radial Metric

      141.Radial Interval Topology

      142.Bing’s Discrete Extension Space

      143.Michael’s Closed Subspace

      Part III METRIZATION THEORY

      Conjectures and Counterexamples

      Part IVAPPENDICES

      Special Reference Charts

      Separation Axiom Chart

      Compactness Chart

      Paracompactness Chart

      Connectedness Chart

      Disconnectedness Chart

      Metrizability Chart

      General Reference Chart

      Problems

      Notes

      Bibliography

      Index

      PART I

      Basic Definitions

      SECTION 1

      General Introduction

      A topological space is a pair (X, τ) consisting of a set X and a collection τ of subsets of X, called open sets, satisfying the following axioms:

      The collection τ is called a topology for X. The topological space (X, τ) is sometimes referred to as the space X when it is clear which topology X carries.

      If τ1 and τ2 are topologies for a set X, τ1 is said to be coarser (or weaker or smaller) than τ2 if every open set of τ1 is an open set of τ2. τ2 is then said to be finer (or stronger or larger) than τ1, and the relationship is expressed as τ1 ≤ τ2. Of course, as sets of sets, τ1 ⊆ τ2. On a set X, the coarsest topology is the indiscrete topology (Example 4), and the finest topology is the discrete topology (Example 1). The ordering ≤ is only a partial ordering, since two topologies may not be comparable (Example 8.8).

      In a topological space (X, τ), we define a subset of X to be closed if its complement is an open set of X, that is, if its complement is an element of τ. The De Morgan laws imply that closed sets, being complements of open sets, have the following properties:

      It is possible that a subset be both open and closed (Example 1), or that a subset be neither open nor closed (Examples 4 and 28).

      An Fσ-set is a set which can be written as the union of a countable collection of closed sets; a Gδ-set is a set which can be written as the intersection of a countable collection of open sets. The complement of every Fσ-set is a Gδ-set and conversely. Since a single set is, trivially, a countable collection of sets, closed sets are Fσ-sets, but not conversely (Example 19). Furthermore, closed sets need not be Gσ-sets (Example 19). By complementation analogous statements hold concerning open sets.

      Closely related to the concept of an open set is that of a neighborhood. In a space (X, τ), a neighborhood NA of a set A, where A may be a set consisting of a single point, is any subset of X which contains an open set containing A. (Some authors require that NA itself be open; we call such sets open neighborhoods.) A set which is a neighborhood of each of its points is open since it can be expressed as the union of open sets containing each of its points.

      Any collection of subsets of X may be used as a subbasis (or subbase) to generate a topology for X. This is done by taking as open sets of τ all sets which can be formed by the union of finite intersections of sets in , together with Ø and X. If the union of subsets in a subbasis is the set X and if each point contained in the intersection of two subbasis elements is also contained in a subbasis element contained in the intersection, is called a basis (or base) for τ. In this case, τ is the collection of all sets which can be written as a union of elements of . Finite intersections need not be taken first, since each finite intersection is already a union of elements of . If two bases (or subbases) generate the same topology, they are said to be equivalent (Example 28). A local basis at the point x ∈ X is a collection of open neighborhoods of x with the property that every open set containing x contains some set in the collection.

      Given a topological space (X, τ), a topology τY can be defined for any subset Y of X by taking as open sets in τY every set which is the intersection of Y and an open set in τ. The pair (Y,τY) is called a subspace of (X, τ), and τy is called the induced (or relative, or subspace) topology for Y. A set U ⊂ Y is said to have a particular property relative to Y (such as open relative to Y) if U has the property in the subspace (Y,τY) A set Y is said to have a property which has been defined only for topological spaces if it has the property when considered as a subspace. If for a particular property, every subspace has the property whenever a space does, the property is said to be hereditary. If every closed subset when considered as a subspace has a property whenever the space has that property, that property is said to be weakly hereditary.

      An important example of a weakly hereditary property is compactness. A space X is said to be compact if from every open cover, that is, a collection of open sets whose union contains X, one can select a finite subcollection whose union also contains X. Every closed subset Y of a compact space is compact, since if {Oα} is an open cover for Y, {Oα} ∪ (X – Y) is an open cover for X. From {Oα} ∪ (X – Y), one can choose a finite subcollection covering X, and from this one can choose an appropriate cover for Y containing only elements of {Oα} simply by omitting X – Y. A compact subset of a compact space need not be closed (Examples 4, 18).

      LIMIT POINTS

      A point p is a limit point of a set A if every open set containing p contains at least one point of A distinct from p. (If the point of A is not required to be distinct from p, p is called an adherent point.) Particular kinds of limit points are ω-accumulation points, for which every open set containing p must contain infinitely many points of A, and condensation points, for which every open set containing p must contain uncountably many points of A. Examples 8 and 32 distinguish these definitions.

      The concept of limit point may also be defined for sequences of not necessarily distinct points. A point p is said to be a limit point of a sequence … if every open set containing p contains all but finitely many terms of the sequence. The sequence is then said to converge to the point p. A weaker condition on p is that every open set containing p contains infinitely many terms of the sequence. In this case, p is called an accumulation point of the sequence. It is possible that a sequence has uncountably many limit points (Example 4), both a limit point and an accumulation point that is not a limit point (Example 53), or a single accumulation point that is not a limit point (Example 28).

      Since a sequence may be thought of as a special type of ordered set, each sequence has associated with it, in a natural way, the set consisting of its elements. On the other hand, every countably infinite set has associated with it many sequences whose terms are points of the set. There is little relation between the limit points of a sequence and the limit points of its associated set. A point may be a limit point of a sequence, but only an adherent point of the associated set (Example 1). If the points of the sequence are distinct, any accumulation point (and therefore any limit point) of the sequence is an ω-accumulation point of the associated set. Likewise, any ω-accumulation point of a countably infinite set is also an accumulation point (but not necessarily a limit point) of any sequence corresponding to the set. Not too surprisingly, a point may be a limit point of a countably infinite set, but a corresponding sequence may have no limit or accumulation point (Example 8).

      If A is a subset of a topological space X, the derived set of the set A is the collection of all limit points of A. Generally this includes some points of A and some points of its complement. Any point of A not in the derived set is called an isolated point since it must be contained in an open set containing no other point of A. If A contains no isolated points, it is called dense-in-itself. If in addition A is closed, it is said to be perfect. A closed set A contains all of its limit points since for every x ∈ (X – A), X – A is an open set containing x and no points of A. Also, a set containing its limit points is closed since X – A contains a neighborhood of each of its points, so is open. Therefore we see that a set is perfect if and only if it equals its derived set.

      CLOSURES AND INTERIORS

      The closure of a set A is the set together with its limit points, denoted by (or A–). Since a set which contains its limit points is closed, the closure of a set may be defined equivalently as the smallest closed set containing A. Allowing to be A plus its ω-accumulation points or condensation points would permit , the closure of A, not to be closed (Example 50.9), which is clearly undesirable. Analogously, we define the interior of a set A, denoted by A°, to be the largest open set contained in A, or equivalently, the union of all open sets in A. Clearly the interior of A equals the complement of the closure

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