Fluid Manual

LS-DYNAs Incompressible Flow Solver
Users Manual
MARK A. CHRISTON, Ph.D.,

and
GRANT O. COOK JR., Ph.D.
March, 2001
Version 960
Development version
Copyright c 2001
LIVERMORE SOFTWARE
TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION
All Rights Reserved
Mailing address:
Livermore Software Technology Corporation
2876 Waverley Way
Livermore, California 94550-1740
Support Address:
Livermore Software Technology Corporation
7374 Las Positas Road
Livermore, California 94550
FAX: 925-449-2507
TEL: 925-449-2500
EMAIL: sales@lstc.com
Copyright c 2001 by Livermore Software Technology Corporation

All Rights Reserved
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1
Guide to the Users Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Governing Equations
2.1
2
3
3
2.1.1
Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conservation Equations Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4
2.2
Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Explicit Time Integration

3.1
Modied Finite Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.1.1
3.2
13
Reduced-Integration Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Domain-Decomposition Message-Passing Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2.1
Domain-Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
iii
3.2.2
Parallel Assembly via Message Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.3
The Parallel Explicit Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.4
Communication Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4 The Projection Method
27
4.1
Semi-Implicit Projection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2
Fully-Implicit Projection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.2.1
Start-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.2
First Time-Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.3
General Time-Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Boundary Conditions and Source Terms
35
5.1
Node and Segment Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2
Nodal Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3
Traction Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.3.1
Pressure Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4
Outow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5
Body Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6
Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7
Pressure Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6 Pressure Solution Methods
41
6.1
The Saddle Point Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2
Q1Q0 Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3
The Projection CG Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4
PPE Solver Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
iv
7 Turbulence Models
7.1
57
Averaging, Filtering and Scale Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

7.1.1
Spatial Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2
The Time-Averaged Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.3
The Spatially Filtered Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7.3.1
7.4
Baseline Smagorinsky Subgrid-Scale Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Subgrid Kinetic Energy Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.4.1
Local Dynamic ksgs model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8 Flow Statistics
8.1
65
Derived Flow Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.1.1
8.1.2
Mean and Fluctuating Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.1.3
Higher-Order Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.1.4
8.2
Reynolds Averaged Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Anisotropic Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
LS-DYNA Statistics Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.2.1
8.2.2
Second Moment Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2.3
8.3
Level-1: Mean Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Higher-Order Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
LS-POST Statistics Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9 Keyword Input
9.1
75
Incompressible Flow Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.1.1
*BOUNDARY OUTFLOW CFD OPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.1.2
*BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD OPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.1.3
*BOUNDARY PRESSURE CFD SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

v
9.1.4
*CONTROL CFD AUTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.1.5
*CONTROL CFD GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1.6
*CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.1.7
*CONTROL CFD PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.1.8
*CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.1.9
*CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.1.10 *INITIAL CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

9.1.11 *MAT CFD OPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2
Shared Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10 Example Problems
101
10.1 Poiseuille Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

10.2 Natural Convection in a Square Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
10.3 The Momentum-Driven Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.4 The Sheath-Flow Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
A Sense Switch Controls
139
vi
Preface
The incompressible ow solver in LS-DYNA originated from research conducted by the author at
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories during the 1990s. This research was done in collaboration with Phil Gresho and Stevens Chan at Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. The author is indebted to Phil Gresho for his support and his willingness to share his insights
into the behavior of time-dependent incompressible ows. Many of the algorithmic aspects of the explicit
ow solution algorithm derive directly from John Hallquists pioneering work with low-order nite elements, and reduced integration in DYNA3D. I would like to acknowledge Nielen Stander, Ian Do, Jason
Wang, Phil Gresho and Steve Sutton at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and Tom Voth at Sandia
National Laboratories for their helpful suggestions during the preparation of this manual. In addition, I
would like to thank Suresh Menon at Georgia Tech for his assistance with the ksgs LES models, and Sara
Lucas for her help with the turbulence statistics. Finally, I would like to thank John Hallquist for providing
the opportunity to contribute to LS-DYNAs growing set of simulation capabilities.
Mark A. Christon
Albuquerque, NM
March, 2001
vii
viii
Chapter 1
Introduction
The incompressible ow capability in LS-DYNA has been developed specically to attack the class of
transient, incompressible, viscous, uid dynamics problems that are predominant in the world that surrounds us. The goal for for the ow solver has been to achieve high performance across a spectrum of
supercomputer architectures without sacricing any of the aspects of the nite element method that make
it so exible and permit application to a broad class of uid dynamics problems.
The incompressible ow solver plays two primary roles in LS-DYNA. The rst is to provide a standalone incompressible ow solver that complements the existing solid, structural, boundary-element,
and compressible ow capabilities that comprise LS-DYNAs multi-physics capabilities. The second
is to provide the ow-solver for uid-solid/structure interaction problems where the ow is in the lowMach/incompressible regime.
LS-DYNAs incompressible ow solver is based, in part, upon the work of Gresho, et al. [1, 2, 3, 4], and
makes use of advanced solution algorithms for both implicit and explicit time integration. The explicit
solution algorithm [1, 2] sacrices some phase accuracy, but decouples the momentum equations and minimizes the memory requirements. While both the diffusive and Courant-Freidrichs-Levy (CFL) stability
limits must be respected in the explicit algorithm, balancing tensor diffusivity meliorates the restrictive
diffusive stability limit and raises the order of accuracy of the time integration scheme. The explicit algorithm, in combination with single point integration and hourglass stabilization, has proven to be both
simple and efcient in a computational sense.
In the second-order projection algorithm [3, 4], a consistent-mass predictor in conjunction with a lumped
mass corrector legitimately decouples the velocity and pressure elds thereby reducing both memory
and CPU requirements relative to more traditional fully coupled solution strategies for the Navier-Stokes
equations. The consistent mass predictor retains fourth-order advective phase accuracy, while the lumped
mass corrector (a projection to a divergence-free subspace) maintains a divergence free velocity eld.
Both the predictor and the corrector steps are amenable to solution via direct or preconditioned iterative
techniques making it possible to tune the algorithm to the computing platform, i.e., parallel, vector or
super-scalar. The second-order projection algorithm can accurately track shed vortices, and is amenable
to the incorporation of either simple or complex (multi-equation) turbulence sub-models appropriate for a
broad spectrum of applications.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Guide to the Users Manual

The purpose for this document is to provide sufcient information for an experienced analyst to use LSDYNAs ow solver in an effective way. The assumption is that the user is somewhat familiar with modern
computing practices, common CFD practices, and to a certain degree, the current CFD literature. This
manual provides sufcient references to the literature to permit the interested reader to pursue the technical
details of LS-DYNA.
In Chapters 26, an overview of the theoretical background for LS-DYNA is presented. Chapters 7 and 8
provide an overview of the turbulence modeling and the computation of derived ow statistics. Chapter 9
presents information on LS-DYNAs keyword input. Several sample calculations are presented in Chapter
10 to provide guidance for new users.
Incompressible Flow Solver
Chapter 2
Governing Equations
This chapter presents the basic forms of the partial differential equations that LS-DYNAs ow solver
treats, and Chapters 3 4 provide a general description of the methodologies employed in their solution.
The interested reader may pursue the references included in these chapter for details on the incompressible
ow solution algorithms used in LS-DYNA and their implementation.
2.1 Conservation Equations

In the ensuing discussion, indicial notation is used with repeated subscripts indicating summation unless
otherwise noted. The conservation equations are also presented in vector notation in 2.2.
2.1.1 Momentum Conservation

To begin, the conservation of linear momentum is
ui
ui
u j
t
x j
i j
x j
fi
(2.1)
where ui is the velocity, i j is the stress tensor, is the mass density, and fi is the body force. The body
force contribution fi typically accounts for buoyancy forces with fi representing the acceleration due to
gravity.
The stress may be written in terms of the uid pressure and the deviatoric stress tensor as
i j
pi j i j
(2.2)
where p is the pressure, i j is the Kronecker delta, and i j is the deviatoric stress tensor.
A constitutive equation relates the deviatoric stress and the strain rate, e.g.,
i j
2i j Si j
3
(2.3)
CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Here, the dynamic viscosity, i j , is represented as a second-rank tensor with no summation on i j in
Eq. (2.3). Frequently, the uid viscosity is only available as an isotropic viscosity, in which case, the
constitutive relation becomes
(2.4)
i j 2Si j
The strain-rate tensor is written in terms of the velocity gradients as
u j
xi
(2.5)
u j
t
x j
(2.6)
ui
x j
1
2
Si j
2.1.2 Mass Conservation

The mass conservation principle in divergence form is
In the incompressible limit, the velocity eld is solenoidal,

ui
xi
(2.7)
which implies a mass density transport equation,
uj
t
x j
(2.8)
For constant density, Eq. (2.8) is neglected with Eq. (2.7) remaining as a constraint on the velocity eld.
LS-DYNA provides the capability to transport up to 10 species with Z1 Z2
Z10 representing the 10
species mass concentrations. In order to simplify the presentation, a single mass fraction is presented
representing a binary mixture. Mass conservation applied to one species yields for Z1
Z1
Z1
ui
t
xi
J1
x
m1
(2.9)
where J1i is the diffusional mass ux rate, and m1 is a volumetric mass source. The mass source may
include the injection of mass concentration from a boundary or the source/sink terms from chemical reactions.
The diffusional mass ux rate is based on Ficks law of diffusion,
J1i
D1
ij
Z1
x j
(2.10)
where D1i j is a tensorial mass diffusivity. Typically mass diffusivities are only available as scalars so that
J1i
4
D1 Z1
x
(2.11)
2.1. CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

In the most general form, the species concentration transport equations are
ZI
t
ui
where I indicates the mass concentration, i.e., I
ZI
xi
12
JI
x
mI
(2.12)
10.
2.1.3 Energy Conservation

Conservation of energy is expressed in terms of temperature, T, as
C p
T
t
T
xi
ui
qi Q
x
(2.13)
where C p is the specic heat at constant pressure, qi is the diffusional heat ux rate, and Q represents
volumetric heat sources and sinks, e.g., due to exothermic/endothermic chemical reactions
Fouriers law relates the heat ux rate to the temperature gradient and thermal conductivity,
qi
T
ki j x
(2.14)
where ki j is the thermal conductivity tensor. In many cases, the uid properties are only available as scalar
quantities, i.e., the thermal conductivity is considered to be isotropic.
Remark
In LS-DYNA, the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and mass diffusivities are treated as secondrank tensors even though these properties may only be available as scalar quantities for some
uids. In the limiting case of a scalar material property such as viscosity, the internal coderepresentation assumes that the viscosity is i j i j where is the user-input scalar viscosity.
2.1.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

The prescription of boundary conditions is based on a ow domain with boundaries that are either physical
or implied for the purposes of performing a simulation. A simple ow domain is shown in Figure 2.1 where
the boundary of the domain is 1 2 .
The momentum equations, Eq. (2.1), are subject to boundary conditions that consist of specied velocity
on 1 as in Eq. (2.15), or traction boundary conditions on 2 as in Eq. (2.17).
ui xi t
ui xi t on 1
In the case of a no-slip and no-penetration boundary, ui
(2.15)
0 is the prescribed velocity boundary condition.
The prescribed traction boundary conditions are

i j n j
fi xi t on 2
(2.16)
5

1
2
Outflow
Boundary
1
Figure 2.1: Flow domain for conservation equations.

where n j is the outward normal for the domain boundary, and fi are the components of the prescribed
traction. In terms of the pressure and strain-rate, the traction boundary conditions are
pi j 2Si j
nj
fi xi t on 2
(2.17)
The traction and velocity boundary conditions can be mixed. In a two-dimensional sense, mixed boundary
conditions can consist of a prescribed normal traction and a tangential velocity. For example, at the outow
boundary in Figure 2.1, a homogeneous normal traction and vertical velocity on 2 constitutes a valid
set of mixed boundary conditions. A detailed discussion of boundary conditions for the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations may be found in Gresho and Sani [5].
Turning attention to the species transport equations, boundary conditions for Eq. (2.9) may consist of
either a prescribed concentration or a mass ux rate. In the binary mixture example, the prescribed concentration is
(2.18)
Z1 xi t Z1 xi t
where Z1 is the known value of concentration for species 1. The prescribed mass ux rate is
D1
ij
Z1
ni
x j
J1 xi t
(2.19)
where J1 xi t is the known mass ux rate through the boundary with normal ni . The prescribed ux rate
may also be specied in terms of a mass transfer coefcient as
D1
ij
Z1
ni
x j
hD Z1 Z1
(2.20)
where hD is the mass transfer coefcient and Z1 is a reference species concentration.

The boundary conditions for the energy equation, Eq. (2.13), consist of a prescribed temperature or heat
ux rate. The prescribed temperature is
T xi t
and the prescribed heat ux rate is
T
ki j x ni
T xi t
qxi t
(2.21)
(2.22)
where q is the known ux rate through the boundary with normal ni . The heat ux rate may also be
prescribed in terms of a heat transfer coefcient,

T
ki j x ni
j
hT T
(2.23)
2.2. CONSERVATION EQUATIONS VECTOR NOTATION

where h is the heat transfer coefcient, and T is a reference temperature.
Initial conditions take on the form of prescribed velocity, species and temperature distributions at t
i.e.,
ui xi 0
u0 xi
i
ZI xi 0
T xi 0
ZI0 xi
T 0 xi
0,
(2.24)
Remark
For a well-posed incompressible ow problem, the prescribed initial velocity eld in Eq.
(2.25) must satisfy Eq. (2.25) (2.26) (see Gresho and Sani[6]). If 2 0 (the null set, i.e.,
enclosure ows with ni ui prescribed on all surfaces), then global mass conservation enters as
an additional solvability constraint as shown in Eq. (2.27).
ui
xi
ni ui xi 0
(2.25)
ni u0 xi
i
(2.26)
ni u0 d
(2.27)
2.2 Conservation Equations Vector Notation

In the ensuing discussion, the invariant bold-face vector notation of Gibbs is used with boldface symbols
representing vector/tensor quantities. The reader may refer to Gresho and Sani [5] pp. 357-359 for an
outline of notation for the Navier-Stokes equations.
2.2.1 Momentum Conservation

To begin, the conservation of linear momentum is
u
u u
t
(2.28)
where u u v w the velocity, is the stress tensor, the mass density, and f the body force, The body
force contribution f typically accounts for buoyancy forces with f representing the acceleration due to
gravity.
The stress may be written in terms of the uid pressure and the deviatoric stress tensor as
pI
(2.29)
7

where p is the pressure, I is the identity tensor , and is the deviatoric stress tensor
A constitutive equation relates the deviatoric stress and the strain rate, e.g.,
2S
(2.30)
Here, the dynamic viscosity, , is a second-rank tensor. Frequently, the uid viscosity is only available as
an isotropic viscosity, in which case, the constitutive relation becomes
2S
(2.31)
The strain-rate tensor is written in terms of the velocity gradients as

S
1
u uT
2
(2.32)
2.2.2 Mass Conservation

The mass conservation principle in divergence form is
u
t
(2.33)
In the incompressible limit, the velocity eld is solenoidal,

u
(2.34)
which implies a mass density transport equation,
u
t
(2.35)
For constant density, Eq. (2.35) is neglected with Eq. (2.34) remaining as a constraint on the velocity
eld.
LS-DYNA provides the capability to transport up to 10 species represented by the mass concentration
Z10 . In order to simplify the presentation, a single mass fraction is presented representing a
Z1 Z2
binary mixture. In order to account for the change in mass concentration, mass conservation applied to the
individual species yields for Z1
Z1
u Z1
J1 m1
(2.36)
t
where J1 is the diffusional mass ux rate, and m1 is a volumetric mass source. The mass source may
include the injection of mass concentration from a boundary or the source/sink terms from chemical reactions.
The diffusional mass ux rate is based on Ficks law of diffusion,
J1
8
D1 Z1
(2.37)

where D is a tensorial mass diffusivity. Typically mass diffusivities are only available as scalars so that
D1 Z1
J1
(2.38)
In the most general form, the species concentration transport equations are
ZI
t
ZI JI mI
where I indicates the species mass concentration, i.e., I
12
(2.39)
10.
2.2.3 Energy Conservation

The conservation of energy is expressed in terms of temperature, T, as
C p
T
t
q Q
uT
(2.40)
where C p is the specic heat at constant pressure, q is the diffusional heat ux rate, and Q represents
volumetric heat sources and sinks, e.g., due to exothermic/endothermic chemical reactions
Fouriers law relates the heat ux rate to the temperature gradient and thermal conductivity,
kT
(2.41)
where k is the thermal conductivity tensor. In many cases, the uid properties are only available as scalar
quantities, i.e., the thermal conductivity is considered to be isotropic.
2.2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

The prescription of boundary conditions is based on a ow domain with boundaries that are either physical
or implied for the purposes of performing a simulation. A simple ow domain is shown in Figure 2.1 where
the boundary of the domain is 1 2 .
The momentum equations, Eq. (2.28), are subject to boundary conditions that consist of specied velocity
on 1 as in Eq. (2.42), or traction boundary conditions on 2 as in Eq. (2.44).
ux t
ux t on 1
In the case of a no-slip and no-penetration boundary, u
(2.42)
0 is the prescribed velocity boundary condition.
The prescribed traction boundary conditions are

n
x t on 2
f
(2.43)
where n is the outward normal for the domain boundary, and are the components of the prescribed
f
traction. In terms of the pressure and strain-rate, the traction boundary conditions are
pI 2S n
x t on 2
f
(2.44)
9

The traction and velocity boundary conditions can be mixed. In a two-dimensional sense, mixed boundary
conditions can consist of a prescribed normal traction and a tangential velocity. For example, at the outow
boundary in Figure 2.1, a homogeneous normal traction and vertical velocity on 2 constitutes a valid
set of mixed boundary conditions. A detailed discussion of boundary conditions for the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations may be found in Gresho and Sani [5].
Turning attention to the species transport equations, boundary conditions for Eq. (2.9) may consist of
either a prescribed concentration or a mass ux rate. In the binary mixture example, the prescribed concentration is
(2.45)
Z1 x t Z1 x t
where Z1 is the known value of concentration for species 1. The prescribed mass ux rate is
D1Z1 n
J1 x t
(2.46)
where J1 xi t is the known mass ux rate through the boundary with normal n. The prescribed ux rate
may also be specied in terms of a mass transfer coefcient as
D1 Z1 n
hD Z1 Z1
(2.47)

ux rate. The prescribed temperature is
T x t
and the prescribed heat ux rate is
kT n
T x t
(2.48)
qx t
(2.49)
where q is the known ux rate through the boundary with normal n. The heat ux rate may also be
prescribed in terms of a heat transfer coefcient,
kT n
hT T
(2.50)

Initial conditions take on the form of prescribed velocity, species and temperature distributions at t
i.e.,
ux 0
ZI x 0
T x 0
u0 x
ZI0 x
T 0 x
0,
(2.51)
Remark
For a well-posed incompressible ow problem, the prescribed initial velocity eld in equation
(2.52) must satisfy equations (2.52) and (2.53) (see Gresho and Sani[6]). If 2 0 (the null
set, i.e., enclosure ows with n u prescribed on all surfaces), then global mass conservation
enters as an additional solvability constraint as shown in equation (2.54).
u0
10
(2.52)

n ux 0
n uo x
n uo d
(2.53)
(2.54)
11
12
Chapter 3
Explicit Time Integration
This chapter presents the spatial discretization and explicit time-integration method for the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations. The spatial discretization is achieved using the Q1Q0 element with bilinear support for velocity and piecewise constant support for the pressure in two dimensions. In three dimensions,
the velocity support is trilinear with piecewise constant support for pressure. The methods for obtaining
the weak-form of the conservation equations are well known and will not be repeated here (see for example, Gresho, et al.[7], Hughes[8], and Zienkiewicz and Taylor[9]). The spatially discrete form of Eq. (2.1)
and (2.7) are
M u Auu Ku Cp
and
CT u
(3.1)
(3.2)
where M is the mass matrix, Au and K are the the advection and the viscous diffusion operators respectively, F is the body force, and g accounts for the presence of prescribed velocity boundary conditions.
C is the gradient operator, and CT is the divergence operator. Here, u and p are understood to be discrete approximations to the continuous velocity and pressure elds. Equations (3.1) and (3.2) constitute
a differential-algebraic system of equations that precludes the direct application of time-marching algorithms due to the presence of the discrete incompressibility constraint.
Following Gresho, et al.[1], a consistent, discrete pressure Poisson equation (PPE) is constructed using a
row-sum lumped mass matrix, ML .
CT ML 1C p
CT ML 1 F Ku Auu
(3.3)
Here, g accounts for time-dependent velocity boundary conditions.
The PPE constitutes an algebraic system of equations that is solved for the element-centered pressure
during the time-marching procedure. Figure 3.1 shows the dual, staggered grid associated with the pressure
variables. The PPE in Eq. (3.3) incorporates the effect of the essential velocity boundary conditions from
Eq. (2.15), and automatically builds in the boundary conditions from Eq. (2.17) see Gresho, et al. [6].
Equations (3.1) and (3.3) form the basis for a description of the explicit time integration algorithm. It is
assumed that the explicit algorithm begins with a given divergence-free velocity eld, u0 , that satises
the essential velocity boundary conditions, and an initial pressure, p0 . To simplify the description of the
13
CHAPTER 3. EXPLICIT TIME INTEGRATION

explicit algorithm, velocity boundary conditions that are constant in time are assumed making g 0 see
Gresho and Sani [10] for additional algorithmic issues for the situation when g 0. The explicit algorithm
proceeds as follows.
1. Calculate the partial acceleration, i.e., acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient, at time level n.

ML 1 F n
(3.4)
Fn Kun Auun
(3.5)
an
where
Fn
2. Solve the global PPE for the current pressure eld.
CT ML 1C pn
3. Update the nodal velocities.
un1
C T an
(3.6)
un t an ML 1Cpn
(3.7)
4. Repeat steps 1-3 until a maximum simulation time limit or maximum number of time steps is
reached.
Primary Grid
Pressure DOF
Velocity DOF
Dual Grid
Figure 3.1: Velocity mesh with two degrees-of-freedom (DOF) per node, and the PPE dual grid with one
DOF per element.
Remark
In LS-DYNA, the prescribed initial conditions and boundary conditions are tested and, if
necessary, a projection to a divergence-free subspace is performed on the initial velocity eld,
u0 . This guarantees that the ow problem is well-posed, even if the user prescribed initial
conditions violate the conditions of Eq. (2.25) - (2.26) presented in Chapter 2.
In practice, the criterion for performing a projection onto a div-free subspace is based upon
the RMS divergence error
14
C T u C T u
Nel
(3.8)
where Nel is the number of elements and is a user-specied tolerance typically 1010
106 . If the RMS divergence error is greater than the specied tolerance for the initial
candidate velocity eld, u0 , then the PPE problem in Eq. (3.9) is solved for , and a massconsistent projection performed using Eq. (3.10).
CT ML 1C
CT u0
(3.9)
u0 ML 1C
u0
(3.10)
The explicit time-integration algorithm must respect both diffusive and convective stability limits. Although the analytical stability limits for the explicit time integration of the Navier-Stokes equations in
multiple dimensions remain intractable[1], approximate stability computations may be performed using
local grid metrics.
In an unstructured grid, with variable element size, the calculation of the grid Re (Reynolds) and CFL
(Courant-Freidrichs-Levy) numbers uses the element-local coordinates and centroid velocities. Figure 3.2
shows the canonical element-local node-numbering scheme, coordinate system and centroid velocity for
the 2-D and 3-D elements.
n8
n3
n4
n7
h
n5
n6
h _
u
_
u
h
n3
n1
n2
n2
b)
a)
Figure 3.2: Grid parameters for: a) Two-dimensional element with centroid velocity and characteristic
element dimensions h and h , b) Three-dimensional element with centroid velocity and characteristic
dimensions h , h , and h .
The grid Re and CFL numbers are dened as
Rei
CFLi
u hi
2
(3.11)
u hi t
hi 2
(3.12)
15

where i , , are the element-local coordinates. The grid Re and CFL numbers rely upon the projection
of the centroid velocity onto the element-local coordinate directions that are oriented according to the
canonical local node numbering scheme for each element type[11, 12].
In order to use Eq. (3.12) to estimate a stable time step, a unit vector for each element-local coordinate
direction is dened as
hi
(3.13)
hi
where ei denotes the unit vector for each of the (, , ) coordinate directions. Using the grid Re and the
element size, h, the advective-diffusive stability limit becomes
ei
ti
hi
1 Rei 2
1
(3.14)
where a minimum over all elements and all element-local coordinate directions establishes a global minimum time-step.
The advective stability limit is established in a similar manner using
CFL hi
(3.15)
u hi
The stable time step is based upon the minimum time step derived from either Eq. (3.14) or (3.15).
However, for meshes graded to resolve boundary layers, the advective-diffusive stability limit usually
dictates the time step.
ti
3.1 Modied Finite Element Formulation

Several ad-hoc modications are made to the standard Galerkin nite element formulation for the explicit
time integration algorithm. These modications include the use of a row-sum lumped mass matrix, single
point Gaussian quadrature, balancing tensor diffusivity (BTD), and hourglass stabilization to damp the
spurious zero-energy modes known as keystone or hourglass modes. A detailed numerical analysis of
these modications is discussed in Gresho, et al.[1]
Before discussing the reduced integration operators, a brief overview of the element matrices associated
with Eq. (3.2) and (3.1) is presented. The element level gradient, mass, advection and diffusion operators
are presented in Eq. (3.16) (3.19). Here, Na is the element shape function, the subscripts a and b range
from 1 to the number of nodes per element, Nnpe, and 1 i j Ndim.
Ciea
e
Mab
16
Na
dV
e xi
(3.16)
Na Nb dV
(3.17)
3.1. MODIFIED FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

Nb
dV
xi
(3.18)
Na Nb
i j
dV
x j
e xi
(3.19)
Ae u
ab
e
Kab
Na ui
3.1.1 Reduced-Integration Operators

From an examination of the explicit algorithm, it is clear that the bulk of the computational effort for
a discrete time step consists of the formation and assembly of the right-hand-side in Eq. (3.5), and the
subsequent PPE solution in Eq. (3.6). The right-hand-side vector is formed element-by-element using
a right-to-left matrix-vector multiply with reduced integration operators for the diffusive and advective
terms. In this context, reduced integration is considered synonymous with single-point Gaussian quadrature. Using single-point integration, the element area and gradient operators may be written strictly in
terms of element-local nodal coordinates.
Ae
e
Cx
e
Cy
1
x31 y42 x24 y32
2
1
y24 y31
2Ae
1
x42 x13
2Ae
(3.20)
y24 y31
x42 x13
(3.21)
In Eq. (3.20) and (3.21), xab xa xb , where the subscripts a and b identify the local node number
and range from 1 to 4 for the two-dimensional bilinear element. The fact that Cx3 Cx1 , and Cx4
Cx2 , permits the storage of only the unique values in the gradient operator at ethe element level. In
e
two-dimensions, this requires only 4 oating point values per element for Cx and Cy .
The computation of the element level gradient operators in three-dimensions is somewhat more involved.
To begin, the element-local nodal coordinates in the referential domain are dened as follows:
T
T
T
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(3.22)
The Jacobian, evaluated at the element centroid, or central Gauss point, is dened in terms of the elementlocal nodal coordinates xe ye ze and the referential coordinates, in Eq. (3.23).
17
J 0
1
8
T xe T ye T ze
T xe T ye T ze
T xe T ye T ze
(3.23)
The element volume is simply the determinant of the Jacobian in Eq. (3.24). Note that the element
volume in three-dimensions may only be computed exactly with single-point integration for elements that
are bricks or parallelepipeds.
Ve
det J 0
(3.24)
The computation of the element level gradient operators proceeds by rst evaluating the co-factors of the
Jacobian, the inverse Jacobian in Eq. (3.25), and the gradient operators as shown in Eq. (3.26). Again,
only the unique gradient operators must be stored, i.e., 12 words of storage per element are required for
e
e
e
Cx , Cy , and Cz [1].
Di j
e
Cx
e
Cy
e
Cz
J 0 1
1
D11 D12 D13
8
1
D21 D22 D23
8
1
D31 D32 D33
8
(3.25)
(3.26)
The computation of the element level mass matrix using one-point quadrature and row-sum lumping yields
the operator for 2-D in Eq. (3.27) and the operator for 3-D in Eq. (3.28).
e
Mab
ab
Ae
4
(3.27)
e
Mab
ab
Ve
8
(3.28)
The direct evaluation of the advection operator in Eq. (3.18) requires an integral of triple products that
is very computationally intensive. Therefore, the advection operator is approximated using an ad-hoc
modication known as the centroid advection velocity. This modication assumes that u in Eq. (3.18)
may be approximated by
Nnpe
Na 0ua
(3.29)
a 1
where Na 0 indicates evaluation of the shape functions at the origin of the referential coordinate system.
18
3.1. MODIFIED FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

The application of single-point integration further simplies the advection operator. In two-dimensions,
1 and 2 in Eq. (3.30) are used to form the advection operators in Eq. (3.31) where uab ua ub .
1
2
A uu
Ae uve
uCx1 vCy1
uCx2 vCy2
TA
1 u13 2 u24
4
Ae
1 1 1 1T
1 v13 2 v24
4
1111
(3.30)
(3.31)
For the evaluation of the three-dimensional advection operators, 1 4 are dened as

1
2
3
4
uCx1 vCy1 wCz1

uCx2 vCy2 wCz2
uCx3 vCy3 wCz3
uCx4 vCy4 wCz4
(3.32)
and used in the element-level advection operators.

Ae uue
Ae uve
Ae uwe
Ve
1 u17 2 u28 3 u35 4 u46
8
Ve
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1T
1 v17 2 v28 3 v35 4 v46
8
Ve
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1T
1 w17 2 w28 3 w35 4 w46
8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1T
(3.33)
The single-point diffusion operator may be stated simply as

e
Kab
Cia i jC jb V e
(3.34)
where i j represents a tensorial viscosity. Here, i and j range from 1 to the number of spatial dimensions
while a b range from 1 to the number of nodes per element. Generation of the diffusion operator in Eq.
(3.34) using single point integration leads to rank deciency of the element level operator. The presence
of an improper singular mode in the element level operator may also lead to singularity in the assembled
global operator. In two-dimensions, there is only one improper singular mode, while in three-dimensions,
there are four singular modes. These modes are commonly referred to as hourglass modes, and when
excited in a numerical solution, they can remain undamped and pollute the eld solution.
A detailed discussion of the hourglass stabilization methods used in LS-DYNA is beyond the scope of
this chapter. However, for the sake of completeness, a brief overview of the so-called h-stabilization is
presented. The term, h-stabilization, derives from the fact that the outer product of the element hourglass
vectors is used to form the stabilization operator.
In two-dimensions, the single hourglass mode is
19
1 1 1
(3.35)
This mode, when excited, may be detected visually as a w-mode in isometric plots of the eld variable
from a numerical solution. Following Goudreau and Hallquist[13] and Gresho, et al.[1], the element level
stabilization operator is formed using the outer-product of the hourglass vector.
e
Hab
hg Ae T b
a
(3.36)
hg is a non-dimensional parameter that, in practice, is unity by default for outer-product stabilization (see
Gresho, et al.[1]).
In three-dimensions, the four hourglass vectors are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
The resulting 3-D hourglass stabilization operator is
e
Hab
where e
hg
1 0, C1
C2
C3
h 3 V e, h
C1
C2
e 1 2 3 4
hg
C4
(3.37)
C3
C4
V V
max
min
3
1
2
3
4
(3.38)
2.
For the reduced integration element, -stabilization, see Belytschko, et al[14, 15, 16], has also been investigated. -stabilization refers to the -vectors constructed from the hourglass modes for stabilization. While
-stabilization is perhaps more robust than h-stabilization, this type of hourglass control also requires
more operations and storage. It is the authors experience that it is relatively more difcult to excite the
hourglass modes in an Eulerian computation than in a Lagrangian computation, e.g., a DYNA3D[17] simulation. However, -stabilization still requires fewer operations and less storage than the fully integrated
two-dimensional bilinear element.
In three-dimensions, this is not the case. Table 3.1 shows the memory requirements and operations counts
for a matrix-vector multiply (Ku) for a variety of element formulations. In 2-D, -stabilization requires
nearly the same storage as the fully integrated element stored in either a compact, symmetric, element
form, or in a global row-compressed form. However, this element requires 9 more operations to achieve
the matrix-vector multiply when compared to the element-by-element matrix vector multiply with 2x2
quadrature. In 3-D, -stabilization is about 3 times more expensive to perform than the corresponding
global row-compressed matrix-vector multiply.
There is one nal modication to the nite element formulation that derives from the explicit treatment
of the advective terms. For advection dominated ows, it is well known that the use of a backward-Euler
treatment of the advective terms introduces excessive diffusion. Similarly, Gresho, et al.[1] have shown
20
3.2. THE DOMAIN-DECOMPOSITION MESSAGE-PASSING PARADIGM

Table 3.1: Memory requirements and operations counts for a matrix-vector multiply for various element integration rules, stabilization operators, and storage schemes. (Nel
number o f elements,
Nnp number o f nodes, EBE element by element)
Dimension
Element Formulation
2-D
1-pt., EBE
2-D
1-pt., h-stabilization, EBE
2-D
1-pt., -stabilization, EBE
2-D
2x2 Quadrature, EBE
2-D
2x2, ITPACKV[18]
3-D
1-pt., EBE
3-D
1-pt., h-stabilization, EBE
3-D
1-pt., -stabilization, EBE
3-D
2x2x2 Quadrature, EBE
3-D
2x2x2, ITPACKV[18]
Storage
4Nel
4Nel
9Nel
10Nel
9Nnp
12Nel
12Nel
45Nel
36Nel
27Nnp
12Nel
22Nel
19Nel
16Nel
8Nnp
29Nel
69Nel
61Nel
64Nel
26Nnp
16Nel
18Nel
25Nel
16Nel
9Nnp
28Nel
46Nel
100Nel
64Nel
27Nnp
Total Op.
28Nel
40Nel
44Nel
32Nel
17Nnp
57Nel
115Nel
161Nel
128Nel
53Nnp
that forward-Euler treatment of the advective terms results in negative diffusivity, or an under-diffusive
scheme. In order to remedy this problem, balancing-tensor diffusivity (BTD), derived from a Taylor series
analysis to exactly balance the diffusivity decit, is adopted. In the one-point quadrature element, the BTD
term is simply added to the kinematic viscosity in Eq. (3.39) to form the tensorial diffusivity used in Eq.
(3.34).
i j
i j
t
ui u j
2
(3.39)
In summary, the modications made to the standard nite element formulation include the use of singlepoint integration, a row-sum lumped mass matrix, hourglass stabilization, and balancing tensor diffusivity.
The benets promised by one-point integration are tremendous in computational uid dynamics problems
because of the requisite mesh sizes for interesting problems and the concomitant memory requirements.
The reduction from 8 quadrature points to 1 in three dimensions reduces the computational load by a
factor of about 6 to 7 and reduces memory requirements by over a factor of 2 for the basic gradient
operators. Neglecting the storage costs associated with the PPE, the total storage requirements for the
explicit algorithm is 60 words per 3-D element. Further, it has been demonstrated that the convergence rate
of the one-point elements is comparable to the fully integrated elements at a fraction of the computational
cost, see Liu[16]. With the element formulation dened, attention is now turned to the parallel aspects of
the explicit algorithm when a domain-decomposition message-passing paradigm is used.
3.2 The Domain-Decomposition Message-Passing Paradigm

This section describes the domain-decomposition message-passing (DDMP) implementation of the explicit time integration algorithm for the the incompressible Navier-Stokes. A brief overview of domaindecomposition and the associated sub-domain to processor mapping is discussed rst. Next, the parallel
right-hand-side assembly procedure is presented. The parallel assembly procedure then sets the stage for
a discussion of the parallel iterative solution methods applied to the PPE.
21
3.2.1 Domain-Decomposition
Domain-decomposition is the process of sub-dividing the spatial domain into sub-domains that can be
assigned to individual processors for the subsequent solution process. There has been a great deal of work
on the problem of spatial decomposition for unstructured grids over the last several years[19, 20, 21, 22,
23, 24, 25, 26]. In general, the requirements for mesh decomposition is that the sub-domains be generated
in such a way that the computational load is uniformly distributed across the available processors, and that
the inter-processor communication is minimized. LS-DYNA uses recursive coordinate bisection for the
decomposition task. Details on the use of decomposition tool and decomposition options may be found in
the LS-DYNA Users Manual [27].
In order to exploit the nite element assembly process[8] for parallelization, the dual graph of the nite element mesh, i.e., the connectivity of the dual grid shown in Figure 3.1, is used to perform a non-overlapping
element-based domain decomposition. Note that the dual grid corresponds to the grid associated with the
element centered pressure variables in the Q1Q0 element. Implicit in this choice of a domain decomposition strategy is the idea that elements are uniquely assigned to processors while the nodes at the sub-domain
interfaces are stored redundantly in multiple processors. Figure 3.3 illustrates a non-overlapping domain
decomposition for a simple two-dimensional vortex-shedding mesh partitioned for four processors. After obtaining the domain decomposition, the assignment of nodes, boundary conditions, and materials to
individual processors is performed internally before parallel execution begins.
Figure 3.3: Four processor spatial domain decomposition.
3.2.2 Parallel Assembly via Message Passing

The nite element assembly procedure is an integral part of any nite element code and consists of a global
gather operation of nodal quantities, an add operation, and a subsequent scatter back to the global memory
locations. A complete description of the sequential assembly algorithm may be found in Hughes[8]. The
assembly procedure is used to both form global coefcient matrices, right-hand-side vectors, and matrixvector products in an element-by-element sense. In the case of the explicit time integration algorithm, the
emphasis is upon the assembly of the element level contributions to the global right-hand-side vector
F
22
Nel
Ae 1 fn Ke un Ae uun
e
e
e
(3.40)

13
14
15
16
10
11
12
1
a) Sequential Mesh
13[9]
Sub-domain - P1
14[10] 15[11]
16[12]
9[5]
10[6]
11[7]
12[8]
9[7]
10[8]
11[9]
7[3]
8[4]
5[4]
6[5]
7[6]
3[1]
4[2]
Sub-domain - P0
Local - Global
1 - 1
2 - 2
3 - 3
4 - 5
5 - 6
6 - 7
7 - 9
8 - 10
9 - 11
Sub-domain - P1
Global - Local
3 - 1
4 - 2
7 - 3
8 - 4
9 - 5
10 - 6
11 - 7
12 - 8
13 - 9
14 - 10
15 - 11
16 - 12
c) Parallel Assembly Mapping
1[1]
2[2]
3[3]
Sub-domain - P0
b) 2-Processor Sub-domain Mapping
Figure 3.4: Parallel assembly procedure: a) Sequential Mesh, b) 2-Processor sub-domain mapping, c)
Parallel assembly mapping.
where A is the assembly operator. Here, the diffusive and advective contributions are computed at the
element-level using un-rolled right-to-left matrix-vector multiplies.
In order to exploit both register-to-register vector and cache-based processors, data-independent groups
of elements are identied. This not only permits the vectorization of the assembly process, but also
maximizes the number of element level operations with respect to the number of load-store operations. For
cache based architectures, this permits all of the element data in a data-independent group to be loaded
into cache once for the element-level operations, e.g., right-to-left matrix-vector multiplies. Thus, the
assembly process using the vector/cache blocks proceeds block-by-block with all element level operations
for a block being performed before completing the add-scatter portion of the gather-add-scatter assembly
procedure.
The parallel assembly procedure may be viewed as a generalized form of the nite element assembly
algorithm. However, inter-processor communication is an inherent part of the parallel assembly. As an
example of a two-processor assembly, consider the sequential mesh and the assignment of the global nodes
to two processors as shown in Figure 3.4. In Figure 3.4b, the local node numbers are enclosed in brackets
to the right of the global node number (global node 1 in sub-domain P0 is local node 1 ). The sub-domain
assignment of the global nodes is the consequence of the unique assignment of elements to processors,
and reveals the existence of the nodes at the sub-domain boundaries on multiple processors.
Figure 3.4b shows the global inter-processor assembly of the sub-domain boundary nodes. Figure 3.4c
23

illustrates the use of the local-to-global mapping required for the gather-add-scatter operation and the
arrows between global node numbers identify a send-receive pair. Thus, the parallel assembly procedure
induces communication in the form of a gather-send-receive-add-scatter process. The parallel right-handside assembly for Eq. (3.5) may be viewed as a generalized assembly with off-processor communication
where rst the on-process vector/cache blocked assembly is performed according to Eq. (3.41), and then
the assembly at the sub-domain boundaries is performed according to Eq. (3.42).
Fp
Nel
Ae 1 fn Ke un Ae uun
e
e
e
N
A p p0 1 F p
(3.41)
(3.42)
There are several things to note about the parallel assembly procedure. First, the parallel assembly is
simply a generalization of the sequential assembly procedure that includes inter-processor communication.
Second, the algorithm only requires the communication of nodal data at the edges of adjacent sub-domains.
Therefore, as the problem size increases, the communication overhead scales with number of surface nodes
associated with sub-domain boundaries. Finally, this algorithm permits the implementation of vectorvalued messages in order to avoid start-up issues associated with short messages, i.e., for the assembly
shown in Eq. (3.42), the message length is proportional to the number of sub-domain boundary nodes, and
the number of degrees-of-freedom per node. Finally, the use of non-overlapping grids implies that nodes
in the nite element mesh that lie on sub-domain boundaries are stored in multiple processors as shown
in Figure 3.4b. In contrast, over-lapping sub-domains would require the redundant storage of all the data
associated with elements at the sub-domain boundaries.
3.2.3 The Parallel Explicit Algorithm

In this section, the issue of solving the PPE in parallel will not be addressed so that attention may be focused upon the solution process for the nodal variables. The DDMP version of the explicit time integration
algorithm proceeds as follows.
1. Calculate the partial acceleration, i.e., acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient, at time level n.
i. All processors calculate the processor-local right-hand-side terms neglecting the pressure gradient
according to Eq. (3.41).
ii. Perform the inter-processor nite element assembly according to Eq. (3.42). In this step, processors that share a common sub-domain boundary exchange messages containing partially
assembled right-hand side contributions, and accumulate the fully-summed terms at the subdomain boundaries.
iii. All processors compute the processor-local partial acceleration using a pre-calculated lumped
mass matrix, i.e., the mass matrix has been fully summed for the nodes at the sub-domain
boundaries.
an
24

ML 1 F
(3.43)

2. Solve the global PPE problem for the current pressure eld.
CT ML 1C Pn
where gn
C T an
(3.44)
0 has been used for simplicity.
3. Update the nodal velocities.

i. The computation of the pressure gradient term in Eq. (3.45) consists of the parallel on-processor
computation of the discrete pressure gradient, followed by an inter-processor assembly.
un1
N p1
un t an ML 1 A p 0 CPn
(3.45)
4. Repeat steps 1-3 until a maximum simulation time limit or maximum number of time steps is
reached.
Remark
For the explicit solution algorithm, the global row-sum lumped mass is accumulated at all
nodes in the nite element mesh during the initialization phase. This requires the nodal assembly of the partial nodal mass at nodes on sub-domain boundaries as shown in Figure 3.4.
3.2.4 Communication Costs

This section outlines the communications costs associated with the explicit time integration algorithm.
The communications costs may be broken down into the cost per time step for the momentum equations,
and the cost per time step for solving the PPE. To begin, N is the number of nodes on the boundary of
a sub-domain. In two-dimensions, the average number of nodes communicated to an adjacent processor
is N 4, and in three-dimensions the average is N 6. Assuming that there are 8 bytes per oating point
word, then the total number of bytes per processor to be communicated via a send is
Nc
8N NDOF
(3.46)
where NDOF is the number of degrees-of-freedom per node.

The communication cost for a send operation may be broken into three parts: the time to initiate the
message passing, tstartup, the cost per packet, t packet , and the transmission time, ttransmit . Thus, the time to
send a message is
Nc
tsend tstartup
t packet Ncttransmit
(3.47)
N packet
where N packet is the number of bytes per packet.
From Eq. (3.46) and (3.47), it is clear that the number of adjacent sub-domains determines the total
startup time for message passing. Next, the communication cost per time step is estimated for the explicit
algorithm. For the momentum equations, there are two primary messaging steps. The rst occurs during
the distributed assembly of the right-hand-side in Eq. (3.41). The second occurs during the assembly of
the pressure-gradient in Eq. (3.45). Thus, there are 2 vector-valued messaging steps. For the solution
25

of the PPE, there is 1 vector-valued messaging step per iteration, where NIT iterations are required in the
conjugate gradient solution. From this, it is possible to estimate the communication cost per time step for
the explicit algorithm on a per processor basis as
Cstep
26
82 NIT NDOF Ntsend
(3.48)
Chapter 4
The Projection Method
The solution of the time-dependent incompressible Navier-Stokes equations poses several algorithmic issues due to the div-free constraint, and the concomitant spatial and temporal resolution required to perform
time-accurate solutions particularly where complex geometry is involved. Although fully-coupled solution
strategies are available, the cost of such methods is generally considered prohibitive for time-dependent
simulations where high-resolution grids are required. The application of projection methods provides a
computationally efcient alternative to fully-coupled solution methods.
A detailed review of projection methods is beyond the scope of this chapter, but a partial list of relevant
work is provided. Projection methods, also commonly referred to as fractional-step, pressure correction
methods, or Chorins method [28] have grown in popularity over the past 10 years due to the relative ease
of implementation and computational performance. This is reected by the volume of work published
on the development of second-order accurate projection methods, see for example van Kan [29], Bell, et
al. [30], Gresho, et al. [3, 4, 31, 32], Almgren, et al. [33, 34, 35], Rider [36, 37, 38, 39], Minion [40],
Guermond and Quartapelle [41], Puckett, et al. [42], Sussman, et al. [43], and Knio, et al. [44]. The
numerical performance of projection methods has been considered by Brown and Minion [45, 46], Wetton
[47], Guermond [48, 49], Guermond and Quartapelle [50, 51], and Almgren et al. [52].
As background, a brief review of Chorins original projection method is presented before proceeding with
the nite element form of the projection algorithm. The vector form of the momentum equations may be
written as
u
p F u
(4.1)
t
where for a constant viscosity,
F u f 2 u u u
(4.2)
Now, F u may be decomposed into a div-free and curl-free part where the div-free part is
and the curl-free part is
u
t
(4.3)
(4.4)
Discretizing in space and time, the decomposition, neglecting the contribution of the pressure gradient,
27
CHAPTER 4. THE PROJECTION METHOD

yields
un1
un
F h u
(4.5)
where F h u is the spatially discrete analogue of F in Eq. (4.2), and un1 is an approximate discrete
n1 is generally not zero, i.e. GT un1
0
velocity eld at time n 1. Note that the discrete divergence of u
where GT is the discrete divergence operator. The functional dependence of F h upon the discrete velocity,
u, depends upon whether the algorithm is implicit, explicit, or semi-implicit. The dependence on pressure,
or rather pressure gradient, is
un1
un
un1
un 1 Gpn1
(4.6)
where G is the discrete gradient operator, and GT is the discrete divergence operator. Applying the discrete
divergence operator to Eq. (4.6) yields a Poisson equation for the pressure at time level n 1,
1
GT Gpn1
1 T n1
G u
t
(4.7)
By eliminating the velocity at time level n, Eq. (4.6) yields a relationship for the projected div-free velocity
eld.
1
un1 un1 Gpn1

(4.8)
Projection Properties
The philosophy behind projection algorithms is to provide a legitimate way to decouple the pressure and
velocity elds in the hope of providing an efcient computational method for transient, incompressible
ow simulations. Thus, given an approximate, non-solenoidal velocity eld, u, F u may be projected

onto a divergence-free subspace such that
u
t
P F u
(4.9)
Q F u
(4.10)
and
Here, P and Q are the projection operators, and they have the following properties. P projects a velocity
vector onto a div-free subspace, and Q projects a vector into a curl-free subspace. Both P and Q are
idempotent, i.e., P P 2 and Q Q 2 . Therefore, repeated application of the projection operators does
not continue to modify the projected results. The projection operators are orthogonal, and commute, i.e.,
P Q Q P 0.
The explicit forms of the continuous projection operators are
P
and
28
I 2 1
I P
2 1
(4.11)
(4.12)
4.1. SEMI-IMPLICIT PROJECTION METHOD

It should be noted that P , and Q have built-in all the appropriate physical boundary conditions. Further,
The eigenvalues of P and Q are either 0 or 1 so that the projections are norm-reducing.
In practice, the action of the projection, P , is to remove the part of the approximate velocity eld that is
not div-free, i.e., u P u. In effect, the projection is achieved by decomposing the velocity eld into
div-free and curl-free components using a Helmholtz decomposition. The decomposition may be written
as
u u
(4.13)
where u is a non-solenoidal velocity eld, u is its div-free counterpart, and is the curl-free component,
i.e., 0.
4.1 Semi-Implicit Projection Method

In LS-DYNA, the Projection-2 (P2) method identied by Gresho [3] forms the starting point for a discussion of the nite element projection algorithms. Before proceeding with a description of the P2 algorithm,
the semi-discrete Navier-Stokes equations are presented. The spatial discretization of the conservation
equations is achieved using the Q1Q0 element with bilinear support for velocity and piecewise constant
support for the pressure in two dimensions. In three dimensions, the velocity support is trilinear with
piecewise constant support for pressure. The methods for obtaining the weak-form of the conservation
equations are well known and will not be repeated here (see for example, Gresho, et al.[7], Hughes[8],
and Zienkiewicz and Taylor[9]). The spatially discrete form of momentum conservation, Eq. (2.1), and
the divergence constraint, Eq. (2.7), are
M u Auu Ku MML 1Cp

CT u
(4.14)
(4.15)
where M is the unit mass matrix, Au and K are the advection and the viscous diffusion operators respectively, F is the body force, and g accounts for the presence of prescribed velocity boundary conditions.
C is the gradient operator, and CT is the divergence operator, i.e., C and CT are nearly the discrete nite
element analogues of G and GT discussed above. In order to simplify the nomenclature, u and p are
understood to be discrete approximations to the continuous velocity and pressure elds.
Following the development of the projection method introduced above,
M
un1 un
t
F h u p
(4.16)
where F h u p may involve an explicit or implicit dependence upon u and is understood to be a discrete
vector quantity. From this, it is clear that the intermediate velocity, un1 , corresponds to an approximate
velocity eld that has not yet felt the inuence of the current pressure eld, and therefore is not necessarily
solenoidal.
Incorporating the pressure gradient contribution, the approximation to F h u p is,
M
un1 un
t
un1 un
t
1Cpn1
MML
(4.17)
29

Eliminating the velocity at time level n, yields the discrete statement of the Helmholtz decomposition with
the concomitant div-free constraint, CT un1 gn1 , viz.,
ML C
CT 0
ML un1
n1
g
un1
Here, ML is the row-sum lumped, i.e., diagonalized, mass matrix, and
(4.18)
t pn1 pn
The system of equations in Eq. (4.18) is analogous to those introduced by Chorin [28]. Although Chorin
suggested using a method of successive substitutions to obtain the velocity and pressure elds corresponding to the div-free state, the solution of Eq. (4.18) via a gradient-based iterative method and the solution of
the Schur complement of Eq. (4.18) has proven more efcient. The Schur complement of the projection
operator may be formed explicitly from Eq. (4.18) yielding
CT ML 1C
CT un1 gn1
(4.19)
where ML is the diagonalized, i.e., row-sum lumped mass matrix and includes the prescription of essential
velocity boundary conditions. Note that the term projection operator is used loosely here to describe
Eq. (4.18) since its solution yields a div-free velocity eld and the corresponding Lagrange multiplier.
However, this operator is not to be confused with the continuous projection operators, P and Q .
Eq. (4.19) is the consistent, discrete form of the elliptic operator for the projection algorithm. It represents
an algebraic system of equations that is solved for the element-centered Lagrange multiplier during the
time-marching procedure. Figure 3.1 shows the dual, staggered grid where and P are centered. The
pressure-Poisson operator in Eq. (4.19) incorporates the effect of the essential velocity boundary conditions, and automatically builds in the boundary conditions from Eq. (2.15) and (2.17) see Gresho, et al.
[4].
The projection algorithm proceeds as follows. Given a div-free velocity, un , and its corresponding pressure
eld, pn , solve the momentum equations for an approximate velocity eld at n 1.
1. Calculate the approximate velocity eld un1
M tK K un1
M t 1 K K un
t F Fn1 1 F Fn Aun un MML 1Cpn
(4.20)
Here, K and F control the time-weighting applied to the viscous and body force terms with 0
K F 1. For K 1, the viscous terms are treated explicitly, while for K 0, the viscous terms
are treated implicitly, i.e., via backward-Euler, and for K 1 2, the viscous treatment corresponds
to a Crank-Nicolson integrator.
2. Given the approximate velocity, un1 , solve Eq. (4.19) for .

3. Project the approximate velocity to a div-free subspace.
un1
un1 ML 1C
(4.21)
4. After the velocity update, an updated pressure at time level n 1 is obtained via
pn1
30
pn
(4.22)
4.1. SEMI-IMPLICIT PROJECTION METHOD

Remark
In the projection algorithm, the start-up procedure to obtain the pressure, p0 , proceeds as follows.
1. Calculate the partial acceleration, i.e., acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient, at time level n
by solving the mass-matrix problem.
M a0
F0 Ku0 Au0 u0
(4.23)
where a0 is the instantaneous acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient.

CT ML 1C p0
C T a0 g0
(4.24)
In LS-DYNA, the prescribed initial conditions and boundary conditions are tested and, if
necessary, a projection to a div-free subspace is performed on the initial velocity eld, u0 . This
guarantees that the ow problem is well-posed, even if the user prescribed initial conditions
violate the conditions of Eq. (2.25) (2.26).
In practice, the criterion for performing a div-free projection is based upon the RMS divergence error
C T u C T u
Nel
(4.25)
where Nel is the number of elements and is a user-specied tolerance typically 1010 to
107 . If the RMS divergence error is greater than the specied tolerance for the initial can
didate velocity eld, u0 , then the PPE problem in Eq. (4.26) is solved for , and a massconsistent projection performed using Eq. (4.27).
CT ML 1C
u0
CT u0 g0
u0 ML 1C
(4.26)
(4.27)
The semi-implicit projection algorithm must respect a relaxed convective stability limit where CFL
O5 10 as described in Gresho and Chan [4]. Because of the semi-implicit treatment of viscous terms,
there is no diffusive stability constraint. Computational experiments have demonstrated that CFL 5 is a
reasonable tradeoff between accuracy and computational cost.
31

In an unstructured grid, with variable element size, the calculation of the grid Re (Reynolds) and CFL
(Courant-Freidrichs-Levy) numbers uses the element-local coordinates and centroid velocities as described in Chapter 3.
The second-order semi-implicit projection method uses one additional modication to the nite element
formulation that derives from the explicit treatment of the advective terms. For advection dominated ows,
it is well known that the use of a backward-Euler treatment of the advective terms introduces excessive
diffusion. Similarly, Gresho, et al.[1] have shown that forward-Euler treatment of the advective terms
results in negative diffusivity, or an under-diffusive scheme. In order to remedy this problem, balancingtensor diffusivity (BTD), derived from a Taylor series analysis to exactly balance the diffusivity decit, is
adopted. In the one-point quadrature element, the BTD term is simply added to the kinematic viscosity in
Eq. (4.28) to form the tensorial diffusivity.
i j
i j
t
ui u j
2
(4.28)
4.2 Fully-Implicit Projection Method

The fully-implicit projection method relies upon the implicit treatment of the advection terms as well as
the viscous terms in the momentum, energy and species transport equations. The fully-implicit method is
implemented with automatic time-step selection based on local time truncation error requiring a slightly
different start-up procedure than the semi-implicit projection method. The details of the automatic timestep selection may be found in Gresho, et al. [7].
The start-up procedure for the fully-implicit algorithm follows the start-up algorithm outlined in 4.1 to
obtain u0 and p0 , but requires the consistent calculation of the acceleration eld at t 0.
4.2.1 Start-Up
Given an initial velocity eld u0 , the start-up procedure for the fully-implicit algorithm proceeds as follows.
1. Calculate the partial acceleration, i.e., acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient by solving the
mass-matrix problem.
M a0 F0 Ku0 Auu0
(4.29)
where a0 is the instantaneous acceleration neglecting the pressure gradient.

CT ML 1C p0
3. Calculate the total acceleration at t
(4.30)
0.
u0
32
C T a0 g0
a0 CML 1 p0
(4.31)
4.2. FULLY-IMPLICIT PROJECTION METHOD
4.2.2 First Time-Step

The rst time-step at t
0 proceeds as follows.
1. Compute a predicted velocity at t
t using the known initial velocity and acceleration,
u0 t 0 u0
u1
(4.32)
2. Solve the momentum equations for u1 ,
M t K K A Au u1
M t 1 K K 1 A Au u0
t F F1 1 F0 MML 1Cp0
K F A
1 with A
1 2 for second-order accuracy, and
where 0
u1 u0
2
(4.33)
(4.34)
Remark
Although the fully-discrete momentum equations are presented using a generalized trapezoidal
rule in Eq. (4.33) and below in Eq. (4.39), the second-order Adams-Bashforth predictor requires that A
K
F
1 2 be used. This is the default for the fully-implicit projection method. For additional information, see the *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM and *CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT keywords in Chapter 9.
3. Solve Eq. (4.19) for the Lagrange multiplier and project the approximate velocity to obtain
u1
u1 ML 1C
(4.35)
After the velocity update, an updated pressure at time level n 1 is obtained via
pn1
4. Update the acceleration as
u1
pn
2u1 u0
u0
t 0
(4.36)
(4.37)
4.2.3 General Time-Step
Given a div-free velocity un and pressure pn with the acceleration vectors un and un1 , the fully-implicit
algorithm proceeds as follows.
33

1. Compute a predicted velocity at t n1 using the known velocity and acceleration.
un1
un
t n
2
t n
t n n1
n
u
u
t n1
t n1
(4.38)
2. Solve the momentum equations treating the simplied form of the linearized equations and perform
the projection step, i.e.,
M t K K A Au un1
M t 1 K K 1 A Au un
t F Fn1 1 F Fn MML 1CPn

where
un1 un
2
(4.39)
(4.40)
3. Solve for the Lagrange multiplier,
CT ML 1C
4. Perform the velocity update.
un1
CT un1 gn1
(4.41)
un1 ML 1C
(4.42)
After the velocity update, an updated pressure at time level n 1 is obtained via
pn1
5. Update the acceleration as
pn
(4.43)
2un1 un
un
t n
un1
(4.44)
6. Update the time step based on the user-specied local time truncation error according to
t
n1
where
n1 2
d un1
Ndo f
1
3
(4.45)
Nnpk
1
dk un1 2
k
maxun1 2 i 1
k
(4.46)
Ndo f
k 1 Nnpk k 1
Ndo f is the number of degrees-of-freedom (DOF) per node, e.g., u v w T Z1, and Nnpk is the
number of unknowns per DOF. Here, dk is the error between the corrected and predicted values of
the eld variables
un1 un1
k
n1
k
(4.47)
d uk
n1
3 1 t n
t
d u
In LS-DYNA, the time-step prediction is limited by a maximum time-step scale factor
d un1
where 1 5
34
DT SF
1
3
DT SF
(4.48)
2 0. In addition, a user-specied upper limit, tmax , is placed on the time-step size.

Chapter 5
Boundary Conditions and Source Terms
This chapter summarizes the boundary conditions for the incompressible ow solver in LS-DYNA. Keywords that are relevant to the boundary conditions are summarized in Chapter 9 and fully documented in
the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual [27].
5.1 Node and Segment Sets

Sets provide a generalized concept for grouping nodes, elements, and materials. In LS-DYNA, sets provide
the basic entity for the prescription of boundary conditions and are used for all keyword input. Node sets
consist of an arbitrary list of nodes that are treated as one entity for the application of nodal boundary
conditions. Segment sets consist of an arbitrary list of quadrilateral edges in two dimensions and a list of
hexahedral faces in three dimensions. Figure 5.1 shows a node set associated with inow conditions and
a segment set associated with outow boundary conditions for an external ow problem. In addition to
node and segment sets, the incompressible ow solver uses shell and solid sets to identify elements with
specic attributes. Additional information on sets and the *SET keywords may be found in the LS-DYNA
keyword manual [27].
5.2 Nodal Boundary Conditions

The prescription of nodal boundary conditions for the incompressible ow solver encompasses all nodal
degrees-of-freedom, e.g., velocity, temperature, mass concentration species, and turbulent kinetic energy. These boundary conditions are typically referred to as essential or Dirichlet boundary conditions and x the nodal values of the eld variable according to a prescribed value or function of time.
All nodal boundary conditions for the incompressible ow solver are prescribed using the *BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD NODE and *BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD SET keywords.
As an example of nodal boundary conditions, consider the prescription of boundary conditions based
on the ow domain shown in Figure 5.1. Inow boundary velocity conditions that emulate free-stream
conditions are prescribed as u1 U and u2 0 on i . No-slip and no-penetration velocity boundary
conditions are prescribed at the cylinder wall, ui 0 on s .
35
CHAPTER 5. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND SOURCE TERMS
Outflow Boundary
(Segment Set) o
Inflow Boundary
(Node Set) i
U
No-Slip, No-Penetration
(Node Set) s
Figure 5.1: Flow domain with inow i , outow o , and no-slip, no-penetration s boundaries.
36
5.3. TRACTION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

ux rate. For example, a prescribed temperature at the cylinder wall is T xi t T on s . Turning

attention to the species transport equations, boundary conditions for Eq. (2.9) may consist of either a
prescribed concentration or a mass ux rate. In the case of a binary mixture with a prescribed free-stream
concentration, Z1 xi t Z1 on i where Z1 is the known value of concentration for species 1.
5.3 Traction Boundary Conditions

The formulation of the weak-form of the momentum equations Eq. (2.1) yields traction boundary conditions also known as natural boundary conditions. In terms of the shape functions Na , the traction boundary
conditions may be computed as
e
Fie
Na fi xi t d
(5.1)
a
where fi are the components of the prescribed traction. Here, 1 i Ndim and 1 a
Ndim is the number of space dimensions and Nnpe is the number of nodes per element.
Nnpe where
Alternatively, the boundary conditions may be written in terms of the stress,

e
Fie
a
Na i j n j d
(5.2)
where i j is the prescribed stress and n j is the outward normal for the domain boundary.
In terms of the pressure and strain-rate, the traction boundary conditions are
Fie
a
Na
pi j 2 i j
nj
(5.3)
By default, homogenous traction boundary conditions are applied unless other boundary conditions are
prescribed, i.e., homogeneous traction (natural) boundary conditions are the do-nothing boundary conditions. The traction and velocity boundary conditions can be mixed. In a two-dimensional sense, mixed
boundary conditions can consist of a prescribed normal traction and a tangential velocity. For example,
at the outow boundary in Figure 2.1, a homogeneous normal traction and vertical velocity on 2 constitutes a valid set of mixed boundary conditions. A detailed discussion of boundary conditions for the
incompressible Navier-Stokes equations may be found in Gresho and Sani [5]. Note that this boundary
condition provides an important component for the coupling between uid and structural components for
coupled problems and is computed internally for this class of problems.
5.3.1 Pressure Boundary Conditions

In many practical situations, the viscous contributions in Eq. (5.3) may be neglected. This is typically the
case in situations where the viscosity is small, i.e., the Reynolds number is relatively large. In this case,
the viscous terms are ignored leaving only the pressure contribution to the traction boundary conditions,
Fie
a
Na
ni
(5.4)
37

where p is the prescribed pressure.
Due to the common occurrence of this type of limiting traction boundary condition, LS-DYNA refers to
this as a pressure boundary condition which reects its use in nite element models. The *BOUND
ARY PRESSURE CFD SET keyword is used to prescribe the pressure as a function of time, pt on a
boundary segment set.
5.4 Outow Boundary Conditions

In many problems, it is necessary to truncate the physical domain resulting in an articial outow boundary. In the presence of strong vortical structures the homogeneous natural (do-nothing) boundary conditions can result in a global pressure response that is physically unrealistic. Heinrich, et al. [53] present a
summary of this problem and suggest several remedies.
In LS-DYNA, outow boundary conditions that similar to the pressure boundary condition in Eq. (5.4)
are used. However, the outow boundary conditions use a known pressure distribution that has been
computed during the solution procedure. This boundary condition results in an equilibrating force applied
on the outow boundary,
Fie
a
where pn is the pressure eld computed at
time t n.
Na
pn
ni
(5.5)
The outow boundary condition is activated using the *BOUNDARY OUTFLOW CFD SET keyword
which applies the outow boundary conditions on a segment set basis.
5.5 Body Forces

The presence of body forces in the momentum equations results in element-level force contributions. At
the element-level, the forces are
Na fi d
(5.6)
Fie
a
where fi represents the body-force per unit volume.

In thermal-convection problems where a Boussinesq uid is appropriate, the body-force due to buoyancy
is
Na gi T Tre f d
(5.7)
Fie
a
where, gi is the acceleration due to gravity, is the coefcient of thermal expansion, and Tre f is a reference
temperature. The specication of the gravity vector, reference temperature and uid properties is achieved
with the *MAT CFD OPTION keyword.
38
5.6. FLUX BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Remark
By default, the uid temperature is initialized to the reference temperature Tre f specied in
the *MAT CFD OPTION keyword. Each uid is initialized material-by-material resulting in
built-in temperature initial conditions.
5.6 Flux Boundary Conditions

The heat ux rate at a boundary is prescribed as
Qe
a
Na qi xi t ni d
(5.8)
where qi is the known ux rate through the boundary with normal ni . Using the constitutive relationship
between temperature and heat-ux is

T
(5.9)
qi xi t ki j
x j
where ki j is the thermal conductivity tensor. The homogeneous form of the heat-ux boundary condition
is the default and represents a perfectly insulated, i.e., zero heat-ux boundary.
The heat ux rate may also be prescribed in terms of a convective heat transfer coefcient,
qi xi t ni
hT T
(5.10)

For the species transport equations, the prescribed mass ux rate for species-1 is
me
a
Na J1i ni d
(5.11)
where J1i is the known ux rate through the boundary with normal ni . (For simplicity in the presentation,
only the boundary conditions for species-1 are presented here.) Using the constitutive relation between
species concentration and mass-ux rate,
J1 xi t
D1
ij
Z1
x j
(5.12)
where D1i j is the tensorial mass diffusivity. The homogeneous form of the mass-ux boundary condition
is the default and represents a boundary where the gradient of the species in the boundary normal direction
is zero.
The prescribed ux rate may also be specied in terms of a convective mass transfer coefcient as
J1i ni
hD Z1 Z1
(5.13)
39
5.7 Pressure Levels

In incompressible ow, the pressure is typically only known up to an additive constant the hydrostatic
pressure level. The prescription of a specic hydrostatic pressure level is achieved through the *CONTROL CFD PRESSURE keyword. For the Q1Q0 element technology, setting the hydrostatic pressure
level requires a shell-set in 2-D or a solid-set in 3-D to identify those elements for which the pressure level
will be xed.
40
Chapter 6
Pressure Solution Methods
This chapter presents a survey of solution strategies, stabilization techniques and linear algebra procedures
used in LS-DYNA for calculating the pressure in the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations. The primary focus is on the treatment of the pressure-Poisson equation deriving from the index-1 formulations
of the Navier-Stokes equations presented in Chapters 3 4. Operational experience has shown that, depending on the solution strategy, the pressure solution can consume 80 90% of the CPU time per time
step in semi-implicit and fully-implicit projection methods even more when explicit time integration is
used. Based on extensive operational experience with a variety of solution strategies, the combination of a
stabilized pressure-Poisson operator with an A-conjugate projection and SSOR preconditioned conjugate
gradient method has been found to yield the overall best performance relative to the re-solve cost of a high
performance direct solver.
6.1 The Saddle Point Problems

The pressure-Poisson equation (PPE) in the projection algorithms presented in Chapter 4 arises due to
the use of a Helmholtz velocity decomposition that decomposes the velocity into div-free and curl-free
components. In a nite element context, the Helmholtz velocity decomposition with the concomitant
div-free constraint, CT un1 gn1 , is written as
ML C
CT 0
where, in general, CT un1
un1
ML un1
n1
g
(6.1)
gn1 .
The Schur complement of the projection operator in Eq. (6.1) yields the PPE in Eq. (4.19). In the ensuing
discussion, the term projection operator is used loosely to describe Eq. (6.1). However, the projection
operator is not to be confused with the real discrete projection operators, P h I ML 1C CT ML 1C 1CT
and Q h I P h (see Gresho and Chan [4]).
In the explicit time integration algorithm presented in Chapter 3, a saddle-point problem analogous to Eq.
(6.1) may also be formulated in terms of the pressure pn , partial acceleration an , and acceleration un as.
ML C
CT 0
un
pn
41
ML a n
n
g
(6.2)
CHAPTER 6. PRESSURE SOLUTION METHODS

In this case, the acceleration and pressure are used rather than velocity and pressure increment highlighting
one of the primary differences between the projection and the explicit methods. The explicit method
segregates acceleration and pressure, which can be done legitimately, while the projection methods attempt
to decouple velocity and pressure. Similar to the projection methods, the pressure-Poisson problem in Eq.
(3.6) is simply the Schur complement of Eq. (6.2). For both algorithms, the PPE and the saddle-point
operators are symmetric and in general singular due in part the fact that the pressure is known only to
within a constant representing the hydrostatic pressure.
6.2 Q1Q0 Stabilization

Although the Q1Q0 element has been condemned by theoreticians for its weakly-singular modes, this
element has long been the workhorse for incompressible ow and continues to be widely used. The
unstable modes of the Q1Q0 element for incompressible ow have been investigated by Sani, et al. [54, 55]
and more recently by Grifths and Silvester [56]. Grifths and Silvester demonstrate that for problems
0. A new
of physical interest, the Q1Q0 element will converge to the true solution in the limit as h
convergence proof for the Q1Q0 element may be found in Gresho and Sani [5].
The ensuing discussion summarizes the pressure stabilization techniques in LS-DYNA that are compatible with the Q1Q0 element and that circumvent the usual Babuka-Brezzi div-stability condition. In
s
LS-DYNA, there are two pressure stabilization techniques, one that is referred to as global jump stabilization, and one that is referred to as local jump stabilization. The global jump stabilization (rst
proposed by Hughes and Franca [57]) and the local jump stabilization techniques of Silvester and his coworkers[58, 59, 60, 61] are applied to the PPE problem for both the explicit and projection methods. In
effect, the jump stabilization techniques provide an a priori lter for the weakly unstable pressure modes
associated with the Q1Q0 element.
The stabilized Q1Q0 element yields a regularized saddle-point problem for the projection method,
ML
CT
C
S
ML un1
n1
g
un1
(6.3)
where S is a symmetric positive semi-denite matrix. Here, pressure stabilization results in an approximate
projection method since the associated stabilized PPE is no longer constructed using only the discrete div
and grad operators. The Schur complement of Eq. (6.3), i.e., the stabilized pressure Poisson equation
(PPE), is
CT ML 1C S CT un1 gn1
(6.4)
where S remains to be dened for the global and local jump stabilization techniques.
The global jump stabilization formulation attempts to control the jump in pressure across element boundaries, and results in a PPE that is perturbed by a pressure-diffusion operator. The off-diagonal entries in
the global jump stabilization matrix are dened as
SIJ
CT ML 1C
IJ
IJ
IJ
I J d
(6.5)
where I and J identify adjacent elements that share a common face as shown in Figure 6.1a. Here, IJ
represents the shared inter-element boundary, is the jump operator, is a non-dimensional parameter,
and I is the pressure basis function for element I. In two dimensions, IJ represents the length of the
42
6.2. Q1Q0 STABILIZATION

element edge shared by element I and J, and in three dimensions, it represents the area of the shared face.
The inclusion of the PPE term, CT ML 1C IJ , in Eq. (6.5) yields proper dimensionality of the stabilization
matrix, accounts for scaling due to irregular elements, and still preserves the symmetry of the original PPE.
For alternative scaling procedures, see Chan and Sugiyama [62]. The diagonal contributions are calculated
as
CT ML 1C IJ
SII
I J d
(6.6)
IJ
IJ
J
where the sum on J indicates a summation over all shared faces of element I. This formulation preserves
the row-sum-zero property of the original PPE. The global jump stabilization is simple to implement from
a linear algebra point of view since the contributions to S are simply augmented row-entries from the
original PPE.
Pressure DOF
Velocity DOF
I
h
I
a)
b)
Figure 6.1: Element conguration for pressure stabilization: a) global jump, b) local jump.
In contrast to the global method, the local stabilization procedure relies on the construction of macroelements that contain one velocity node per edge of the macro element in two dimensions and one velocity
node per face in three dimensions. For the local stabilization, the entries of the stabilization matrix are
calculated according to Eq. (6.5) and (6.6) but only for the faces shared with elements in the same macroelement as shown in Figure 6.1b.
Since the same scaling is used for both the local and global jump stabilization, the only remaining parameter to be determined is . From the inherited scaling of the stabilization matrix, 0 provides the
limit where no-stabilization is applied. For 1, the stabilization matrix will have entries of the same
order as the original PPE. In the context of Stokes ow, Norburn and Silvester [61] bounded by computing the extremal eigenvalues for the stabilized Schur complement as a function of . They found that
0 01 0 1 minimizes the distance between the extremal eigenvalues. Numerical testing has shown
that in general, values of in this range yield acceptable results for the stabilized PPE as well.
Figure 6.2 shows the variation of the iteration count for SSOR preconditioned conjugate gradient as a
function of for a 2-D vortex shedding problem and 3-D ow past a circular cylinder using both local
and global jump stabilization. This plot shows that for 0 002 in 2-D ( 0 004 in 3-D), there is very
43
450
2-D Global
2-D Local
3-D Global
3-D Local
3-D Unstabilized
400
No. of Iterations
350
300
2-D Unstabilized
250
200
150
100
50
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 6.2: Variation of iteration count vs. stabilization parameter for a 2-D Re 100 vortex shedding
mesh (Nel 11200) and 3-D Re 100 ow past a cylinder (Nel 22380). (The iteration count for the
un-stabilized PPE is indicated by an arrow for the 2-D and 3-D problems.)
little variation in the iteration count with respect to . In addition, the benet of stabilization appears to
be considerably larger for 3-D, a factor of 6 reduction in iteration count for 3-D compared to a factor of
about 1 3 for the 2-D case. The marked decrease in iteration count in 3-D is undoubtedly a consequence
of the relatively larger null space for the PPE in three-dimensions. Operational experience has shown that
0 01 0 1 works well for most applications while 0 25 can often yield inaccurate velocity elds.
The effect of pressure stabilization on the convergence rate is shown in Figure 6.3 which shows convergence histories for coarse, medium and ne grids for a vortex shedding problem. Here, a convergence
criteria of 1012 was used to obtain an initial RMS divergence of 108 using global stabilization.
Similar results may be found in Gresho and Sani [5] where the local and global jump stabilization formulations have been applied to a 3-D problem using an ICCG(0) preconditioner with similar improvements
in convergence rate.
6.3 The Projection CG Method

The solution of the time-dependent incompressible Navier-Stokes requires the repeated solution of the
PPE problem where the coefcient matrix is xed and the right-hand side changes each time step. To
address this aspect of solving the PPE, an A-conjugate projection is integrated with the iterative solution
of the PPE in order to use solution information from the previous time steps. In the ensuing discussion,
the PPE problem is cast as Ax b where A CT ML 1C or A CT ML 1C S , x and b CT u gn1 .
44
6.3. THE PROJECTION CG METHOD
1.0e+00
a) Un-stabilized
b) Global Jump
c) Local Jump
||b-Ax||/||b||
1.0e-02
1.0e-04
1.0e-06
1.0e-08
1.0e-10
1.0e-12
Coarse
Medium
Fine
1.0e-14
0
100
200
300
Iterations
400
500
Figure 6.3: Convergence histories for SSOR preconditioned CG applied to the un-stabilized PPE, b) the
PPE with the global jump stabilization, and c) the PPE with the local jump stabilization for the coarse
(2800 elements), medium (11200 elements) ne resolution (44800 elements) vortex shedding mesh (see
Christon [63]).
The use of an A-conjugate projection as a pre-processing step for the solution of the linear system, Ax b,
follows the development presented by Fischer [64] with extensions that permit seeding the A-conjugate
vectors. Related work on solving linear systems with multiple right-hand sides may be found in Saad [65]
and Chan and Wan [66].
To begin the development, the idea of a pre-processing A-conjugate projection step relies on minimizing
the distance between the solution at a given time step, xn , and the base vectors in the A-norm. Here,
i i 1 N . As will
is a set of A-conjugate vectors derived from N prior solutions to Ax b where
be demonstrated in 6.4, N 5 to N 10 is a reasonable choice.
Let the initial guess for a solution at time-step n be given by
N
i i
(6.7)
i 1
Let the difference between the solution at time-step n and the initial guess, x, be dened as
e
where
xn x
(6.8)
T A .
With this denition,
xn x
2
A
n T
n
x Ax
xT Axn xn T Ax xT Ax
(6.9)
2xn T Ax xT Ax
(6.10)
and for A being symmetric positive denite,

xn x
2
A
n T
n
x Ax
45

Now, substituting Eq. (6.7) and using the fact that is a set of A-conjugate vectors,
Minimization of e
2
A
n T
n
x Ax
i 1
i 1
2 iiT Axn 2
i
(6.11)
with respect to i yields

i
Axn
T n
(6.12)
Thus, given a set of A-conjugate vectors, , the best approximation to xn that minimizes the error in the
A-norm is obtained by projecting the right-hand-side, bn , at time-step n onto the set of base vectors, .
This suggests the following solution procedure.
Algorithm 1 A-conjugate projection CG method.

1. i
2. x
i T bn .
N 1 i i where N is the number of A-conjugate base vectors.

i
3. Solve Axn
rn using the conjugate gradient method where rn
4. Update the solution, xn
bn Ax.
x xn .
5. Update the base vectors, to include new information from the last solution.
As an aside, the solution at a given time level may be written as
xn
xn i i
(6.13)
i 1
Updating
For the initial solution, or when the number of existing base vectors exceeds N, the basis is started by
normalizing the solution as
x1
x1 A
(6.14)
For all other cases, a solution vector is a candidate for addition to only when it contains non-trivial
information not already present in . Here, the basic idea is that x is A-conjugate to x as well as to the
individual base vectors i . Therefore, the addition of a new base vector should be based on criteria that
guarantees that new information is being added to the existing base vectors. Addition of a solution vector
46
6.4. PPE SOLVER PERFORMANCE

(or a part of a solution vector) proceeds by rst computing the part of the solution that is not contained in
the basis as
l 1
xn i i
(6.15)
i 1
Now, each i is A-conjugate to l 1 by construction and is added to the basis as

l 1
l 1
l 1 A
(6.16)
The idea of seeding the A-conjugate vectors in with several initial vectors has been suggested by T.J.R.
Hughes [67] as a mechanism for reducing cost of the initial linear solves, i.e., the rst PPE solve when
is empty. This may be achieved by selecting several global polynomials and even random vector as seeds
for . Construction of the A-conjugate vectors in proceeds according to the algorithm above.
Experimentation with vectors representing a random solution, hydrostatic and simple polynomials have
been tested with limited success. In the case of simple ows, e.g., Pouiselle ow, the linear polynomials
contribute directly to the initial solution and reduce the number of CG iterates dramatically. However, in
moderately complex domains, the simple polynomials provide little reduction in computational cost. It is
thought that initial polynomial elds that respect the implied pressure boundary conditions may provide
an effective set of seed vectors, but this has not yet been implemented.
To illustrate the use of the A-conjugate projection, Figure 6.4a) shows a snapshot of the pressure eld for a
Re 100 vortex shedding computation. In addition, Figures 6.4b) 6.4f) show snapshots of the vectors
based on the previous ve time steps. It is clear that 1 provides primarily long wavelength information
while the other 4 vectors provide detailed information about the wake. Thus, the vectors 2 5 may be
viewed as short wavelength corrections to 1 that yield the best approximation to the current pressure eld.
The A-conjugate projection procedure, in effect, selects the appropriate information from each vector in
order to minimize the residual in the A-norm before performing any CG iterations.
The A-conjugate projection procedure retains both long and short wavelength information, and in this
sense, the procedure may be viewed as an approximate means of deating the eigenvalue spectrum for the
PPE. The combination of the A-conjugate projection method, PPE stabilization and SSOR preconditioning
has proved to be the most computationally efcient method for solving the PPE.
6.4 PPE Solver Performance

This section summarizes the performance of the PPE solvers via several computational experiments performed using the A-conjugate projection strategy with several variants of the preconditioned conjugate
gradient method. In addition, the effect of pressure stabilization on the iterative solver is considered for
both local and global stabilization. The CG variants include a diagonally scaled conjugate gradient (JPCG)
solver, an SSOR preconditioned CG method, and an SSOR preconditioned CG solver implemented using
the Eisenstat transformation the ESSOR CG solver. Each CG solver used a row-compressed storage
scheme for the PPE. The SSOR preconditioners were implemented in a stand-alone form (SSOR-PCG)
that requires separate matrix-vector preconditioning functions, and in the ESSOR-PCG form using the
transformation rst suggested by Eisenstat [68] to reduce the operations count in the preconditioned conjugate gradient method. (See also Ortega [69] and Eisenstat, et al. [70].)
47
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Figure 6.4: a) Snapshot of the pressure eld during vortex shedding, and ve elds b) f) based on
pressure solution at the ve prior time steps.
48
a) Temperature
b) Vorticity
c) Pressure
Figure 6.5: Snapshot of a) temperature eld, b) z-vorticity eld and c) pressure for the 2-D momentum
driven jet, Re 3561, Fr 326. (The temperature, vorticity and pressure elds have been reected about
the vertical centerline for presentation purposes.)
The rst series of computations used to evaluate the PPE solution methods were carried out for a momentum driven slot jet with Re 3561 based on a 15 mm slot width and Fr 326 (Fr v2 gT Lc where
g 9 81 m s2 , T 1 3, Lc 15 mm, and v 4 m s). In this computation, an energy equation was
solved in conjunction with the Navier-Stokes equations using the Boussinesq approximation. The initial
conditions consist of a div-free velocity eld with a free-eld temperature of 300K, an inlet temperature
of 400K. The working uid is air with a unit Prandtl number, Pr resulting in Pe 4000 where
Pe RePr. Here, the relatively large Froude number indicates that the inuence of buoyancy forces is
small compared to the inertial forces, i.e., a momentum driven jet.
Figure 6.5 shows snapshots of the temperature, vorticity and pressure elds from the momentum driven
jet simulation. In this computation, natural boundary conditions were applied at the far-eld boundary
removing the hydrostatic mode from the PPE. Table 6.1 and 6.2 show the results of the jet computations
in terms of the average iteration count and grind time for 1000 time steps. Here, the grind times are
normalized with respect to the grind time for the same computation using the PVS direct solver [71, 72]
where a single factorization is performed during initialization and a single re-solve is carried out at each
time step. All computations in this comparison were performed using a 500 MHz single processor DEC
Alpha.
The solution time due to the PPE re-solve was 15.2% for the semi-implicit projection method and 60.0%
for the explicit algorithm using the direct solver. This relatively low percentage is due to the fact that a
single, off-line factorization is performed with one re-solve per time step. For the PPE, the ideal situation
would be to have a normalized grind-time using the iterative solvers that approaches or beats the re-solve
cost for the PVS direct solver. Note that the CPU time associated with the PVS re-solve scales roughly as
49

Nel Nb where Nb is the 1 2 bandwidth of the PPE.
As Tables 6.1 and 6.2 show, there is a small but noticeable effect of the stabilization on the iteration count
and grind-time for the 2-D jet for both the explicit and semi-implicit projection algorithms. This is due to
the fact that for all computations, a convergence criteria of 105 was used. As shown in Figure 6.3,
this level of convergence limits makes the effect of the stabilization appear reduced. However, the SSOR
preconditioning reduces the iteration count by nearly a factor of 3 without the A-conjugate projection. The
use of the Eisenstat formulation further reduces the grind time by a factor of approximately 1 6.
For the explicit algorithm, the use of 5 base-vectors for the A-conjugate projection algorithm reduces
the iteration count by nearly a factor of 3 and the grind time by nearly a factor of 3 regardless of the
preconditioner. For the semi-implicit projection algorithm, the effect is reduced somewhat resulting in a
factor of about 2 25 reduction in the iteration count and better than a factor of 2 reduction in the grind
time.
The combination of the ESSOR-PCG algorithm and 10 projection vectors results in grind times that are
within a factor of 3 of the grind-time using the PVS solver. For the projection algorithm, the grind times
are within a factor about 2 emphasizing the additional cost of the semi-implicit treatment of the momentum
equations. Relative to the basic JPCG solver the ESSOR-PCG solver with 10 projection vectors results in
a reduction of nearly 9 for the explicit algorithm and nearly 4 for the projection algorithm. Interestingly,
the storage cost of a separate preconditioning matrix is approximately equivalent to 10 projection vectors.
Although further reductions in the execution times may be had with increasing number of projection
vectors, the increased storage cost and diminishing reduction in the computational costs makes suggests
that 5 to 10 vectors is nearly optimal.
The second series of computations were carried out for a three-dimensional channel ow past a circular
cylinder with ReD 100. Figure 6.6 shows snapshots of the computation that was motivated by a suite of
benchmark problems used as round-robin tests to evaluate incompressible ow solution methods developed under the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Priority Research Program, Flow Simulation
on High Performance Computers. Figure 6.6a shows a snapshot of the 3-D z-vorticity eld. Isosurfaces
of the corresponding pressure eld are shown in Figure 6.6b.
In this computation, a parabolic velocity prole was prescribed at the inlet to the channel with no-slip
boundaries on the channel and cylinder walls. Natural boundary conditions were used at the channel
outow. The prescription of ui ni 0 on the channel walls results in a two-dimensional checkerboard
pressure mode that exists in each plane of three-dimensional elements normal to the ow direction. In
this situation, pressure stabilization is necessary to lter the checkerboard modes. For this reason, all
computations were performed using the pressure stabilization outlined in 6.2.
Tables 6.3 and 6.4 report the grind times and iteration counts for the channel ow problem using the
explicit and semi-implicit projection methods respectively. The results in Table 6.3 show that the cost
of the PPE solution dominates the solution time per time step. In contrast, the solution of the stabilized
PPE in the projection algorithm is less than one-third of the computational cost per time step when the
ESSOR-PCG solver is used. Again, the best overall grind times are found using the ESSOR-PCG solver
combined with 5 to 10 base vectors where a speedup of 3 to 4 is observed relative to the basic JPCG solver.
The inuence of the large half-bandwidth of the PPE is seen on the grind times resulting in normalized
grind times approaching unity for the ESSOR-PCG solver.
Based on the results for a range of ow problems, the use of a stabilized consistent pressure-Poisson
operator, an A-conjugate projection technique, and SSOR preconditioning with the conjugate-gradient
method yields the overall best performance relative to the re-solve cost of a direct solver. The effect of
50
Table 6.1: Effect of the A-Conjugate projection on the PPE solution time for the 2-D momentum driven
jet. The grind times for the explicit algorithm have been normalized with respect to the solution time
for 1000 time steps using a direct solver [71, 72]. NIT is the average number of iterations required per
time step to solve the PPE problem. (Nel 11250, Nnp 11466, Nb 146, direct solver grind time:
1 2254 105 CPU seconds per element per time step)
No. of
Vectors
0
5
10
25
50
Explicit Algorithm No Stabilization

JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
Grind
Grind
Grind
NIT Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE
353 26.52
98.9
120 19.89
98.5
109 12.22
97.3
114 8.81
96.8
38
6.65
95.7
35
4.20
92.2
82
5.55
94.4
28
4.47
90.4
26
2.97
88.2
55
4.48
93.6
19
3.68
91.7
17
2.53
86.7
45
3.99
92.7
16
3.58
91.9
14
2.33
85.7
No. of
Vectors
0
5
10
25
50
Explicit Algorithm Global Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)

JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
Grind
Grind
Grind
340 24.92
98.8
115 19.23
98.3
107 12.06
97.1
109 8.41
96.5
36
6.21
94.9
33
4.02
91.5
79
5.33
93.9
26
4.32
92.0
24
2.88
87.3
52
4.24
92.7
18
3.47
90.6
16
2.42
85.3
42
3.76
91.9
14
3.06
89.4
13
2.21
84.2
No. of
Vectors
0
5
10
25
50
Explicit Algorithm Local Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)

JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
Grind
Grind
Grind
291 21.44
98.7
99 16.55
98.1
91 10.35
96.8
120 9.27
97.0
40
6.84
95.5
36
4.31
92.5
89
5.96
94.7
30
4.80
93.0
27
3.19
88.7
62
4.96
94.2
21
3.98
92.1
19
2.73
87.4
50
4.31
93.1
17
3.46
90.8
15
2.47
86.1
51
Table 6.2: Effect of the A-Conjugate projection on the PPE solution time for the 2-D momentum driven
jet. The grind times for the projection algorithm have been normalized with respect to the solution time
for 1000 time steps using a direct solver [71, 72]. NIT is the average number of iterations required per
time step to solve the PPE problem. (Nel 11250, Nnp 11466, Nb 146, direct solver grind time:
4 871 105 CPU seconds per element per time step)
No. of
Vectors
0
5
10
25
50
NIT
328
148
121
100
87
Projection-2 Algorithm No Stabilization

JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
Grind
Grind
Grind
Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE
6.52
87.4
110 5.05
83.6
100 3.36
74.7
3.20
75.0
49
2.63
69.4
47
2.02
59.7
2.53
66.5
41
2.13
59.9
38
1.75
51.1
2.66
69.4
34
2.18
62.3
31
1.71
51.7
2.39
66.6
29
2.03
60.4
26
1.60
49.2
Projection-2 Algorithm Global Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)

JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
Vectors NIT Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE NIT Time % PPE
0
309 6.16
86.6
105 4.83
82.8
96
3.23
74.0
5
130 2.91
72.4
43
2.39
66.2
44
1.87
56.2
10
108 2.35
63.7
36
1.98
56.8
37
1.68
48.1
25
88
2.44
66.5
29
2.00
58.8
27
1.65
49.4
50
76
2.20
63.7
26
1.92
57.9
23
1.52
45.9
Projection-2 Algorithm Local Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)
JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
0
309 6.52
86.6
105 4.95
82.8
96
3.27
74.0
5
130 3.11
72.4
43
2.53
66.2
44
1.93
56.2
10
108 2.47
63.7
36
2.07
56.8
37
1.73
48.1
25
88
2.61
66.5
29
2.09
58.8
29
1.69
49.4
50
76
2.36
63.7
26
2.04
57.9
25
1.58
46.0
52
a)
b)
Figure 6.6: Snapshot of a) cutplane showing the z-vorticity eld and c) isosurfaces of the pressure for the
3-D cylinder in a channel for ReD 100.
the A-conjugate projection technique is to introduce both long and short wavelength information, thus
effectively deating the eigenvalue spectrum of the PPE. This effect not only reduces the iteration count
and concomitant computational cost but is seen to improve the effectiveness of simple sub-domain parallel
preconditioners that are effective for wavelengths proportional to the sub-domain size but cannot smooth
error modes that span sub-domains.
Operational experience with both the global and local pressure stabilization formulations has shown that
either approach is effective in terms of ltering spurious pressure modes and improving the overall robustness of the computations. Ultimately, the combination of the pressure stabilization with preconditioning
and the A-conjugate projection technique has proven both robust and computationally efcient making it
a reasonable alternative to more complicated approaches based on multi-grid or multi-level algorithms.
53
Table 6.3: Effect of the A-Conjugate projection on the PPE solution time for the 3-D square cylinder
vortex shedding problem. The grind times for the explicit algorithm have been normalized with respect to
the solution time for 1000 time steps using a direct solver [71, 72]. NIT is the average number of iterations
required per time step to solve the PPE problem. (Nel 22380, Nnp 25568, Nb 772)
Explicit Algorithm Global Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)
JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
0
191 9.75
97.2
67
8.00
96.5
59
5.17
94.3
5
109 5.82
95.3
37
4.57
93.9
35
3.22
91.2
10
92
4.97
94.5
30
3.89
92.8
27
2.66
89.2
25
65
3.66
92.3
21
2.86
90.0
19
1.96
85.5
50
49
2.91
90.4
16
2.33
87.7
14
1.66
82.7
Explicit Algorithm Local Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)
JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
0
184 9.41
97.1
65
7.72
96.4
57
4.97
94.1
5
112 5.95
95.4
37
4.64
93.8
32
3.00
90.7
10
88
4.75
94.2
29
3.68
92.3
25
2.46
88.3
25
65
3.64
92.3
21
2.79
89.9
18
1.89
85.2
50
53
3.07
90.9
17
2.36
88.2
15
1.69
83.1
54
Table 6.4: Effect of the A-Conjugate projection on the PPE solution time for the 3-D square cylinder vortex
shedding problem. The grind times for the projection algorithm have been normalized with respect to the
solution time for 1000 time steps using a direct solver [71, 72]. NIT is the average number of iterations
required per time step to solve the PPE problem. (Nel 22380, Nnp 25568, Nb 772)
Projection-2 Algorithm Global Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)
JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
0
63
1.54
43.8
20
1.24
36.4
19
1.12
28.3
5
49
1.34
38.4
16
1.15
31.3
14
1.04
23.9
10
42
1.20
34.9
13
1.10
28.2
12
1.01
21.6
25
36
1.16
31.7
12
1.06
25.7
10
0.99
19.8
50
33
1.14
30.7
11
1.05
24.9
10
0.99
19.4
Projection-2 Algorithm Local Jump Stabilization ( 0 05)
JPCG
SSOR-PCG
ESSOR-PCG
No. of
Grind
Grind
Grind
0
67
1.43
45.0
21
1.26
37.6
20
1.12
29.5
5
51
1.30
39.0
16
1.16
32.1
15
1.05
24.7
10
44
1.10
35.8
14
1.11
28.9
13
1.02
22.3
25
39
1.06
32.8
12
1.08
26.6
11
1.00
20.5
50
36
1.05
31.9
11
1.07
25.8
10
0.99
20.1
55
56
Chapter 7
Turbulence Models
Turbulent ows occur in a wide variety of engineering applications and they are characterized by their
inherent unpredictability, enhanced mixing properties and broad range of length and time scales. The
length scales in a turbulent ow are bounded by the bulk or integral length scale, e.g., a pipe diameter or
body dimension, and by the dissipation scale where physical viscosity acts. Similarly, the time scales are
bounded by the time scale associated with the turn-over time of the largest eddies in the ow and the time
scale for viscous dissipation. Resolution of all the length and time scales in high Reynolds numbers ows,
i.e., direct numerical simulation, remains out of reach even for the largest supercomputers available today
particularly when complex geometry or complex physics is involved. For industrial ows, which are
typically turbulent with relatively high Reynolds numbers, turbulence modeling is the pacing technology
for computational uid dynamics.
Turbulence models range in complexity from simple mixing-length or zero-equation models to n-equation
models that provide second-moment closure. The n-equation models require the solution of additional
partial differential equations that describe the transport of turbulence quantities, e.g., turbulent kinetic
energy. The n-equation models range in complexity from one-equation models, e.g., the Spalart-Allmaras
model [73] and the Baldwin-Barth model [74], to models that provide second-moment closure and require
up to seven additional transport equations. Two-equation models are typied by the standard k model
and its multitude of variations.
Large-eddy simulation is a promising alternative to traditional turbulence modeling approaches that rely
upon Reynolds averaging and closure models based upon ad-hoc transport equations for the rate of dissipation. Unlike traditional Reynolds averaged models, LES provides a high degree of accuracy with
minimal empiricism. However, the computational cost associated with performing pure LES, i.e., where
a signicant fraction of the energy spectrum is resolved, is quite high. For example, for simple channel
ow, the grid resolution for pure LES scales approximately as Re2 for simple channel ow (see for example [75, 76]). In contrast, the idea of under-resolved or VLES (very-large eddy simulation) has shown
promising results in a variety of applications (see for example [77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]), suggesting that the
non-purist view of LES may provide useful engineering results.
LS-DYNAs CFD capabilities are intended to nd broad application, and since there is no single universal
turbulence model that is suitable for all applications, the goal is to provide multiple turbulence models and
modeling approaches. In the subsequent sections of this chapter, the averaging approaches, and current
turbulence models available in LS-DYNA are outlined. Refer to Chapter 9 for details on the *CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE keyword which is used for the specication of turbulence model constants
and model options.
57
CHAPTER 7. TURBULENCE MODELS
7.1 Averaging, Filtering and Scale Separation

The broad range of length and time scales associated with the highly disordered, three-dimensional and
time-dependent behavior of turbulent ow makes direct simulation for high-Reynolds number engineering
ows computationally intractable. In order to attempt to model the behavior of turbulent ows, the elds
are typically separated into mean and uctuating components. The specic type of averaging used to obtain the mean ow elds depends on the ow regime and the type of turbulence model that is applied. The
three types of averaging typically used in turbulence modeling are time, space and ensemble averaging.
Time averaging is used for ows that are considered stationary, i.e., the mean values are independent of the
starting time for the averaging process. Stationary ows are also referred to as statistically steady, i.e., the
mean values are not a function of time. For a generic ow variable, xi t where is taken to represent
ow variables such as velocity, pressure, etc., the time average is
xi
1
T
lim
t 0 T
t0
xi t dt
(7.1)
where xi is the averaged quantity and T is the duration for the averaging procedure. Note that in
subsequent chapters, the average is also identied as xi or . Using the average ow variable
, the instantaneous value may be decomposed into average, , and uctuating, , components as
xi xi t
xi t
(7.2)
For ows that have a slowly varying mean that is not turbulent in nature, e.g., ows with an imposed
mean periodic behavior, the time averaging procedure can be extended to account for the long and short
time scales. In this situation, the time average is computed using Eq. (7.1) where T1
T
T2 , i.e.,
the time scale for the averaging must be large relative to the turbulent uctuations and small relative to
the time scale associated with the mean ow. As shown in Figure 7.1, T1 is the time scale associated
with the turbulent uctuations, while T2 is the time scale for the periodic mean ow. For this case, the
decomposition becomes
(7.3)
xi t xi t xi t
accounting for time-dependent mean ow variables xi t .
A homogeneous turbulent ow is one for which the ow eld is uniform in all directions on the average.
For homogeneous turbulent ows, a spatial average is appropriate where
xi
1
V
lim
xi t dV
(7.4)
For ows that are not stationary, an ensemble average is appropriate. In this case, the average is computed
over a signicant number of ow trials until the mean quantities are independent of the number of trials.
Formally, the ensemble average of is
xi
lim
Ntrial
1 Ntrial
nxi t
Ntrial n 1
(7.5)
where t t0 is the elapsed time from the start of the ow experiment t0 , and Ntrial is the number of
experimental trials.
58
7.1. AVERAGING, FILTERING AND SCALE SEPARATION

(x,t)
T2
T1
Figure 7.1: Time averaging for non-stationary ow.

For ows that are both stationary and homogeneous, time, space and ensemble averaging are all equivalent,
i.e., the ergodic hypothesis applies. However, in a practical sense, homogeneous turbulent ow is strictly
an idealization because boundary conditions such as at no-slip/no-penetration surfaces introduce ow
inhomogeneities.
7.1.1 Spatial Filtering

An alternative approach to turbulence modeling is large-eddy simulation (LES) which relies on the direct
computation of the largest ow structures with a model for the small-scale turbulence. The formulation of
the LES problem relies on a separation of the ow eld into resolved and sub-grid elds,
xi t xi t
xi t
(7.6)
where is the resolved eld and is the sub-grid eld. The resolved eld is dened in terms of a spatial
lter, which for homogeneous turbulence may be dened as
xi t
i t Gxi i d
(7.7)
where G is the lter kernel and is the ow domain. In order to reproduce constant elds, the lter must
satisfy the condition that
a
Gxi d
(7.8)
where a corresponds to the lter support. Examples of the Gaussian, sharp cut-off, and top-hat lters
may be found in [75, 83].
The ltering procedures used for LES are different than the time averaging discussed above. Contrary to
the traditional Reynolds time averaging,
0
(7.9)
59

and in general,

i.e., repeated ltering operations remove additional short wavelength information from the eld.
(7.10)
The support for the lter indicated above by a introduces a length scale that corresponds to the smallest
turbulence scale, , that may be considered to be resolved. Thus, the spatial ltering procedure provides
the mechanism to separate the ow variables into grid-resolved and subgrid variations .
7.2 The Time-Averaged Equations

In this section, the time-averaged form of the conservation equations are presented. As a starting point,
the momentum equations and the divergence constraint are
ui
ui
u j
t
x j
x x
i
2Si j fi
(7.11)
and
ui
0
(7.12)
xi
Here, the viscosity is treated as a scalar for simplicity, but internally LS-DYNA always treats the viscosity
as a second-rank tensor for generality.
The time-averaged equations are derived by applying the additive decomposition ui ui u and applying
i
the time-averaging procedure from 7.1, where an over-bar indicates application of the time-averaging
procedure in Eq. (7.3). The time-averaged momentum equations are
ui
ui
u j
t
x j
where
Si j
x x
i
1
2
and the Reynolds stress tensor is

i j
The divergence constraint is
ui
x j
2Si j
j
u j
xi
uiuj
ui
xi
i j f i
(7.13)
(7.14)
(7.15)
(7.16)
The Reynolds stress tensor is a symmetric second-rank tensor, i j ji , with six independent components.
Thus, six independent Reynolds stress components have been added to ui and p as unknowns. However,
there are only four equations (3-momentum equations and the divergence constraint) indicating that the
system is not closed. In fact, the nonlinear terms in the momentum equation will yield new unknowns
with each application of the averaging procedure making it impossible to generate a closed system.
In order to compute the time-averaged velocity and pressure, a prescription for the Reynolds stress is
required. Ultimately, the purpose for turbulence models is to provide the prescription of the Reynolds
stress and close the system of time-averaged equations, albeit with varying degrees of complexity and
success.
60
7.3. THE SPATIALLY FILTERED EQUATIONS
7.3 The Spatially Filtered Equations

In this section, the spatially ltered form of the conservation equations are presented. Here, an over-bar
indicates a spatially ltered quantity. Applying the spatial ltering procedure, Eq. (7.7), to Eq. (7.11)
and (7.12) with the requirement that the ltering operation commutes with differentiation, the resulting
space-ltered momentum equations are
ui
ui
u j
t
x j
x x
i
2Si j
j
sgs f i
ij
(7.17)
where the strain-rate based on the resolved velocity eld is

ui
x j
1
2
Si j
The divergence constraint is
ui
xi
u j
xi
(7.18)
(7.19)
Application of the spatial lter to the nonlinear advection term in the momentum equations produces a
sgs
new term referred to as the subgrid-scale (SGS) stress tensor i j . Using Germanos generalized moment
denitions [84], the SGS stress tensor is
ui u j ui u j
sgs
i j
(7.20)
and represents the effect of the subgrid-scale variations on the resolved scale. Like the Reynolds stress
tensor, the SGS stress tensor is symmetric and introduces new unknowns which must be represented via
a model. The denition of a model for the subgrid-scale stress tensor permits the solution of the ltered
Navier-Stokes equations for the resolved-scale velocity ui and pressure p. However, like the time-averaged
equations, closure of the spatially-ltered LES equations can vary in the degree of complexity and success
in simulating turbulent ow.
The most simple and most common prescription for the SGS stresses relies on a parameterization in
terms of the strain-rate and an eddy viscosity, i.e., the Boussinesq hypothesis. The Boussinesq hypothesis
sgs
assumes that the principle axes of the SGS stress tensor, i j are aligned with the principle axes of the
ltered strain-rate tensor. Thus, the relationship between the deviatoric SGS stress and strain-rate is
sgs
i j
1 i j sgs 2t Si j
kk
3
(7.21)
where t is a turbulent eddy viscosity.

The parameterization of the deviatoric SGS stresses in terms of the strain-rate permits the ltered momentum equations to be written as
ui
ui
u j
t
x j
x x
i
where
p
2 t Si j
1 sgs
p kk
3
fi
(7.22)
(7.23)
61
7.3.1 Baseline Smagorinsky Subgrid-Scale Model

One of the most common models for the LES subgrid-scale stresses was rst proposed by Smagorinsky
[85] and uses the Boussinesq hypothesis to relate the deviatoric part of the SGS stress tensor to the strainrate via an eddy viscosity. The basis for the Smagorinsky model lies in the observation that the turbulent
eddy-viscosity can be parameterized in terms of a length and a velocity scale. This observation permits
the eddy-viscosity to be written in terms of a length scale and the rate of dissipation, , as
t
C4 3 1
(7.24)
where the length scale has been chosen as the lter scale, .
Assuming that the dissipation rate is in equilibrium with the rate of production of subgrid kinetic ensgs
ergy, Psgs i j Si j , permits estimation of the eddy-viscosity in terms of the ltered strain-rate. In the
Smagorinsky model, the turbulent eddy viscosity is
t
CS 2
S i j Si j
(7.25)
The Smagorinsky constant, CS , is not universal and requires adjustment for each unique set of ow conditions. Various applications have shown that CS typically is in the range of 0 1 CS 0 24 (see Rogallo
and Moin [86]. In LS-DYNA, the default for the baseline Smagorinsky model is CS 0 1 (see the *CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE keyword in Chapter 9).
7.4 Subgrid Kinetic Energy Models

The Smagorinsky model has found broad application and is attractive from a computational perspective
due to its simplicity. While the Smagorinsky model provides approximately the correct amount of dissipation to the resolved velocity eld, the model has several deciencies. For example, the Smagorinsky
constant is not universal, the eddy viscosity does not vanish in laminar regions, the limiting wall behavior
is incorrect, and the model is excessively dissipative for transitional ows.
This section outlines the LES models in LS-DYNA that are based on the subgrid-scale kinetic energy. The
SGS kinetic energy is
1
ksgs
uk uk uk uk
(7.26)
2
Following Menon and Kim [87, 88], the transport equation for the SGS kinetic energy is
ksgs
ksgs
ui
t
xi
sgs x i sgs x
ij
j
t ksgs
xi
(7.27)
where sgs is the subgrid-scale dissipation. This transport equation is based on the difference between the
equation of mechanical energy and its spatially-ltered form, and it is similar to the k-transport equation
of Schumann [89] and follows the form used by Yoshizawa [90].
62
7.4. SUBGRID KINETIC ENERGY MODELS

In Eq. (7.27), the SGS stresses are modeled using the Boussinesq hypothesis with the lter scale, ,
providing the length scale and the SGS kinetic energy providing the velocity scale. Thus, the SGS stresses
are
sgs
2C ksgs Si j 1 i j sgs
(7.28)
i j
kk
3
sgs
where kk
2ksgs , and the eddy viscosity is
C ksgs
(7.29)
In order to close Eq. (7.27), the dissipation rate is modeled as

sgs
ksgs 3 2
(7.30)
In order to solve Eq. (7.27), the constants C and C must be prescribed . Schmidt and Schumann [91]
suggest C 0 0856 and C 0 845. Alternatively, Chakravarthy and Menon [92] have determined that
C 0 067 and C 0 931 based on the an analysis of the inertial-viscous spectrum and SGS closure.
Unlike the Smagorinsky model which relates the eddy viscosity to the instantaneous ltered strain-rate,
the ksgs model includes some effects of the ow history in the estimation of the eddy viscosity. In addition, there are no explicit assumptions equating the production and dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy
making it possible to account for non-equilibrium effects. However, this model still requires the use of
ow-specic constants. In the following section, the dynamic procedure for evaluating the constants is
outlined.
7.4.1 Local Dynamic ksgs model

The local dynamic ksgs model was was rst proposed by Kim and Menon [93] and later extended to
compressible ows by Nelson [94]. The dynamic evaluation of C and C makes these quantities functions
of both space and time. The dynamic evaluation procedure (see for example [95, 96]) relies on a testscale or high-pass lter with a lter scale where typically 2. In the ensuing discussion, a
circumex, , denotes application of the test-scale lter.
Application of the test-scale lter further decomposes the ow variables into test-scale and subtest-scale
components, e.g., the subtest stresses are
Ti j
u i u j u i u j
(7.31)
Application of the test-scale lter to the subgrid-scale stresses yields a relationship between the test-scale
and SGS stresses,
(7.32)
Li j ui u j ui u j
where Li j
Ti j i j .
sgs
The test-scale kinetic energy is dened as the trace of Eq. (7.32), i.e.,
ktest
1
Lkk
2
(7.33)
63

The test-scale kinetic energy is analogous to ksgs , but it is produced at the large scales and dissipated at the
small scales by
i ui
ui ui u
t
(7.34)
e
x j x j x j x j
Similarly, the dissipation is based on the molecular and turbulent viscosity since ktest represents the resolved kinetic energy at the test-scale.
sgs
The SGS stresses, i j , and the Leonard stresses, Li j , have been observed to exhibit similarities in experimental data as reported by by Liu et al. [97] for the fully developed region of a circular jet. This suggests
that Li j be modeled in a manner similar to the SGS stresses, that is,
Li j
2C
test
1
Si j i j Lkk
3
(7.35)
Here, C is the only unknown since Li j may be obtained by application of the test-scale lter to the computed velocities. Thus, Eq. (7.35) provides an explicit representation for C in terms of known quantities.
However, this equation is overdetermined because there are ve equations and only a single unknown, C .
Using the least-squares method introduced by Lilly [96],
C
where
Li j i j
i j i j
i j
(7.36)
test
k
Si j
(7.37)
which can be determined entirely from data available at the test scale.
In comparison to Germanos dynamic procedure which can exhibit pathalogical behavior requiring additional spatial averaging in homogeneous directions, the evaluation of C in Eq. (7.36) is well-dened
and non-zero (i j i j 0). In addition, in this dynamic procedure, there is no requirement for the model
constant C to be lter independent, i.e., the evaluation is strictly local. Thus, the model is referred to as
the local dynamic ksgs model (LDKM).
In order to obatin the dissipation model constant, C , similarity between e and is assumed. Thus,
C test 3
k
(7.38)
which permits evaulation of the dissipation constant as
64
ktest 3 2
ui ui
x j x j
u u
x i x i
(7.39)
Chapter 8
Flow Statistics
The purpose for this chapter is to provide sufcient information for an experienced analyst to use LSDYNA to generate ow statistics from a transient ow simulation. The goal of this chapter is to present
the built-in tools that are available in LS-DYNA and LS-POST to analyze time-dependent ow data,
specically turbulent ow data. It is through the use of these tools that the user will develop an understanding of the simulated ow eld which may lead to design changes or implementation of turbulence
controls.
LS-DYNA provides the capability to accumulate time-averaged data that may be later post-processed with
LS-POST to derive ow statistics. For large-eddy simulations, turbulence statistics such as the mean
and uctuating velocity, Reynolds stresses, turbulent kinetic energy, velocitytemperature and velocity
pressure correlations and higher-order statistics such as velocity skewness and atness may be generated.
LS-DYNA generates a time-averaged database (the d3mean le) that may be used with LS-POST which
provides the capability to select a time-averaging window for the generation of all the derived turbulence
statistics. In this model, LS-DYNA generates the raw statistical data that is analyzed by LS-POST to
generate ow statistics.
In 8.1, a theoretical overview is presented as background while 8.2 summarizes the statistics level
generated by LS-DYNA and 8.3 presents the derived statistics available in LS-POST.
Note that LS-POST support for d3mean and d3thins les will only be available in LS-POST 2.0 and later
versions. d3thins is the new time history database for the incompressible ow solver.
8.1 Derived Flow Statistics

Some of the most important statistical quantities of interest (and the most physically relevant) are the
mean values of the ow variables, sometimes referred to as moments. The rst two moments are the mean
and variance. These moments are routinely measured in experiments and form the basis of the Reynolds
Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solution approach for turbulent ows. There are several techniques used
to obtain these moments from raw data. Before proceeding with an overview of the methods used to derive
statistics from a time-accurate ow simulation, several denitions are required.
65
CHAPTER 8. FLOW STATISTICS
8.1.1 Reynolds Averaged Statistics

Reynolds time-averages, homogeneous spatial averages, and ensemble averages are three types of averaging commonly used to determine mean quantities (or moments) of a turbulent ow. Reynolds averaging
describes the time invariant mean quantities of a stationary ow as a function of position. Ensemble averages are well suited for transient ows and describe the mean values as a function of both space and
elapsed time. Spatial averages describe the spatial invariance of mean values in a homogeneous ow that
may or may not be stationary.
A stationary ow is one for which the mean values are independent of the starting time for the averaging
process. Stationary ows are also referred to as statistically steady, i.e., the mean values are not a function
etc., the Reynolds time-average is
of time. For a generic ow variable, xi t where u v w p
xi
where xi
Figure 8.1.
1
T
t0 T
lim
t0
xi t dt
(8.1)
is the averaged quantity and T is the duration for the averaging process as shown in
Remark
Note that the time-average was dened in an equivalent way in Chapter 7, and was referred
to as xi . Here, is used because this notation is directly translated into the graphics
database and LS-POST.
In a discrete sense, the time-average is approximated by
xi
N 1 n xi t nt n
n
N 1 t n
n
lim
(8.2)
where t n is the time step increment for the nth time integration step and t n
time.
n
m
1 t
is the accumulated
A ow is considered to be non-stationary if there is no time invariant mean that can be dened. In order
to dene mean quantities for a non-stationary ow an ensemble average is required. Here, the mean
values are computed by averaging over a signicant number of ow trials until the mean quantities are
independent of the number of trials. Formally, the ensemble average of xi t is
xi
lim
Ntrial
1 Ntrial
n xi t
Ntrial n 1
(8.3)
where t t0 is the elapsed time from the start of the ow experiment t0 , and Ntrial is the number of
computational experiments.
In a spatially homogeneous ow, the statistical properties of the ow do not vary in space. All the mean
values are independent of location and can by described by a single value at an instant in time, instead of
a value at each spatial location. The mean values for homogeneous ows are determined from a volume
average, i.e.,
1
t lim
xi t d
(8.4)

66
8.1. DERIVED FLOW STATISTICS
Velocity
-1
Average
-2
T
t0
-3
0
50
100
150
Time
200
250
300
Figure 8.1: Time-averaged and instantaneous velocity.

where is the volume of the domain. Of course, homogeneous ow is an idealization because boundary
conditions such as no-slip/no-penetration surfaces introduce ow inhomogeneities.
For ows that are both stationary and homogeneous, all three forms of averaging are equivalent, i.e., the
ergodic hypothesis applies. The current version of LS-POST calculates Reynolds averaged statistics of
stationary ows. Spatial averaging of homogeneous data, ensemble averaging of transient ow data and
calculation of probability densities have been neglected in the current version of the software.
8.1.2 Mean and Fluctuating Quantities

Turning now to the calculation of mean and uctuating components, the denition of the Reynolds average
in Eq. (8.1) permits any variable can be decomposed into its mean and uctuating component,
xi
xi t
xi t
(8.5)
where is the mean and is the uctuating part. Given the denition of the Reynolds average,
application of the average to the uctuating component yields
(8.6)
Repeated application of the averaging procedure does not change the average,
Averaging a product of variables, i.e., and yields
(8.7)

(8.8)
67

Similarly, the averaging procedure is commutative and averaging with a uctuating component yields
Let represent a scalar quantity and let ui , (i

instantaneous velocity.
(8.9)
1 2 3) represent the ith Cartesian component of the
For a scalar quantity, , the variance is

2
(8.10)
and the root mean square (RMS) value is . The triple correlation between three independent scalars, ,
, and is

(8.11)
Correlations of this type appear in second order moment closure models such as the Reynolds stress
turbulence model. Higher order correlations can be dened in a similar manner.
The Reynolds stress tensor is dened in a similar way
Ri j
u uj
i
ui u j
ui
uj
(8.12)
where ui are the velocity components. The turbulent kinetic energy is

q
1
2
u u
k k
1
uk uk
2
uk
uk
(8.13)
The turbulent scalar ux vector is

u
i
ui
ui
(8.14)
8.1.3 Higher-Order Statistics

Higher-order moments of velocity differences and velocity derivatives are frequently used to analyze
isotropic turbulence. The skewness is dened as
S0i
3
ui
2 3 2
(8.15)
ui
and the atness factor is

F0i
4
ui
2 2
(8.16)
ui
The skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the uctuations; S0i 0 are predominately positive and
S0i 0 are predominately negative. The atness is a relative measure of remotely occurring, symmetric
spiking uctuations.
68
8.1. DERIVED FLOW STATISTICS

The skewness of velocity derivatives is dened as
3
ui
xi
S1i
3 2
ui
xi
(8.17)
and the atness factor of velocity derivatives

ui
xi
ui
xi
F1i
(8.18)
where there is no summation of repeated indices.

Skewness and atness of velocity differences have been also measured [98],
ui 2
and the atness factor is

Fi r
ui xi ri t uixi t and ri
3 2
Si r
where ui
ui 3
ui 4
2
ui 2
(8.19)
(8.20)
xi r.
For homogeneous and isotropic turbulence, the velocity uctuations have a Gaussian probability distribution. Since this distribution is symmetric, all odd moments are zero. The nonzero moment higher than
the variance is the atness that obtains a value of 3.0. The derivative skewness is 0 3 0 5 and the
derivative atness is 3 4 [98]. Velocity derivative skewness and atness are dominated by the smaller
scales in the ow so these statistics provide a good measure of how well the numerical scheme is resolving
the smaller scales of the ow.
8.1.4 Anisotropic Stress Tensor

An intrinsic distinction exists between isotropic and anisotropic Reynolds stresses. The isotropic stress is
2
3 q i j and the deviatoric anisotropic part is
ai j
u uj
i
2 qi j
3
a
i
The normalized anisotropy tensor is dened as bi j 2qj It is readily seen that akk
is seen by non-zero values of the off-diagonal terms.
(8.21)
0 and any anisotropy
69
Start
Dump Start
50
Dump Start
100
150
Dump Start
200
250
Time
Figure 8.2: Time windows for the collection of the raw time-averaged data for LS-POST.
8.2 LS-DYNA Statistics Levels

Currently, LS-DYNA generates three levels of time-averaged output data that range from mean quantities
(level-1) such as mean velocity, pressure, etc. to an intermediate level (level-2) that includes correlations such as velocity and pressure, and the highest level (level-3) that includes the higher-order correlations, u3 and u4 . The level of time-averaging is selected using the ISTATS parameter on the
i
i
*DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN keyword.
At run-time, LS-DYNA generates the d3mean data le that contains raw time-averaged data that is collected during the course of a simulation. In order to facilitate the computation of a windowed time-average
for the derived statistics, LS-DYNA collects the raw time-averaged data over a series of time windows as
shown in Figure 8.2. Here, the time averaging procedure starts at tstart 50 and is restarted after the data
for a time window is written to disk. This approach permits the exclusion of start-up transients in the
computation of the derived turbulence statistics. The starting time for the collection of data in LS-DYNA
is controlled by the TSTART parameter on the *DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN keyword.
For each time-window, the LS-DYNA collects the raw statistics for the active time window. Considering
a generic variable, xi t , the time-average for a given window is simply
xi
t nIavg t n
nIavg
xi t j t j
(8.22)
j n
where Iavg is the number of time samples accumulated in the window.
70
8.2. LS-DYNA STATISTICS LEVELS

LS-DYNA records the time associated with the end of each time window, the elapsed time associated
the window, and the number of samples collected in the window. The elapsed time, t nIavg t n , and the
number of time samples during this time interval, Iavg, is written into the d3mean database. The number of
time samples in a window is controlled by the IAVG parameter on the *DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN
keyword.
8.2.1 Level-1: Mean Statistics

For level-1 time-averaged statistics, LS-DYNA accumulates the variables shown in Table 8.1 with their
associated database labels for the d3mean le. In this statistics level, derived mean quantities that are
based on the user-specied time window include: the velocity, ui , pressure, p , vorticity, i ,
and for 2D problems, the vorticity, , and the stream function, . For thermal problems, the
mean quantities also include the average temperature, T , and for species transport, the mean species
concentration, Z j .
Variable Name Quantity LS-POST Label
X-velocity
u1
<X-Velocity>
Y-velocity
u2
<Y-Velocity>
Z-velocity
u3
<Z-Velocity>
Pressure
p
<p>
X-vorticity
1
<X-Vorticity>
Y-vorticity
2
<Y-Vorticity>
Z-vorticity
3
<Z-Vorticity>
Vorticity (2D)
<vorticity>
Stream Function
<stream>
Temperature
T
<T>
Species-1
Z1
<Z1>
Species-2
Z2
<Z2>
Species-3
Z3
<Z3>
Species-4
Z4
<Z4>
Species-5
Z5
<Z5>
Species-6
Z6
<Z6>
Species-7
Z7
<Z7>
Species-8
Z8
<Z8>
Species-9
Z9
<Z9>
Species-10
Z10
<Z10>
Table 8.1: LS-DYNA ISTATS=1 output variables and LS-POST labels.
8.2.2 Second Moment Statistics

The computation of the second-moment statistics includes the variables listed in Table 8.2. This data, as
well as the variables listed in Table 8.1, must be present in the input time-average database (d3mean) in
order for the statistics associated with ISTATS = 2 to be computed. Therefore, selection of the level-2
statistics in LS-DYNA includes the collection of all the level-1 time-averaged data.
71

Variable Name
Velocity
Correlations
Velocity Pressure
Correlations
Velocity Temperature
Correlations
Velocity Species
Correlations
Quantity
u1 u1
u1 u2
u1 u3
u2 u2
u2 u3
u3 u3
u1 p
u2 p
u3 p
u1 T
u2 T
u3 T
u1 Z1
u2 Z1
u3 Z1
u1 Z2
u2 Z2
u3 Z2
.
.
.
u1 Z10
u2 Z10
u3 Z10
LS-POST Label
<u1u1>
<u1u2>
<u1u3>
<u2u2>
<u2u3>
<u3u3>
<u1p>
<u2p>
<u3p>
<u1T>
<u2T>
<u3T>
<u1Z1>
<u2Z1>
<u3Z1>
<u1Z2>
<u2Z2>
<u3Z2>
<u1Z10>
<u2Z10>
<u3Z10>
8.2.3 Higher-Order Statistics

The computation of the higher-order statistics includes the variables listed in Table 8.3. This data, along
with the variables listed in Table 8.2, must be present in the input time-average database in order for the
statistics associated with ISTATS = 3 to be computed.
Variable Name
Third Moments
Quantity LS-POST Label

u3
<u13>
1
3
u2
<u23>
u3
<u33>
3
4
Fourth Moments
u1
<u14>
u4
<u24>
2
4
u3
<u34>
72
8.3. LS-POST STATISTICS LEVELS

Variable Name
Mag. vorticity
Enstrophy
Helicity
Quantity
1 2
u
LS-POST Label
|<vorticity>|
<enstrophy>
<helicity>
Table 8.4: LS-POST level-1 derived variables and LS-POST labels.
8.3 LS-POST Statistics Levels

The derived statistics generated by LS-POST from the d3mean database are also provided in three levels. The derived statistics are based on the same user-specied time-average window used to create each
d3mean time-average data window. Hence, this derived data is also a subset of the input data from the
LS-DYNA ow simulation. The level-1 derived mean quantities include: the magnitude of the vorticity,
, enstrophy, 1 2 i i , and helicity, i ui .

At the intermediate level of derived statistics (level-2), second moments are computed in addition to the
mean quantities just mentioned. In this case, the turbulent stress tensor and scalar ux vectors are computed. That is, u uj , u p , u T , u Z j , and the turbulent kinetic energy are added to the
i
i
i
i
output time-average database.
At the highest level of statistics, skewness and atness of the velocity are computed in addition to the
mean and derived ux quantities. Currently, the scalar dissipation is not treated in LS-POST.
Thus, the time-averaged statistics derived by LS-POST from the d3mean database are:
level-1: the magnitude of the vorticity,
, enstrophy, 1 2 i i , and helicity,

ui . Table 8.4 shows these mean variables and the associated LS-POST labels.
level-2: In addition to the mean quantities for level-1, the turbulent stress tensor, turbulent kinetic energy,
and scalar ux vectors are computed. That is, u uj , q , u p , u T , u Z j , are
i
i
i
i
added to the time-average database. Table 8.5 shows the additional output variables associated with
level-2.
level-3: In addition to the mean and derived ux quantities, higher-order averages are generated that
include velocity skewness and velocity atness. Table 8.6 shows the additional output variables
associated with level-3. At this time, the scalar dissipation is not included in the time-average
database.
73
Variable Name
Reynolds Stresses
Quantity
u u
1 1
u u
1 2
u u
1 3
u u
2 2
u u
2 3
u u
3 3
q
u p
1
u p
2
u p
3
u T
1
u T
2
u T
3
u Z1
1
Z
u2 1
u Z1
3
Z
u1 2
u Z2
2
Z
u3 2
.
.
.
u Z10
1
Z
u2 10
u Z10
3
Turbulent Kinetic Energy

Velocity Pressure
Correlations
Velocity Temperature
Correlations
Velocity Species
Correlations
LS-POST Label
<u1u1>
<u1u2>
<u1u3>
<u2u2>
<u2u3>
<u3u3>
TKE
<u1p>
<u2p>
<u3p>
<u1T>
<u2T>
<u3T>
<u1Z1>
<u2Z1>
<u3Z1>
<u1Z2>
<u2Z2>
<u3Z2>
<u1Z10>
<u2Z10>
<u3Z10>
Table 8.5: LS-POST level-2 derived variables and LS-POST Labels.
Variable Name
Velocity Skewness
Velocity Flatness
Quantity
u2
1
u2
2
u2
3
u2
1
u2
2
u2
3
u3
1
u3
2
u3
3
u4
1
u4
2
u4
3
3 2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2
LS-POST Label
<X-skewness>
<Y-skewness>
<Z-skewness>
<X-flatness>
<Y-flatness>
<Z-flatness>
Table 8.6: LS-POST level-3 derived variables and LS-POST labels.
74
Chapter 9
Keyword Input
This chapter outlines the primary keywords used to control the incompressible ow solver and discusses
how these keywords interact with LS-DYNAs keywords for solid/structural dynamics, thermal analysis,
boundary element and smooth particle hydrodynamics keywords. This chapter is intended to be used in
conjunction with the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual [27] which fully documents the keywords and
their associated parameters.
Note that LS-POST support for d3mean and d3thins les will only be available in LS-POST 2.0 and later
versions. d3thins is the new time history database for the incompressible ow solver. Selecting what
data goes into the d3mean database is accomplished via the *DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN keyword,
documented in the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual.
9.1 Incompressible Flow Keywords

In LS-DYNA, node sets are used to prescribe nodal boundary conditions, while segment sets are used
to apply known ux and traction boundary conditions. The use of node and segment sets follows the
conventions dened in the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual [27].
75
CHAPTER 9. KEYWORD INPUT
9.1.1 *BOUNDARY OUTFLOW CFD OPTION

Available options include: SET or SEGMENT
Purpose: Dene passive outow boundary conditions for the incompressible ow solvers. These boundary
conditions are active only when SOLN=4 or SOLN=5 on the *CONTROL SOLUTION keyword.
In the incompressible ow solver, the role of the outow boundary conditions is to provide a computational boundary that is passive particularly in the presence of strong vortical ow structures. Typically,
this boundary condition is applied at boundaries that have been articially imposed to emulate far-eld
conditions in a large physical domain.
For the SET option dene the following card Card Format
Card 1
Variable
SSID
Type
Default
none
For the SEGMENT option, dene the following card.

Card Format
Card 1
Variable
N1
N2
N3
N4
Type
Default
none
none
none
none
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
SSID
Segment set ID
N1, N2, ...
76
Node IDs dening the segment
9.1. INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW KEYWORDS
9.1.2 *BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD OPTION

Available options include: NODE or SET
Purpose: Dene an imposed nodal variable (velocity, temperature, species, etc.) on a node or a set of
nodes for the Navier-Stokes ow solver. Do not use the NODE option in r-adaptive problems since the
node IDs may change during the adaptive step.
The prescription of all nodal variables in the incompressible ow solver are dened using this keyword.
It is similar in function to the *BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED MOTION OPTION keyword but permits
the specication of boundary conditions for velocities, mass concentration species, temperature, turbulent
kinetic energy, etc. Additionally, the keyword optionally provides for prescribing all velocities for example on a no-slip and no-penetration surface. Multiple instances of the keyword permit individual nodal
variables to be prescribed using independent load curves and scale factors.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
typeID
Type
Default
DOF
LCID
SF
none
none
none
1.
77

VARIABLE
typeID
DESCRIPTION
Node ID (NID) or node set ID (NSID), see *SET NODE.
DOF
Applicable degrees-of-freedom
EQ. 101: x-velocity,
EQ. 102: y-velocity,
EQ. 103: z-velocity,
EQ. 104: temperature,
EQ. 107: turbulent kinetic energy,
EQ. 110: turbulent eddy viscosity,
EQ. 121: species mass fraction-1,
EQ. 201: x-, y-, z-velocity,
EQ. 202: x-, y-velocity,
EQ. 203: y-, z-velocity,
EQ. 301: all species.
LCID
Load curve ID to describe motion value versus time, see *DEFINE CURVE.
SF
Load curve scale factor (default=1.0).
Example Input:
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$$$$ *BOUNDARY_PRESCRIBED_CFD_SET
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ A set of nodes is given a prescribed velocity in the
$ x-direction according to a specified vel-time curve (which is scaled).
$
*BOUNDARY_PRESCRIBED_CFD_SET
$
$...>....1....>....2....>....3....>....4....>....5....>....6....>....7....>....8
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
4
101
8
2.0
$
$
nsid = 4
nodal set ID number, requires a *SET_NODE_option
$
dof = 101 x-velocity is prescribed
$
lcid = 8
velocity follows load curve 8, requires a *DEFINE_CURVE
$
sf = 2.0 velocity specified by load curve is scaled by 2.0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
78
9.1.3 *BOUNDARY PRESSURE CFD SET

Purpose: Apply a pressure load over each segment in a segment set. The pressure convention follows
Figure 9.1. This keyword activates what is commonly referred to as the pressure boundary condition
according to 5.3.1.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
SSID
LCID
Type
Default
none
none
none
Remarks
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
SSID
Segment set ID, see *SET SEGMENT.
LCID
Load curve ID, see *DEFINE CURVE.
Pressure to be applied.
Remarks:
1. The load curve multipliers may be used to increase or decrease the pressure. The time value is not
scaled.
79
n1
n2
t
a)
n4
n3
n3
r
n1
n1
n2
n2
b)
Figure 9.1: Node numbering for pressure boundary segments: a) two dimensional elements, b) three
dimensional elements. Positive pressure acts in the negative t-direction. For two dimensional problems,
repeat the second node for the third and fourth nodes in the segment denitions.
80
9.1.4 *CONTROL CFD AUTO

Purpose: Set the time-step control options for the Navier-Stokes ow solver.
*CONTROL CFD GENERAL is used in conjunction with with keyword to control the ow solver timeintegration options.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
IAUTO
EPSDT
DTSF
DTMAX
Type
Default
1.0e-3
1.25
none
Remarks
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
IAUTO
Set the time step control type:

EQ. 0: IAUTO=1 for xed time-step size,
EQ. 1: Fixed time step based on DTINIT (default)
see *CONTROL CFD GENERAL
EQ. 2: Time step based on CFL/stability for INSOL=3/1,
EQ. 3: Automatic time-step selection based on local truncation error using a
second-order Adams-Bashforth predictor and trapezoidal rule corrector.
EPSDT
Set the tolerance for the local truncation error in time.

EQ. 0: EPSDT=1.0e-3 (default).
DTSF
DTMAX
Set the maximum time step scale factor that may be applied at any
given time step. This sets the upper limit on the amount that the time step can be
increased during any given step.
EQ. 0: DTSF=1.25 (default).
Set the upper limit on the time step size. This value puts a ceiling
on how far the time step may be increased for IAUTO=3.
EQ. 0: 10.0*DTINT (default).
81

Remarks:
1. There are multiple solver options for a variety of ow-related physics in LS-DYNA. The selection
of the time step control mechanism is dependent upon the ow solver that is selected. IAUTO=1
may be used with any of the solution methods. IAUTO=2 forces the time step to be based on either
stability or the CFL number (see *CONTROL CFD GENERAL) for either the explicit (INSOL=1)
or the semi-implicit (INSOL=3) methods. For IAUTO=2, the ICKDT parameter may be used to
control the interval at which the time step is checked and adjusted. The use of the second-order
predictor-corrector time step control is restricted to the fully-implicit solver, i.e., INSOL=3 and
IADVEC=40.
2. For IAUTO=3, the default maximum time step, DTMAX, is set 10 times larger than the starting
time step DTINIT.
82
9.1.5 *CONTROL CFD GENERAL

Purpose: Set the solver parameters for the Navier-Stokes ow solver. *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM,
*CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT, and *CONTROL CFD PRESSURE are used in conjunction with
this keyword to control the ow solver options.
Material models may be specied with
the *MAT CFD OPTION keyword input and turbulence models are activated with the *CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE keyword input.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
INSOL
DTINIT
CFL
ICKDT
IACURC
Type
Default
none
0.9 (2.0)
10
Remarks
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
INSOL
Set the solver type:

EQ. 0: INSOL=3 (default),
EQ. 1: Explicit, transient incompressible Navier-Stokes,
EQ. 3: Semi-implicit/fully-implicit,transient, incompressible Navier-Stokes
using staggered velocity-pressure.
DTINIT
Set the initial time step for the Navier-Stokes and all auxiliary
transport equations. The time step is computed based on either
the prescribed CFL number (INSOL=3) or stability (INSOL=1)
unless ICKDT 0 or IAUTO=3 on the *CONTROL CFD AUTO keyword.
CFL
Set the maximum grid-CFL number to be maintained

during the computation.
EQ. 0: CFL=0.9 (default for INSOL=1),
CFL=2 (default for INSOL=3)
83

VARIABLE
ICKDT
IACURC
DESCRIPTION
Set the interval to check and report the grid Reynolds and
advective CFL numbers. ICKDT 0 checks and reports the grid Reynolds
and advective CFL numbers but does not modify the time step.
ICKDT 0 modies the time step according to the prescribed CFL
limit and any required stability limits. The report of the grid
Reynolds and CFL numbers to the screen may be toggled with the
grid sense switch.
EQ.0: ICKDT=10 (default).
Activate the use of full-quadrature for certain terms in the
momentum and transport equation. The accuracy ag improves
the accuracy of body force calculations and certain
advective/convective terms with a modest increase in
computational time.
EQ.0: dont use the increased quadrature rules (default),
EQ.1: use increased quadrature on
advective/convective/body force terms.
Remarks:
1. There are multiple solver options for a variety of ow-related physics in LS-DYNA. The selection
of the incompressible/low-Mach ow physics and related ow solver is determined by the INSOL
input on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword. Currently, there are two valid values for INSOL. INSOL=1 selects the explicit time integrator that requires the use of a lumped mass matrix.
In this case, the IMASS, THETAK, THETAB, THETAA and THETAF variables associated with
the *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM keyword are ignored. INSOL=3 selects the semi-implicit
projection algorithm which makes use of these variables.
2. This option is only available for the semi-implicit/implicit solution algorithm INSOL=3.
84
9.1.6 *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM

Purpose: Set the solver parameters to be used for the momentum equations in the Navier-Stokes solver.
Card 1 is used to control the time integrator and advective transport options. Card 2 is used to set the linear
solver options such as the maximum iteration count and interval to check the convergence criteria.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
IMASS
IADVEC
IFCT
DIVU
Type
Default
10
1.0e-5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Remarks
Card 2
Variable
MSOL
MAXIT
ICHKIT
IWRT
IHIST
EPS
IHG
EHG
Type
Default
20
100
1.0e-5
1.0
Remarks
VARIABLE
IMASS
THETAK THETAA
THETAF
DESCRIPTION
Select the mass matrix formulation to use:
EQ.0: IMASS=1 (default),
EQ.1: Lumped mass matrix,
EQ.2: Consistent mass matrix,
EQ.3: Higher-order mass matrix.
85

VARIABLE
IADVEC
IFCT
DIVU
DESCRIPTION
Toggle the treatment of advection between explicit with
balancing tensor diffusivity or fully-implicit.
EQ.0: IADVEC=10 for forward Euler with BTD (default),
EQ.-1:IADVEC=0 for forward Euler without BTD,
EQ.10: forward Euler with BTD,
EQ.40: fully-implicit, simplied trapezoid rule.
Toggle the use of the advective ux limiting advection scheme.
EQ.0: IFCT=1 (default),
EQ.1: Advective ux limiting is on,
EQ.-1: Advective ux limiting is off.
Set the RMS divergence tolerance, i.e., u RMS . This
tolerance is used for the initial startup procedure to insure that
proper initial conditions are prescribed for the momentum
equations.
EQ.0: DIVU=1.0e-5 (default).
THETAK
Time weighting for viscous/diffusion terms. Valid values are

0 K 1 with K 1 2 for second-order accuracy in time.
EQ.0: THETAK=0.5 (default).
THETAA
Time weighting for advection terms.
THETAF
Time weighting for body forces and boundary conditions. Valid

values are 0 F 1 with F 1 2 for with for second-order accuracy in
time.
EQ.0: THETAF=0.5 (default).
MSOL
MAXIT
Set the maximum number of iterations for the iterative equation

solver.
EQ.0: MAXIT=100 (default).
ICHKIT
Set the interval to check the convergence criteria for the iterative
equation solver.
EQ.0: ICHKIT=2 (default).
IWRT
86
Set the equation solver type for the momentum equations.

EQ.0: MSOL=20 (default),
EQ.20: Jacobi preconditioned conjugate gradient method,
EQ.30: Jacobi preconditioned conjugate gradient squared
method. (default when IADVEC=40)
Activate the output of diagnostic information from the equation

solver.
EQ.0: Diagnostic information is off (default),
EQ.1: Diagnostic information is on.

VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
IHIST
Activate the generation of a convergence history le from the

equation solver. The ASCII history les are velx.his,
vely.his and velz.his
EQ.0: Convergence history is off (default),
EQ.1: Convergence history is on.
EPS
Set the convergence criteria for the iterative equation solver.

EQ.0: EPS=1.0e-5 (default).
IHG
Set the type of hourglass stabilization to be used with the

momentum equations. This only applies to the explicit treatment
of the momentum equations (INSOL=1).
EQ.0: IHG=1 (default),
EQ.1: LS-DYNA CFD viscous hourglass stabilization,
EQ.2: -hourglass stabilization viscous form.
EHG
Set the hourglass stabilization multiplier. (see IHG above).

EQ.0: EHG=1.0 (default).
Remarks:
1. The IMASS variable is only active when INSOL 2 on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
2. The balancing tensor diffusivity should always be used with the explicit forward-Euler treatment of
the advection terms. This is the default.
3. The use of the ux limiting procedures is currently restricted to the explicit advective procedures.
4. DIVU sets the ceiling on the discrete divergence that is permitted during a simulation when INSOL=1. If the divergence at a given time step exceeds the value set by DIVU, then an intermediate
projection is performed to return the velocity to a div-free state.
5. The time weighting variables only apply to the case when INSOL 2 on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
6. The MSOL keyword for the *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM keyword only applies for INSOL 2
on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
87
9.1.7 *CONTROL CFD PRESSURE

Purpose: Set the pressure solver parameters to be used for the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
IPSOL
MAXIT
ICHKIT
IWRT
IHIST
EPS
Type
Default
22
200
1.0e-5
Card 2
Variable
NVEC
ISTAB
BETA
SID
PLEV
LCID
Type
Default
0.05
none
0.0
VARIABLE
IPSOL
88
DESCRIPTION
Set the pressure solver type:
EQ.0: IPSOL=22 for serial, IPSOL=21 for MPP (default).
EQ.10: Sparse direct solver,
EQ.11: PVS direct solver,
EQ.21: SSOR preconditioned conjugate gradient method,
EQ.22: SSOR preconditioned conjugate gradient using the
Eisenstat transformation.

VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
MAXIT
Set the maximum number of iterations for the pressure solver.

ICHKIT
Set the interval to check the convergence criteria for the pressure solver.
IWRT
Activate the output of diagnostic information from the pressure solver.

(NOTE: during execution, sense switch lprint can be used
to toggle this ag on or off.)
IHIST
Activate the generation of a convergence history le for the

pressure solver. The ASCII history le is ppe.his.
EPS
Set the convergence criteria for the pressure solver.

NVEC
Set the number of A-conjugate vectors to use during the iterative

pressure solve.
EQ.0: NVEC=5 (default),
LT.0: A-conjugate projection is disabled.
ISTAB
Set the stabilization type.

EQ.0: ISTAB=2 (default),
EQ.1: Local jump stabilization,
EQ.2: Global jump stabilization,
EQ.-1: No stabilization is active.
BETA
Stabilization parameter for ISTAB=1,2. Valid values for the

stabilization parameter are 0 1.
EQ.0: BETA=0.05 (default).
SID
Solid element set or shell element set (see

*SET SOLID/SET SHELL OPTION ) to be used for the
prescription of hydrostatic pressure.
PLEV
Set the hydrostatic pressure level. This value multiplies the

values of the load curve specied with the LCID option.
EQ.0: PLEV=0.0 (default).
LCID
Load curve to be used for setting the hydrostatic pressure. By

default, LCID=0 which forces a constant pressure level to be set
at the level prescribed by PLEV.
EQ.0: LCID=0 (default)
89
9.1.8 *CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT

Purpose: Activate the calculation of transport variables and associated solver parameters to be used for
the auxiliary scalar transport equations. Card 1 is used to activate the auxiliary transport equations and
Card 2 is used to set the mass matrix, advection, and time-weighting options. Card 3 is used to set the
linear solver options such as the maximum iteration count and interval to check the convergence criteria.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
ITEMP
NSPEC
Type
Default
Remarks
Card 2
Variable
IMASS
IADVEC
IFCT
Type
Default
10
0.5
0.5
0.5
Remarks
90
THETAK THETAA THETAF
Card 3
Variable
ITSOL
MAXIT
ICHKIT
IWRT
IHIST
EPS
IHG
EHG
Type
Default
20
100
1.0e-5
1.0
Remarks
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
ITEMP
Solve the energy equation in terms of temperature.

EQ.0: No energy equation (default),
EQ.1: Energy equation is solved in terms of temperature.
NSPEC
Activate the solution of NSPEC species transport equations.

EQ.0: No species equations are solved (default),
EQ.NSPEC: Solve for NSPEC species. Up to 10 species
transport equations may be active (0 NSPEC 10).
IMASS
Select the mass matrix formulation to use:

EQ.0: IMASS=1 (default),
EQ.1: Lumped mass matrix,
EQ.2: Consistent mass matrix,
EQ.3: Higher-order mass matrix.
IADVEC
IFCT
Toggle the treatment of advection between explicit with

balancing tensor diffusivity or fully-implicit.
EQ.0: IADVEC=10 for forward Euler with BTD (default),
EQ.-1:IADVEC=0 for forward Euler without BTD,
EQ.10: forward Euler with BTD,
EQ.40: fully-implicit with simplied trapezoid rule.
Toggle the use of the advective ux limiting advection scheme.
EQ.0: IFCT=1 (default),
EQ.1: Advective ux limiting is on,
EQ.-1: Advective ux limiting is off.
91

VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
THETAK
Time weighting for the diffusion terms. Valid values are

0 K 1 with K 1 2 for second-order accuracy in time.
EQ.0: THETAK=0.5 (default).
THETAA
Time weighting for advection terms.
THETAF
Time weighting for body forces and boundary conditions. Valid

values are 0 F 1 with F 1 2 for with for second-order accuracy in
time.
EQ.0: THETAF=0.5 (default).
ITSOL
MAXIT
Set the maximum number of iterations for the iterative equation

solver.
ICHKIT
Set the interval to check the convergence criteria for the iterative
equation solver.
IWRT
Activate the output of diagnostic information from the equation

solver.
IHIST
Activate the generation of a convergence history le from the

equation solver.
EPS
Set the convergence criteria for the iterative equation solver.

IHG
Set the type of hourglass stabilization to be used with the

momentum equations. This only applies to the explicit treatment
of the momentum equations (INSOL=1).
EQ.0: IHG=1 (default),
EQ.1: LS-DYNA CFD viscous hourglass stabilization,
EQ.2: -hourglass stabilization viscous form.
EHG
92
Set the equation solver type for the momentum equations.

EQ.0: MSOL=20 (default),
EQ.30: Jacobi preconditioned conjugate gradient squared
method. (default when IADVEC=40)
Set the hourglass stabilization multiplier. (see IHG above).

EQ.0: EHG=1.0 (default).

Remarks:
1. The IMASS variable is only active when INSOL 2 on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
2. The balancing tensor diffusivity should always be used with the explicit treatment of the advection
terms. (This is the default.)
3. The use of the ux limiting procedures is currently restricted to the explicit advective procedures.
4. The time weighting variables only apply to the case when INSOL 2 on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
5. The ITSOL keyword for the *CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT keyword only applies for INSOL 2
on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword.
93
9.1.9 *CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE

Purpose: Activate a turbulence model and set the associated model parameters.
Card Format
Card 1
Variable
ITRB
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Type
Default
Remarks
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
ITRB
Select the turbulence model:

EQ.0 : Turbulence models are disabled (default),
EQ.1 : Smagorinsky LES subgrid scale model,
C1 ... C7
Turbulence model constants. See the table below for the

model-specic denition of the constants and their default values.
Remarks:
1. The number and value of the input constants are model-specic. See the table below for denition
of the constants and their default values.
ITRB
1
94
Turbulence Model
C1
C2
Smagorinsky LES SGS CS 0 1
C3
C4
C5
C6 C7
9.1.10 *INITIAL CFD

Purpose: Specify initial conditions for all nodal variables.
Card Format (1 of 3)
Card 1
Variable
RHO
Z1
Z2
Type
Default
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Card 2
Variable
Z3
Z4
Z5
Z6
Z7
Z8
Z9
Z10
Type
Default
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Card 3
Variable
EPS
Type
Default
0.0
0.0
95

VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
Initial x-velocity
Initial y-velocity
Initial z-velocity
Initial temperature
Initial enthalpy
RHO
Initial density
Z1
Initial Species-1 concentration
Z2
...
Z10
K
Intital turbulent kinetic energy
EPS
96
Initial turbulent dissipation rate
9.1.11 *MAT CFD OPTION

The *MAT CFD cards allow uid properties to be dened in a stand-alone uid analysis or in a coupled
uid/structure analysis; see *CONTROL SOLUTION in the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual.
The only OPTION currently available is CONSTANT.
This is material property type 150. It allows constant, isotropic uid properties to be dened for the
incompressible/low-Mach CFD solver.
Card 1
Variable
MID
RHO
MU
CP
BETA
TREF
Type
Default
Card 2
Variable
GX
GY
GZ
DIFF1
DIFF2
DIFF3
DIFF4
DIFF5
Type
Default
97

Card 3
Variable
DIFF6
DIFF7
DIFF8
DIFF9
DIFF10
Type
Default
VARIABLE
DESCRIPTION
MID
Material identication, a unique number has to be chosen.
RHO
Fluid density
MU
Fluid viscosity
Thermal Conductivity
CP
Heat capacity
BETA
Coefcient of expansion
TREF
Reference temperature
GX
Gravitational acceleration in x-direction
GY
Gravitational acceleration in y-direction
GZ
Gravitational acceleration in z-direction
DIFF1
Species-1 diffusivity
DIFF2
DIFF3
...
DIFF10
98
9.2. SHARED KEYWORDS
9.2 Shared Keywords

The incompressible ow solver is an integral part of LS-DYNA, and because of this it shares keywords
with the other physics options available in LS-DYNA. This section identies the shared keywords and
denes their interaction with the ow solver.
*CONTROL SOLUTION. Specify the analysis solution procedure to be used. Here, SOLN=4 activates
the incompressible ow solver in a stand-alone mode.
*CONTROL OUTPUT. Set miscellaneous output options. For the ow solver, NPOPT=0 echos ow
velocities and pressures to the d3hsp le.
*CONTROL TERMINATION. Stop the job. The EDENG and ENDMAS parameters are reserved for
structural analyses.
*DATABASE BINARY D3PLOT. Set the time interval for the output of state databases for plotting
purposes. For incompressible ow calculations, LS-DYNA generates an augmented state database that
contains ow-specic variables, e.g., vorticity, stream function, etc.
*DATABASE BINARY D3THDT. Set the time interval for the output of time-history data. For incompressible ow calculations, LS-DYNA generates a separate binary time-history database that contains
ow-specic variables, e.g., vorticity, stream function, etc. This new database is the d3thins database.
*DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN. Dene the starting time, the time window (in time steps), and the
level of statistics to be used in creating a time-averaged database of ow statistics.
*DATABASE BINARY D3DUMP. Dene the output frequency in cycles for the binary restart les.
*DATABASE BINARY RUNRSF. Dene the output frequency in cycles for the running binary restart
les.
*DATABASE HISTORY NODE. Control which nodes are output to the binary database D3THDT and
the ASCII le NODOUT.
*DEFINE CURVE. Dene a load curve to be used for the prescription of time-dependent boundary
conditions.
*SECTION SHELL. Dene the section properties for 2-D (shell) elements. This keyword is used for
2-D Cartesian ow problems to select the element formulation used with the Navier-Stokes solver.
*SECTION SOLID. Dene the section properties for the 3-D elements. This keyword is used for 3-D
ow problems to select the element formulation used with the Navier-Stokes solver.
99
100
Chapter 10
Example Problems
This chapter presents several LS-DYNA ow calculations for the rst time user who wishes to perform
verication computations for comparison before embarking on a full-blown analysis. For this reason,
the control les are replicated here with representative results that can be used to check the local LSDYNA installation. For the most part, sample problems presented here use relatively coarse meshes to
minimize run times and provide a starting point for the user who wishes to experiment with code options
before attempting any signicant calculations. The example problems in this chapter may be obtained by
contacting Livermore Software Technology Corporation.
All of the example problems presented in this chapter use the following nomenclature. The example
input les are prexed by the problem name, e.g., cylinder. File names that contain _dat.k as a sufx
contain the nodal coordinates, element connectivity and all sets for the problem. The le names with a
_p2.k or _fe.k sufx contain the primary control keywords for the semi-/fully-implicit projection and
explicit solution methods respectively. For example, cylinder_p2.k will contain the primary control
keywords for the cylinder ow problem and will *INCLUDE the cylinder_dat.k data le. Details on
the *INCLUDE keyword may be found in the LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual [27].
10.1 Poiseuille Flow

Poiseuille ow in a channel is characterized by a balance between a constant pressure difference and
viscous shear forces, i.e.,
1 2 u p
(10.1)
Re y2
x
where Re is the Reynolds number based on channel height H, and u, p, and x y are the non-dimensional
x-velocity, pressure and coordinates. The 2-D channel ow problem considered here consists of a 2D duct with a 5:1 aspect ratio, Re 100, and p x 0 12. This choice of Reynolds number and
pressure gradient results in a steady parabolic velocity prole with umax 1 5 and uavg 1 0. Here, the
non-dimensional equations were obtained using a length scale H, velocity scale U , and time scale U H.
Figure 10.1 shows the mesh with node and segment set ids for the entrance region.
In order to represent the constant pressure gradient, an inow pressure boundary condition of p 0 6 is
prescribed with v 0. At the inow boundary, the pressure boundary condition is prescribed using the
101
CHAPTER 10. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Node Set ID: 1
Segment Set ID: 100

Node Set ID: 3
Node Set ID: 1
Figure 10.1: Mesh for 2-D Entrance Region.

*BOUNDARY PRESSURE CFD SET keyword with segment set id 100. Homogeneous outow boundary conditions are used at the outow resulting in p 0. At the top and bottom wall, no-slip and nopenetration boundary conditions (u v 0) are applied using node set id 1.
There are multiple ow solution algorithms available in LS-DYNA that may be applied to this problem:
1) an explicit time integration method with a reduced-integration element, 2) a semi-implicit projection
method with explicit advection, and 3) the fully-implicit projection method with a smart time integrator.
In this example, a the semi-implicit projection method is applied with the selection of a backward-Euler
treatment of the viscous terms and a row-sum lumped mass matrix.
The LS-DYNA keyword le for this problem is shown below in a typewriter font. The keyword input is segregated into 5 primary parts: 1) the control keywords, 2) load curves, 3) boundary conditions, 4) uid properties, and 5) I/O controls. In this example, the second-order projection algorithm
(insol=3 on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword) is used with the viscous terms treated in a
fully implicit mode, a lumped mass matrix, and explicit advection terms. This is obtained by setting
thetak=1.0, imass=1 and iadvec=10 on the *CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM keyword. The *CONTROL CFD AUTO keyword is used to enable automatic time-step selection based on the maximum CFL
number specied on the *CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword, i.e., cfl=2.0. In addition, the initial
time step is set to dtinit=0.01. A direct solver ipsol=11 via the *CONTROL CFD PRESSURE keyword is used with a termination of endcyc=2000 time steps. Constant uid properties are set using the
*MAT CFD CONSTANT keyword which, in the non-dimensional context, requires a unit density with
viscosity 1 Re. The *DATABASE BINARY OPTION keywords are used to write a graphics state to
the d3plot every 10 time units, nodal time history every time step, and a running restart every 1000 time
steps. The input les, duct_dat.k, duct_p2.k and duct_fe.k, may be found in the duct sub-directory
of the 2-D examples.
Example: duct_p2.k
*KEYWORD
*TITLE
Simple duct - entrance region
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
102
10.1. POISEUILLE FLOW

$ Setup the CFD problem - soln=4
$
*CONTROL_SOLUTION
$
soln
4
*CONTROL_CFD_AUTO
$
iauto
epsdt
dtsf
2
*CONTROL_CFD_GENERAL
$
insol
dtinit
cfl
3
0.010
2.0
*CONTROL_CFD_MOMENTUM
$
imass
iadvec
ifct
1
10
$
msol
maxit
ichkit
20
100
2
*CONTROL_CFD_PRESSURE
$
ipsol
maxit
ickit
11
$
nvec
stab
beta
dtmax
ickdt
100
istats
tstart
iavg
divu
thetaa
thetaf
iwrt
0
thetak
1.0
ihist
0
eps
ihg
iwrt
ihist
eps
sid
plev
lcid
ehg
*CONTROL_TERMINATION
$
endtim
endcyc
dtmin
endeng
endmas
1000000.00
2000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Define the load curves
$
*DEFINE_CURVE
$
lcid
sidr
sfa
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
1
$
a1
o1
0.0
1.0
1000000.0
1.0
*DEFINE_CURVE
$
lcid
sidr
sfa
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
2
$
a1
o1
0.0
0.0
1000000.0
0.0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Setup the boundary conditions
$
$ Pressure boundary conditions
$
*BOUNDARY_PRESSURE_CFD_SET
$...|....1....|....2....|....3....|....4....|....5....|....6....|....7....|....8
$
ssid
lcid
p
100
1
0.6
103

$
$ Prescribed inlet BC
$
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
3
102
2 1.0000000
$
$ Setup the no-slip BCs
$
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
101
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
102
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
101
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
102
2 1.0000000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Setup fluid properties
$
*MAT_CFD_CONSTANT
$
mid
ro
mu
k
Cp
beta
Tref
1
1.0000
1.0e-2
$
gx
gy
gz
diff1
diff2
diff3
diff4
diff5
$
diff6
diff7
diff8
diff9
diff10
$
$ Section & part
$
*SECTION_SHELL
$
sid
elform
shrf
nip
propt
qr/irid
icomp
1
31
$
t1
t2
t3
t4
nloc
1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000
*PART
Fluid domain
$
pid
secid
mid
eosid
hgid
grav
adpopt
tmid
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Handle output of state, time-history, and restart data
$
*DATABASE_BINARY_D3PLOT
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
104

10.0
0
*DATABASE_BINARY_D3THDT
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1.0e-6
*DATABASE_HISTORY_NODE
$
nd1
nd2
nd3
nd4
nd5
nd6
nd7
nd8
6
28
39
50
215
226
*DATABASE_BINARY_RUNRSF
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1000
*DATABASE_BINARY_D3DUMP
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
*INCLUDE
duct_dat.k
*END
Example: duct_p2.k
The grid CFL and Reynolds numbers were reported every 100 time steps by setting ickdt=100 on the
*CONTROL CFD GENERAL keyword. Figure 10.2 shows a sample of the screen output with the CFL
limited time step and associated grid parameters. When the grid parameters are reported, they are presented in terms of the xi-grid, eta-grid (and zeta-grid) directions which correspond to the elementlocal , , and coordinate directions as described in Chapter 3. For each local coordinate direction, a
minimum and maximum grid CFL and Reynolds number is reported along with the corresponding element id. In this example, the time step is controlled so that the maximum grid CFL number never exceeds
2 0. During the calculation, the lprint sense switch toggles the output of the minimum/maximum pressure and velocities with the RMS divergence at each time step. Sample screen output of the reported
minimum/maximum pressure and velocities with the RMS divergence is shown in Figure 10.3.
The fully-implicit treatment of the viscous terms is based on a rst-order Forward-Euler time-integrator
that in combination with a lumped mass matrix yields a rudimentary marching scheme for obtaining a
steady-state solution to the channel ow problem. In order to verify that a steady-state has been achieved,
nodal time-histories of the x-velocity along the centerline of the channel at the inlet and outlet boundaries
are shown in Figure 10.4. In addition, a time-history of the global kinetic energy (1 2uT ML u) is shown
in Figure 10.5. As shown by these plots, a steady-state solution is achieved after approximately 100 time
units.
A plot of the velocity prole and the corresponding linear pressure eld are presented in Figures 10.6 and
10.7. In Figure 10.6, velocity vectors are plotted at the outlet boundary to show the parabolic prole. The
outlet velocity prole is compared to the exact solution to the Poiseuille problem in Figure 10.8 where it
is seen that the computed velocities interpolate the exact solution at the nodal points.
105
g r i d
p a r a m e t e r s
CFL based time step:

====================
Local coordinate direction.....................
Element number.................................
Element length.................................
Grid Reynolds no...............................
Grid CFL number................................
CFL based time step............................
xi
101
8.7298E-02
9.2771E-01
2.0000E+00
1.1877E-01
Maximum xi-grid Reynolds numbers:

=================================
Element no.....................................
200
Element length................................. 5.3391E-01
Grid Reynolds number........................... 1.0060E+01
Maximum eta-grid Reynolds numbers:
=================================
Element no..................................... 97
Element length................................. 1.0000E-01
Grid Reynolds number........................... 3.5299E-05
Maximum xi-grid CFL number:
===========================
Element no.....................................
101
Element length................................. 8.7298E-02
Grid CFL number................................ 2.0000E+00
Maximum eta-grid CFL number
===========================
Element no..................................... 97
Element length................................. 1.0000E-01
Grid CFl number................................ 4.1926E-06
Figure 10.2: Screen report of grid parameters showing the minimum and maximum grid Reynolds and
CFL numbers and and associated element numbers.
106
initialization completed
0 t 0.0000E+00 div(u)= 0.0000E+00 pmn/pmx=0.320E-01/0.595E+00
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.000E+00 0.000E+00/0.000E+00
0 t 0.0000E+00 dt 1.00E-02 write d3plot file
1 t 1.0000E-02 div(u)= 8.4941E-21 pmn/pmx=0.320E-01/0.595E+00
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.120E-02 -.481E-09/0.426E-09
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.240E-02 -.954E-09/0.848E-09
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.360E-02 -.142E-08/0.127E-08
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.480E-02 -.188E-08/0.168E-08
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.600E-02 -.234E-08/0.209E-08
.
.
.
1995 t 2.0907E+02 div(u)= 3.7079E-16 pmn/pmx=0.320E-01/0.595E+00
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.150E+01 -.261E-07/0.294E-07
2000 t 2.0966E+02 dt 1.19E-01 write runrsf file
Figure 10.3: Screen output of RMS divergence, minimum/maximum pressure and velocity values.
107
1.6
SIMPLE DUCT ENTRANCE REGION

Node No
6
226
1.4
1.2
Xvelocity
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
C
50
100
150
200
Company
13:51:58, 11/29/2000
Time
Figure 10.4: Nodal time history plot for the x-velocity along the centerline at the inlet (node 5) and the
outlet (node 226).
3.5
SIMPLE DUCT ENTRANCE REGION
2.5
Kinetic Energy
1.5
0.5
0
C
50
100
150
200
Company
11:22:00, 11/22/2000
Time
Figure 10.5: Kinetic energy time history.
108
Figure 10.6: X-velocity eld after 209.66 time units.
Figure 10.7: Pressure contours after 209.66 time units.
109
1.0
0.9
LS-DYNA
Exact
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
X-velocity
Figure 10.8: Steady-state x-velocity prole at outlet plane.
110
10.2. NATURAL CONVECTION IN A SQUARE CAVITY
10.2 Natural Convection in a Square Cavity

The thermal cavity benchmark introduced by De Vahl Davis [99, 100] is used here to demonstrate the
application of the explicit, semi-implicit and fully-implicit algorithms to buoyancy-driven ow. Figure
10.9 shows the computational domain for the differentially heated cavity. The non-dimensional governing
equations for the time-dependent thermal convection problem (in vector form) are the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations, conservation of mass, and the energy equation written in terms of temperature:
u
u u
t
P Pr2 u RaPr j
u 0
(10.2)
(10.3)
and
u
2
(10.4)
t
where u u v, P and are the velocity, the deviation from hydrostatic pressure, and temperature re
spectively, and j the unit vector in the y-direction. These non-dimensional equations were obtained using
the characteristic length L, velocity U L, time scale L2 , and pressure P U 2. Here, is the
mass density, g the gravitational acceleration, k C p is the thermal diffusivity, and is the kinematic
viscosity. The Prandtl number is Pr and xed at Pr 0 71, and the Rayleigh number is
Ra
gTh Tc L3
(10.5)
where Th Tc the temperature difference between the hot and cold walls, and the coefcient of thermal
expansion. The non-dimensional temperature is dened in terms of the wall temperature difference and a
reference temperature as
T Tc
(10.6)
Th Tc
where Th is the prescribed temperature of the hot wall, and Tc is the temperature of the cold wall.
The boundary conditions for this problem consist of no-slip and no-penetration walls with the top and
bottom walls insulated. The initial conditions are prescribed with u v 0 and T Th Tc 2. The LSDYNA control le for the mesh with 441 nodes is shown below for the semi-implicit projection method
(box_p2.k).
Similar to the duct_p2.k example, the box_p2.k, uses a xed CFL 2 condition with the automatic
time-step selection and an initial time step of dtinit=1.0e-4. In order to solve an energy equation in
conjunction with the momentum equations, itemp=1 on the *CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT keyword.
In addition, boundary conditions specifying 1 on the left wall (node set 2) and 0 on the right wall
(node set 3) are included in the keyword input. In this example, the uid properties have been translated
into non-dimensional parameters, i.e., Pr, RaPr with the inclusion of the gravity vector gy 1
and a reference temperature re f 0 5.
As a basis for comparison, the explicit, semi-implicit and fully-implicit methods have been applied to
this problem. For the explicit method, a xed time-step was used with t 2 0e 4. This requires
iauto=1 on the *CONTROL CFD AUTO keyword. The semi-implicit method started with a time-step
t 1 0e 4 and increased the time-step according to the maximum CFL 0 5 condition (iauto=2 on
the *CONTROL CFD AUTO keyword). The fully-implicit method used a second-order Adams-Bashforth
111

predictor with a trapezoid rule corrector with the local time-truncation error specied as epsdt=0.001 and
iauto=3 on the *CONTROL CFD AUTO keyword. Both the semi-implicit and fully-implicit methods
used consistent mass matrices imass=2 for the momentum and energy equations in conjunction with the
default second-order time-weighting parameters for the viscous/diffusion and advective terms.
Node Set ID: 4
Node Set ID: 3
Node Set ID: 2
L
Tc
Th
Node Set ID: 1

Shell Set ID: 100
Figure 10.9: 21 x 21 thermal cavity mesh.
112
Example: box_p2.k
*KEYWORD
*TITLE
Thermal Cavity - Ra=1000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*CONTROL_SOLUTION
$
soln
4
*CONTROL_CFD_AUTO
$
iauto
epsdt
dtsf
dtmax
2
0.001
1.50
0.500
$
insol
dtinit
cfl
ickdt
istats
tstart
iavg
3
1.0e-4
0.5
10
$
imass
iadvec
ifct
divu
thetak
thetaa
thetaf
2
10
-1
$
msol
maxit
ichkit
iwrt
ihist
eps
ihg
ehg
20
100
2
0
0
*CONTROL_CFD_TRANSPORT
$
itemp
iden
nspec
ifrac
1
0
0
0
$
imass
iadvec
ifct
thetak
thetaa
thetaf
2
10
-1
$
itsol
maxit
ichkit
iwrt
ihist
eps
ihg
ehg
100
2
0
0
$
ipsol
maxit
ickit
iwrt
ihist
eps
11
$
nvec
stab
beta
sid
plev
lcid
100
0.0
2
$
endtim
endcyc
dtmin
endeng
endmas
20.00
2000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*DEFINE_CURVE
$
lcid
sidr
sfa
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
1
$
a1
o1
0.0
1.0
1000000.0
1.0
*DEFINE_CURVE
113

$
$
lcid
2
sidr
sfa
a1
0.0
1000000.0
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
o1
0.0
0.0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$ Setup the no-slip BCs -- set all velocity components at once
$
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
202
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
202
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
3
202
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
4
202
2 1.0000000
$
$ Temperature BCs
$
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
104
1 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
3
104
2 1.0000000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Setup non-dimensional Boussinesq fluid properties
$
*MAT_CFD_CONSTANT
$
mid
ro
mu
k
Cp
beta
Tref
1
1.0000
0.71
1.0
1.0
710.0
0.5
$
gx
gy
gz
diff1
diff2
diff3
diff4
diff5
0.0
-1.0
$
diff6
diff7
diff8
diff9
diff10
$
$ Section & part
$
*SECTION_SHELL
$
sid
elform
1
31
$
t1
t2
114
shrf
nip
propt
t3
t4
qr/irid
icomp
nloc

1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000
*PART
Fluid domain
$
pid
secid
mid
eosid
hgid
grav
adpopt
tmid
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1.0
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1.0e-6
$
nd1
nd2
nd3
nd4
nd5
nd6
nd7
nd8
49
115
291
162
392
167
227
397
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
*INCLUDE
box_dat.k
*END
Example: box_p2.k
Sample screen output from the fully-implicit computation is shown in Figure 10.10. This output reports
the minimum/maximum pressure, velocities and temperature as well as the current local time-truncation
error LTE, new and old time steps, and the limiting minimum/maximum nodal differences that the local
time-truncation error is based on.
Although time-accurate methods were used for this computation, a steady-state solution is obtained in each
case. The time-history plot of the kinetic energy veries this as shown in Figure 10.11 The minimum and
maximum time-steps used by each method over the computation are summarized with the peak velocities
in Table 10.1. The maximum time-step for the fully-implicit method was limited to 1.76e-3 while the
semi-implicit method found a maximum time-step nearly 4 times larger. This is due to the fact that
the local time-truncation error was limited to 1.0e-3 for the fully-implicit method, while the time-step
calculation for the semi-implicit method was based solely on the convective stability. That is to say, the
semi-implicit method did not have the same temporal accuracy as the fully-implicit method. The peak
velocities computed here compare favorably with the velocities reported in Table I in [100] for a 40 40
grid despite the fact that a grid with 20 20 elements (21 21 nodes) was used for these computations.
Stream-function, temperature, velocity and vorticity contour plots are shown in Figures 10.12 10.16.
115
initialization completed
0 t 0.0000E+00 div(u)= 0.0000E+00 pmn/pmx=-.115E+02/0.115E+02
(u_i)mn/mx=0.000E+00/0.000E+00 0.000E+00/0.000E+00
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
1 t 1.0000E-04 div(u)= 1.4427E-11 pmn/pmx=-.126E+02/0.126E+02
(u_i)mn/mx=-.434E-02/0.434E-02 -.927E-02/0.927E-02
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
LTE= 1.7212E-04 DTSF= 1.5000 old dt= 1.0000E-04 new dt= 1.5000E-04
Min. diff= -7.6871E-04 at node
311 - Y-Velocity
Max. diff= 7.6870E-04 at node
149 - Y-Velocity
(u_i)mn/mx=-.907E-02/0.907E-02 -.192E-01/0.192E-01
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
15 - Y-Velocity
428 - Y-Velocity
(u_i)mn/mx=-.166E-01/0.166E-01 -.347E-01/0.347E-01
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
407 - Y-Velocity
38 - Y-Velocity
.
.
.
150 t 1.9732E+01 div(u)= 8.3505E-10 pmn/pmx=-.103E+03/0.875E+02
(u_i)mn/mx=-.367E+01/0.367E+01 -.367E+01/0.367E+01
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
Min. diff= -6.7904E-03 at node 139 - Y-Velocity
Max. diff= 6.7904E-03 at node 322 - Y-Velocity
151 t 1.9876E+01 div(u)= 8.3491E-10 pmn/pmx=-.103E+03/0.875E+02
(u_i)mn/mx=-.367E+01/0.367E+01 -.367E+01/0.367E+01
tmn/mx=0.000E+00/0.100E+01
Min. diff= -6.7883E-03 at node 322 - Y-Velocity
Max. diff= 6.7883E-03 at node 139 - Y-Velocity
Figure 10.10: Screen output of RMS divergence, minimum/maximum pressure, velocity, temperature and
time-step control monitors using the Adams-Bashforth/Trapezoid rule time-integrator.
116
Algorithm
tmin
tmax
umax
De Vahl Davis [100] (40 40 grid)
N/A
N/A
3.634
Explicit Algorithm
2.00e-4 2.00e-4 3.619
Semi-Implicit Algorithm
1.00e-4 6.92e-3 3.629
Fully-Implicit Algorithm
1.00e-4 1.76e-3 3.666
vmax
3.679
3.643
3.635
3.674
Table 10.1: Maximum velocities for the 21 21 grid using a) the explicit method, b) semi-implicit projection, and c) the fully-implicit projection method with the AB2/TR time-integrator.
THERMAL CAVITY RA=1000
2.5
Kinetic Energy
1.5
0.5
0
C
10
15
20
Company
7:24:09, 11/26/2000
Time
Figure 10.11: Thermal cavity kinetic energy time history.
117
Figure 10.12: Thermal cavity stream function contours.
Figure 10.13: Thermal cavity temperature contours.
118
Figure 10.14: Thermal cavity x-velocity contours.
Figure 10.15: Thermal cavity y-velocity contours.
119
Figure 10.16: Thermal cavity z-vorticity contours.
120
10.3. THE MOMENTUM-DRIVEN JET
10.3 The Momentum-Driven Jet

This computation shows the starting vortical structure associated with a heated slot jet entering a relatively
cold, quiescent uid and a classical shear instability phenomena known as the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. The parameters for the momentum-driven jet are prescribed so that the Reynolds number is Re 3561
based on a 15 mm slot width and Fr 326 (Fr v2 gT Lc where g 9 81 m s2 , T 1, Lc 15 mm,
and v 4 m s). Here, the relatively large Froude number indicates that the inuence of buoyancy forces
is small compared to the inertial forces, i.e., a momentum driven jet.
The grid for the momentum-driven jet is shown in Figure 10.17 where a single plane of symmetry along
x 0 is used with the jet half-width H 2. In this computation, an energy equation is solved in conjunction
with the Navier-Stokes equations using a Boussinesq uid, i.e., air. The initial conditions consist of an
initial div-free velocity eld with a free-eld temperature of 300K and an inlet air jet temperature of 400K.
The working uid is air with a near-unit Prandtl number Pr 0 71 resulting in a Peclet number Pe 2528
where Pe RePr.
The keyword le momjet_p2.k is shown below. In this problem, a xed CFL=1 was prescribed with
the automatic time-step selection based on the CFL number. Due to the effect of the buoyancy terms the
vertical jet velocity increased beyond the prescribed 4 m s so the interval to check and adjust the time is
set to ickdt=2. A time-accurate simulation is of interest here, so the default second-order time-weighting
parameters are used. The sharp gradients in the temperature and velocity elds requires the use of advective ux limiters so ifct=1 for the momentum and scalar transport equations. The pressure is solved with
the SSOR preconditioned conjugate-gradient method (ipsol=22) and 5 A-conjugate projection vectors
nvec=5.
Representative results for the momentum-driven jet are shown in Figures 10.18 10.24. The kinetic energy
time-history in Figure 10.18 reveals a nearly linear increase in kinetic energy before the starting vortical
structure leaves the outow boundary at the top of the computational domain. The nodal temperature
time history plots in Figure 10.19 show the effect of the monotonicity-preserving advective limiter on the
temperature where a step-change in the temperature is convected vertically during the starting transient.
The nodal time-history plots in Figure 10.20 show a nearly periodic multi-frequency response that is
characteristic of the vortex merging process in the shear layer. Snapshots of velocity, temperature and
pressure contours are shown in Figures 10.21 10.24.
Example: momjet_p2.k
*KEYWORD
*TITLE
Momentum driven jet
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*CONTROL_SOLUTION
$
soln
4
*CONTROL_CFD_AUTO
$
iauto
epsdt
dtsf
dtmax
121

2
$
insol
dtinit
cfl
3
1.0e-4
1.0
$
imass
iadvec
ifct
3
10
1
$
msol
maxit
ichkit
20
100
2
$
ipsol
maxit
ickit
22
300
2
$
nvec
stab
beta
5
*CONTROL_CFD_TRANSPORT
$
itemp
iden
nspec
1
0
0
$
imass
iadvec
ifct
3
10
1
$
itsol
maxit
ichkit
ickdt
2
istats
tstart
iavg
divu
1.0e-7
iwrt
0
thetak
thetaa
thetaf
ihist
0
eps
ihg
ehg
iwrt
0
ihist
0
eps
1.0e-5
ifrac
0
thetak
thetaa
thetaf
ihist
eps
ihg
ehg
iwrt
0
$
endtim
endcyc
dtmin
endeng
endmas
5.00000
1500
$
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*DEFINE_CURVE
1
0.0
1.0
9999.0
1.0
*DEFINE_CURVE
2
0.0
0.0
9999.0
0.0
*DEFINE_CURVE
3
0.0
400.0
9999.0
400.0
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$ no-slip no-penetration BCs on nodeset 20
*BOUNDARY_PRESCRIBED_MOTION_SET
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
10
101
2 0.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
122

20
102
2 0.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
20
101
2 1.0000000
$
$ no x-velocity on symmetry plane using nodeset 60
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
60
101
2 1.0000000
$
$ jet inlet velocity on nodeset 20
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
10
102
1 4.0000000
$ jet inlet temperature
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
10
104
3 1.0000000
$ wall temperature
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
20
104
1 300.00000
$
$ outflow boundaries - right side, top
*BOUNDARY_OUTFLOW_CFD_SET
$
ssid
35
$
ssid
45
$
ssid
55
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*MAT_CFD_CONSTANT
$
mid
ro
mu
k
Cp
beta
Tref
1
1.1770 1.9832e-5 2.6240e-2 1.0060e+3
3.33e-3
300.0
$
gx
gy
gz
diff1
diff2
diff3
diff4
diff5
0
-9.81
0
$
diff6
diff7
diff8
diff9
diff10
$
$ Section & part
$
*SECTION_SHELL
$
sid
elform
shrf
nip
propt
qr/irid
1
31
$
t1
t2
t3
t4
nloc
1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000 1.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000
icomp
123

*PART
Fluid Domain
$
pid
secid
mid
eosid
hgid
grav
adpopt
tmid
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1.0e-2
$ dt/cycl
lcdt
beam
npltc
1.0e-6
$
nd1
nd2
nd3
nd4
nd5
nd6
nd7
nd8
11
27
51
83
289
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$ Input the mesh, node & segment sets
*INCLUDE
momjet_dat.k
*END
Example: momjet_p2.k
124
Segment Set ID: 55
Segment Set ID: 45
Segment Set ID: 35

Node Set ID: 60
Symmetry
Plane
H/2
Node Set ID: 20
Node Set ID: 10
Figure 10.17: Momentum-driven jet mesh with 11250 elements and 11466 nodes.
125
0.12
MOMENTUM DRIVEN JET
0.1
Kinetic Energy
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
C
0.2
0.4
0.6
Company
14:39:52, 11/27/2000
Time
Figure 10.18: Time-history plot of kinetic energy.
MOMENTUM DRIVEN JET

Node No
11
27
51
83
380
Temperature
360
340
320
300
C
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Company
13:56:32, 11/27/2000
Time
Figure 10.19: Nodal time-history plot of temperature along the jet axis for 0 t 0 02 s at node-11
x y (7.50e-4,6.31e-3), node-27 x y (7.50e-4,1.07e-2), node-51 x y (7.50e-4,1.52e-2), and node83 x y (7.50e-4,1.98e-2).
126
MOMENTUM DRIVEN JET
Xvelocity
2
C
0.2
Company
14:41:50, 11/27/2000
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.6
Time
a)
3
MOMENTUM DRIVEN JET
2.5
Yvelocity
1.5
0.5
0.5
C
Company
14:41:57, 11/27/2000
b)
0.2
Time
Figure 10.20: Nodal time-history plot of a) x-velocity and b) y-velocity for node 289 at x y
2,3.71e-2).
(1.34e-
127
Figure 10.21: X-velocity snapshot at t
Figure 10.22: Y-velocity snapshot at t
128
0 7758 s.
0 7758 s.
Figure 10.23: Temperature snapshot at t
Figure 10.24: Pressure snapshot at t
0 7758 s.
0 7758 s.
129
130
10.4. THE SHEATH-FLOW CHAMBER
10.4 The Sheath-Flow Chamber

Recent advancements in micro-machining has permitted the development of portable particle analyzers
that sort and categorize particles, e.g., blood cells, at rates exceeding 5000 particles per second. At the
core of these devices is a uid-dynamic focusing chamber commonly referred to as a sheath-ow chamber.
The sheath geometry effects the ow patterns which in turn effects the particle trajectory through the sheath
and into the capillary tube used to count and categorize the particles. In the ideal situation, the sheath-ow
is steady, laminar and void of recirculation zones and swirl effects.
This example presents the analysis of the ow-eld in a proposed sheath chamber manufactured from
etched silicon wafers. The geometry for the sheath chamber is shown in Figure 10.25. In this conguration,
the inlet and outlet axial are square sections with an edge length of 100 m and a hydraulic diameter of
100 m. The overall length of the device is 1250 m with a 100 m thickness. Axial velocities ranging
from 1 m s to 10 m s are typical when water is used as the sheath uid. In this analysis, the properties of
water at room temperature are density 998 kg m3 and dynamic viscosity 10 3 kg m s.
The boundary conditions for the sheath chamber consist of no-slip and no-penetration conditions on the
surface of the chamber. The pressure at the axial inlet is prescribed to be 10 kPa, while the side inlet ports
have a prescribed pressure of 7 5 kPa. For each inlet port, the prescribed tangential velocity components
are zero. At the axial outlet from the chamber, natural (do-nothing) boundary conditions are used. The
initial conditions for the problem consist of the initial pressure difference and velocities u v w 0.
The sheath_p2.k keyword input le is shown below. In this problem, a xed maximum CFL number is
used with the time-step being updated every two time-steps as indicated by ickdt=2. Because a steadystate solution is anticipated, 10 A-conjugate base vectors are used in the pressure solution strategy which
yields pressure solutions in an average of 4 iterations per time-step.
Although a steady-state, laminar ow solution is expected in this problem, a time-accurate calculation is
performed to test the steady-state hypothesis. Figure 10.26 shows the kinetic energy time-history plot for
the sheath-chamber and illustrates the trend towards steady conditions for t 0 005 s. Similar results are
observed for the velocity time history plots in Figure 10.27 and 10.28. For t 0 005 s the peak x-velocity
at the outlet is approximately 4 times larger than along the center line of the axial inlet.
In addition to approaching a steady-state, the ow eld is also symmetric about the x-y plane as shown
by the pressure isosurfaces in Figure 10.29. In contrast, the y-velocity eld is skew-symmetric about the
x-y plane as shown by the time-history plot in Figure 10.28. The isosurfaces of helicity u shown in
Figure 10.30 highlights the rotational structure of the velocity eld at the outlet plane. Here, there are four
counter-rotating cells each pair originating at the side inlet port.
131

Side Inlet Port
Node/Segment Set ID: 3
Axial Inlet Port

Axial Outlet Port
Side Inlet Port
Figure 10.25: Sheath chamber mesh with 33088 elements and 37196 nodes.
Example: sheath_p2.k
*KEYWORD
*TITLE
Prototype sheath flow chamber
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*CONTROL_SOLUTION
$
soln
4
$
insol
dtinit
cfl
ickdt
istats
tstart
iavg
3
1.0e-6
4.0
2
132

$
imass
advec
ifct
divu
thetak
thetaa
thetaf
1
10
1
1.0e-7
$
msol
maxit
ichkit
iwrt
ihist
eps
ihg
ehg
20
100
2
0
0
1
1.0
$
ipsol
maxit
ickit
iwrt
ihist
eps
22
250
2
1
0
1.0e-05
$
nvec
stab
beta
10
$
endtim
endcyc
dtmin
endeng
endmas
1500.00000
2000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*DEFINE_CURVE
$
lcid
sidr
sfa
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
1
0.0
1.0
9999.0
1.0
*DEFINE_CURVE
$
lcid
sidr
sfa
sfo
offa
offo
dattyp
2
0.0
0.0
9999.0
0.0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$ nsid=1 : no-slip, no-penetration surface
$ nsid=2 : on-axis inlet
$ nsid=3 : top/bottom inlet
$ ssid=4 : no-slip, no-penetration surface
$ ssid=5 : on-axis inlet surface
$ ssid=6 : top/bottom surfaces
$
$ Sheath chamber walls -- no-slip, no-penetration
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
101
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
102
2 1.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
1
103
2 1.0000000
$
$ x-inlet surface
133

$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
102
0
2 0.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
2
103
0
2 0.0000000
$
$ top/bottom x-z velocity
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
3
101
0
2 0.0000000
$
nsid
dof
lcid
sf
3
103
0
2 0.0000000
$
$ Prescribed inlet pressure
$
ssid
lcid
p
2
1
11000.0
$
ssid
lcid
p
3
1
10000.0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
*MAT_CFD_CONSTANT
$
mid
ro
mu
k
Cp
beta
Tref
1
1000.0
1.0e-3
$
gx
gy
gz
diff1
diff2
diff3
diff4
diff5
$
diff6
diff7
diff8
diff9
diff10
$
$ Section & part
$
*SECTION_SOLID
1
31
*PART
Fluid domain
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$
$
5.0e-4
1.0e-6
134

$
nd1
nd2
nd3
nd4
nd5
nd6
nd7
nd8
17400
17427
17397
18989
35693
6842
25474
9
2000
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
$ Input the mesh & node sets
$
*INCLUDE
sheath_dat.k
$
*END
Example: sheath_p2.k
0.03
PROTOTYPE SHEATH FLOW CHAMBER
0.025
Kinetic Energy (E06)
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
C
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
Company
12:44:05, 11/29/2000
Time
Figure 10.26: Time-history plot of kinetic energy.
135

Node No
9
17400
4
Xvelocity
0
C
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
Company
12:46:00, 11/29/2000
Time
Figure 10.27: Time-history plot of x-velocity at the centerline of the inlet/outlet planes.
0.8

Node No
0.6
A 6842
B 25474
B
B
0.4
Yvelocity
0.2
0.2
0.4
A
0.6
0.8
C
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
Company
12:46:20, 11/29/2000
Time
Figure 10.28: Time-history plot of y-velocity at the centerline of the side inlet planes.
136
Figure 10.29: Pressure isosurfaces at t
0 013 s.
Figure 10.30: Helicity isosurfaces at t
0 013 s.
137
138
Appendix A
Sense Switch Controls
The status of an LS-DYNA calculation can be determined by typing C (control-c). This sends an
interrupt to LS-DYNA which is trapped and the user is prompted to input a sense witch code. For the
incompressible ow solver, the sw2., sw5., and swa. switches are ignored. The active ow-solver sense
switches are:
Type
sw0.
sw1.
sw3.
sw4.
Response
LS-DYNA terminates immediately.
A restart le is written and LS-DYNA terminates.
A restart le is written and LS-DYNA proceeds.
A plot state is written and LS-DYNA proceeds.
div
grid
iter
lprint
Toggle the output of the divergence metrics for a projection step.

Toggle the output of the grid Reynolds and CFL numbers.
Toggle the output of statistics for the iterative equation solvers.
Toggle the output of velocity min/max.
quit
stop

139
APPENDIX A. SENSE SWITCH CONTROLS
140
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147
Index
Bibliography, 147
Boundary conditions, 5, 9, 35
ux, 39
heat ux rate, 39
mass ux rate, 39
natural, 37
nodal, 35, 77
node sets, 35
outow, 38, 76
pressure, 37, 79
segment sets, 35
time-dependent, 99
traction, 37, 79
second moment statistics (level-2), 71

Fluid-structure interaction, 99
Governing equations, 3
energy conservation, 5, 9
mass conservation, 4, 8
momentum conservation, 3, 7
vector notation, 7
Grid parameters
CFL number, 15, 105
Reynolds number, 15, 105
Initial conditions, 5, 9, 95
Introduction, 1
guide to the users manual, 2
Conservation equations
energy equation, 90
momentum equations, 85
species transport, 90
vector notation, 7
Keyword input, 75
incompressible ow keywords, 75
*BOUNDARY OUTFLOW CFD, 76
*BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD, 77
*BOUNDARY PRESSURE CFD SET,
79
*CONTROL CFD AUTO, 81
*CONTROL CFD GENERAL, 83
*CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM, 85
*CONTROL CFD PRESSURE, 88
*CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT, 90
*CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE, 94
*INITIAL CFD, 95
*MAT CFD CONSTANT, 97
shared keywords, 99
*CONTROL OUTPUT, 99
*CONTROL SOLUTION, 99
*CONTROL TERMINATION, 99
*DATABASE BINARY D3DUMP, 99
*DATABASE BINARY D3MEAN, 99
*DATABASE BINARY D3PLOT, 99
*DATABASE BINARY D3THDT, 99
*DATABASE BINARY RUNRSF, 99
*DATABASE HISTORY NODE, 99
*DEFINE CURVE, 99
*SECTION SHELL, 99
*SECTION SOLID, 99
Element
formulation, 99
modied nite element formulation, 16
reduced-integration operators, 17
Example problems, 101
2-D channel ow, 101
momentum-driven jet, 121
natural convection, 111
Poiseuille ow, 101
sheath-ow chamber, 131
thermal cavity, 111
Flow solver
uid-structure interaction, 99
stand-alone, 99
Flow statistics, 65
anisotropic stress tensor, 69
derived ow statistics, 65
uctuating quantities, 67
higher-order statistics, 68
mean quantities, 67
Reynolds averaged statistics, 66
statistics levels, 70
higher-order statistics (level-3), 72
mean statistics (level-1), 71
LS-POST statistics levels, 73

148
INDEX
higher-order statistics (level-3), 73
mean statistics (level-1), 73
second-moment statistics (level-2), 73
Material models
uid properties, 97
Output
ASCII, 99
binary, 99
d3dump, 99
d3mean, 65, 99
d3plot, 99
d3thdt, 99
runrsf, 99
state database, 99
time-history database, 99
Parallelism
communication costs, 25
domain-decomposition, 22
domain-decomposition message-passing, 21
parallel assembly via message passing, 22
parallel explicit algorithm, 24
Pressure solution methods, 41
PPE solvers, 88
pressure stabilization, 42
pressure-Poisson solvers, 88
projection CG method, 44
updating , 46
saddle point problems, 41
solver performance, 47
Pressure-Poisson equation
pressure levels, 40
Pressure-Poisson equation (PPE), 13, 28, 31
Projection method, 27
fully-implicit projection method, 32
rst time-step, 33
general time-step, 33
start-up, 32
projection properties, 28
semi-implicit projection method, 29
Properties
uid properties, 97
segment, 35
shell, 35
solid, 35
Source terms, 35
body forces, 38
buoyancy forces, 38
Start-up procedure
explicit time integration, 14
Time integration
explicit time integration, 13
domain-decomposition message-passing,
21
modied nite element formulation, 16
communication costs, 25
parallel explicit algorithm, 24
reduced-integration operators, 17
stability, 15
start-up, 14
projection method, 27
projection properties, 28
start-up, 31, 32
termination, 99
time step control, 81
time step selection, 81
Turbulence models, 57, 94
ksgs model, 62
averaging, 58
dynamic k-transport model, 63
ensemble averaging, 58, 66
ltered equations, 61
ltering, 58
k-transport model, 62
LES ltering, 59
scale separation, 58
Smagorinsky subgrid-scale model, 62
space averaging, 58
spatial ltering, 59
time averaging, 58, 66
time-averaged equations, 60
Restart
d3dump, 99
d3mean, 99
runrsf, 99
Sense switches, 139
ow solver sense switches, 139
Sets
node, 35
149

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MARK A. CHRISTON, Ph.D.,

Copyright c 2001 by Livermore Software Technology Corporation

Guide to the Users Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conservation Equations Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Explicit Time Integration

Modied Finite Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

The Domain-Decomposition Message-Passing Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Parallel Assembly via Message Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

The Parallel Explicit Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 The Projection Method

Semi-Implicit Projection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Fully-Implicit Projection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Boundary Conditions and Source Terms

Node and Segment Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Nodal Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Traction Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Pressure Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Outow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6 Pressure Solution Methods

The Saddle Point Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

The Projection CG Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

PPE Solver Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Averaging, Filtering and Scale Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The Time-Averaged Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

The Spatially Filtered Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Baseline Smagorinsky Subgrid-Scale Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Subgrid Kinetic Energy Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Local Dynamic ksgs model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Derived Flow Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Mean and Fluctuating Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Reynolds Averaged Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Anisotropic Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

LS-DYNA Statistics Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Second Moment Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Level-1: Mean Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

LS-POST Statistics Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Incompressible Flow Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

*BOUNDARY OUTFLOW CFD OPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

*BOUNDARY PRESCRIBED CFD OPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

*BOUNDARY PRESSURE CFD SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

*CONTROL CFD AUTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

*CONTROL CFD GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

*CONTROL CFD MOMENTUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

*CONTROL CFD PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

*CONTROL CFD TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

*CONTROL CFD TURBULENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

9.1.10 *INITIAL CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

10.1 Poiseuille Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1.1 Guide to the Users Manual

Incompressible Flow Solver

2.1 Conservation Equations

2.1.1 Momentum Conservation

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.1.2 Mass Conservation

In the incompressible limit, the velocity eld is solenoidal,

which implies a mass density transport equation,