BOTANY BASICS

David Shibles Master Gardener Coordinator Polk County Cooperative Extension

Adapted from Botany Basics by Dr. Ann Marie VanDerZanden, Extension Master Gardener Coordinator, Oregon State University

THE PLANT WORLD The plant world is extremely diverse, ranging from one celled algae to huge oaks and sequoias. It contains plants like mushrooms which have no green color. In our gardens we find lichens and mosses, which are green plants, but have no true roots, no leaves and no flowers. Many of us grow ferns in our gardens. They are green plants with true leaves and roots, but no flowers.

Finally there are the flowering or seed bearing plants, which make up the vast majority of plants on earth. These are the plants that we wish to discuss today.

SEED PLANTS-Spermatophyta The seed plants are those which produce seeds, each containing an embryo (a minute, inactive plant) that germinates (begins to grow) under favorable conditions. Seed bearing plants have true leaves, stems, roots and vascular tissue. They consist of two classes-the Gymnospermae and Angiospermae

Gymnospermae-gymnosperms
All gymnosperms are woody, perennial, and with few exceptions evergreen. The reproductive organs are borne in structures called catkins or in cones. Their leaves may be fern-like, scale-like, strap-shaped, or needle shaped. This group is represented primarily by cone bearing trees (conifers) and palm-like plants called cycads. Members of this group are cypress, cycads, ginkgo, pine and cedars, podocarpus, yews and torreya.

Angiospermae
The angiosperms include those groups which have flowers and seeds always protected by a fruit. They are broken down into two main groups the Monocotyledoncae and the Dicotyledoncae. These divisions are determined by the number of cotyledons or seed leaves found in the seed.

MONOCOTS
1. Have one seed leaf.

2. Xylem and phloem are paired in bundles and are dispersed throughout the stem. 3. The floral parts are usually in multiples of three. 4. The leaves often have parallel veins.

DICOTS 1. Have two seed leaves. 2. The xylem and phloem are inside the stem. The ring of phloem is near the bark; the xylem forms the inner ring. 3. The floral parts are usually in multiples of four or five. 4. The leaves are usually net veined.

PLANT LIFE CYCLES

1. Annuals-completes its full life cycle in one year. Winter and summer annuals. Summer annuals include many flowers, crabgrass and spurge. Winter annuals include annual bluegrass and henbit.

2. Biennials-produce vegetative the first year, then produces seed the seconds year. Examples are Swiss chard, carrots, beets. Weeds include cudweed and bull thistle.

3. PERENNIALS - plants that live 2 years or more and are divided into herbaceous and woody perennials. - Herbaceous perennials have soft nonwoody stems that generally die back to the ground each winter if the temperature is cold enough and new stems grow from the plants crown in the spring. Or they may just keep on growing. - Woody perennials have woody stems that can withstand cold winter temperatures and include shrubs and trees.

PERENNIALS (cont)

INTERNAL PLANT PARTS Cells are the basic unit of plants. Plant reactions such as cell division, photosynthesis, respiration go on at the cellular level. Plant tissues such as meristems, xylem and phloem are large organized groups of cells that work together to perform specific functions. A unique feature of plant cells is that they are totipotent Specialized groups of cells called meristems are the plants growing points.

EXTERNAL PLANT PARTS Leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, and seeds are known as organs. They can be divided into sexual reproductive and vegetative.

Sexual reproductive parts produce seed. They include flower buds, flowers, fruit and seed. Vegetative parts include roots, stems, shoot buds, and leaves. They are not directly involved with sexual reproduction. Vegetative parts can be used in asexual forms of reproduction such as cutting, budding and grafting.

External Plant Parts-roots Their principle functions are to absorb nutrients and moisture, anchor the plant, support the stem, and store food. They can be used for propagation in some plants. The meristematic zone manufactures new cells. zone of elongation cells increase in size and push the root through the soil. zone of maturation cells become specific tissues-epidermis, cortex, or vascular tissue.

Epidermis-outermost layer which absorbs water and nutrients. Cortex cells help move water to vascular tissue and storing food. Root cap protects the end of the root.

Root hairs are epidermal cells that occur in a small zone behind the roots growing tip. They increase the absorptive capacity of the root. They usually live one or two days. Roots often have a symbiotic relationship with certain fungi - mycorrhizae (fungus + root).

Types of roots 1. Primary or taproot-if the primary root elongates downward and develops few lateral roots then it is called a taproot. Examples are hickory and pecan trees and carrots. 2. Lateral root-is a side or branch root that arises from another root. If the taproot ceases to grow then a fibrous root system forms.

How do roots grow - fertility, moisture and air spaces. Factors Important For Good Root Growth 1. Roots in water saturated soil may die from lack of oxygen. 2. Roots penetrate much deeper in loose, well drained soil, than in heavy, poorly drained soil. 3. A dense compacted soil can restrict or terminate growth. 4. Container plants have a restricted area for growth and the roots may be more sensitive to cold damage. 5. Keep in mind that plants grow downward as well as laterally.

Vascular System-consists of xylem, phloem, and vascular cambium. Xylem-conduct water and dissolved minerals. Phloem-carries food such as sugars. Cambium-is a layer of meristematic tissue that separates the xylem and phloem and produces new xylem and phloem cells. The vascular cambium is important in grafting, because they need to line up or the graft will fail.

Dicots-the vascular system is said to be continuous because it forms rings inside the stem. The ring of phloem is near the bark and eventually becomes part of the bark. The xylem forms the inner ring and is often called the sapwood and heartwood. This is important to the gardener because herbicides like 2,4-D kill only dicots.

Roots As Food An enlarged root is the edible portion of several vegetables. Sweet potatoes are a swollen tuberous root: carrots, parsnips, salsify, and radishes are elongated taproots.

STEMS Support buds and leaves and act as a conduit for carrying water, minerals, and food from photosynthesis. They may be above or below ground. The vascular system inside the stem forms a continuous pathway from the roots to the leaves.

Stems may be long with great distances between leaves and buds (branches of trees) or they may compressed like crowns of strawberry plants, fruit spurs and African violets. Above ground stems-crowns, spurs or stolons

Crowns are compressed stems with leaves and flowers on short internodes (strawberries, dandelions, and African violets).

Spurs are short, stubby side stems that arise from a main stem. They are the fruit bearing stems on pears, apple, cherry trees, etc.

Do not do severe pruning close to fruit-bearing spurs, because the spurs can revert back to vegetative stems.

Stolons are fleshy or semi-woody, elongated, horizontal stems that often lie on the soil surface. Leaves and roots develop from the nodes (spider plants, St. Augustinegrass and strawberries).

Under-ground stems Potato tubers, iris rhizomes, and tulip bulbs are underground stems that store food for the plant. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between roots and underground stems, but one sure way is to look for nodes. Stems have nodes; roots do not.

Below ground stems-tubers (potatoes)

The eyes in potato tubers are actually nodes, and each eye has a cluster of buds. When growing potatoes from seed pieces, it is important that each piece contain at least one eye and be about the size of a golf ball

Below ground stems -

Rhizomes resemble stolons because they grow horizontally from plant to plant. Some are fleshy compressed (iris), while others are slender and have long internodes (bentgrass). Johnsongrass is a particularly bad rhizomonous weed.

Tulips, lilies, and onions produce bulbs, which are shortened, compressed underground stems surrounded by fleshy scales (leaves) that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem. After a bulb-producing plant flowers, its phloem transports food reserves from its leaves to the bulbs scale. When the bulb begins growing in the spring, it utilizes the stored food. So dont cut the old leaves off until they have withered and died. Bulbs are classified as tunicate and non-tunicate bulbs.

Tunicate bulbs have a thin papery covering which is actually a modified leaf (narcissus, daffodils amaryllyis, tulips and onions). This helps protect the bulb from drying out and mechanical damage. Non-tunicate bulbs (various lilies) do not have the papery covering. They have to handled with care.

Corms are another kind of below ground stem. Bulbs and corms are composed of the same tissue, but they are not the same. A corm is a solid mass of stem tissue with a terminal bud on top. In additional to the terminal bud, axillary buds are produced at nodes. It is protected against injury and water loss by dry leaf bases similar to the tunic in true bulbs (gladiolus, Watsonia, Tritonia, Freesia, and African lily).

Some plants produce a modified stem called a tuberous stem (tuberous begonia and cyclamen). These stems are short, flat, and enlarged. Buds and shoots arise from the crown, and fibrous roots grow from the bottom. Other plants (dahlias and sweet potatoes) produce underground storage organs called tuberous roots. These are often confused with bulbs and tubers, however, these are root tissue and not stem tissue. They do not have nodes or internodes.

Stems and Propagation Aboveground stems with nodes and internodes can be used to create new plants. Below-ground stems are also good propagative tissue. Rhizomes can be divided into pieces, bulblets or cormels can be removed from the parent, and tubers can be cut into pieces containing eyes.

Types of plants and their stems Trees have one or two main trunks and are usually taller than 12 feet while shrubs have many main stems and are usually less than 12 feet tall. Both have large amounts of hardened xylem in the core. Herbaceous or succulent stems contain lessor amounts of sapwood - may only live a year and re-grow from the crown. Canes are stems with relatively large pith. They live only 1-2 years (roses, grapes, blackberries, and raspberries). For fruit production it is good to know which canes to prune.

Vines-have long trailing stems. Some vines grow along the ground while others need a structure to grow on. Twining vines circle a structure for support. Some circle clockwise (hops and honeysuckle), while other circle counterclockwise (pole beans and Dutchmans pipe). Climbing vines are supported by either aerial roots (English ivy and poison ivy), by slender tendrils that encircle an object (cucumber, gourds, grapes, and passion flower), or by tendrils with adhesive tips (Virginia and Japanese creeper).

Stems as food-The edible portion of several plants, such as kohlrabi, is an enlarged edible, succulent stem. The edible parts of broccoli are composed of stem tissue, flower buds, and a few small leaves. The edible part of a potato is a fleshy underground stem. The edible part of cauliflower is actually proliferated stem tissue.

Buds-A bud is an undeveloped shoot from which leaves or flower parts grow. Buds of many plants require a cold period before they start to grow in the spring-central Florida peaches require 250 hours (chill units) below 45 degrees).

A leaf bud is composed of a short stem with embryonic leaves. Leaf buds are often less plump and more pointed than flower buds.

Terminal buds are located at the apex of a stem. Lateral (auxillary) buds are located on the sides of a stem and usually arise where a leaf meets a stem (an axil). Adventitous buds arise at sites other than the terminal or axil, such as roots, stem internode, edge of a leaf blade, or callus tissue at the end of a stem or root.

Buds as food Cabbage and head lettuce are unusually large terminal buds. Succulent axillary buds are the edible parts of Brussels sprouts. The fleshy basal part of the flower buds bract is eaten in globe artichoke along with the stem. Broccoli is probably the most important crop in Horticulture as the flower bud is eaten along with the stem and small leaves.

Leaves Function and structure

The main function of the leaf is to absorb sunlight to manufacture plant sugars through photosynthesis. A leaf is held away from the stem by a petiole and it is attached to the stem at a node. Where they meet is a leaf axil which contains a bud or buds.

Some leaves have hair-like extensions called pubescence. The cuticle is part of the epidermis and produces a waxy layer called cutin which protects the leaf from diseases and dehydration.

Guard cells regulate the passage of CO2, O2 and water through tiny openings called stomata.

Types of leaves
Scale leaves-are found on rhizomes and buds, which they enclose and protect. Seed leaves-(cotyledons) on embryonic plants. They store food for the developing seedling. Spines and tendrils-such as those found on barberry and pea plants, protect a plant or help support its stems. Storage leaves-on bulbous and succulent plants. Bracts-brightly colored (dogwoods and poinsettias).

Leaf venation-monocots.

Parallel veined-mostly grasses (monocots) where the veins run essentially parallel to each other, (base to apex) except such plants as banana, calla and pickerel-weed, whose veins run laterally from the midrib.

Leaf venation-dicots

Pinnate veins-veins extend laterally from the mid-rib to the edge (apple, cherry and peach). Palmate veins-principle veins extend outward, like the ribs of a fan (grapes and maples).

Leaves shape and plant identification

lanceolate-longer than wide, tapering toward apex/base linear-several times longer than wide-same width cordate-heart shaped-turns in an forms a notch where petiole is attached ellipitical-2-3 x as long as wide-tapers to acute or rounded apex at base ovate-egg shaped

Leaf edges
entire-smooth edge crenate-rounded teeth dentate-teeth ending in an acute angle pointing outward serrate-small sharp teeth pointing toward the apex incised-cut into sharp deep,irregular teeth lobed-incisions extending less than half way to midrib

Leaf base shapes

Cuneate-wedge shaped; triangular with the narrow end at the point of attachment. Obtuse-tapering to a rounded point. Cordate- turning in and forming a notch

Leaf apex shapes

Acute-ending in an acute angle, with a sharp, but not acuminate point. Accuminate-tapering to a long narrow point. Obtuse-tapering to a rounded edge.

Simple leaves-the leaf blade is single continuous unit. Compound leaves-are composed of several separate leaflets arising from the same petiole. Some leaves are doubly compound.

opposite-leaves are position across from each other. alternate-leaves are arranged in alternate steps along the stem, with only one leaf at each node. whorled-leaves are arranged in a circles along the stem. rosulate-leaves arranged in a rosette around the stem, with extremely short internodes.

Leaves as food-the leaf blade is the principal edible part of several horticultural crops, including chives, collards, dandelions, endives, kale, mustard, parsley, spinach, Swiss chard and other greens. The edible part of leeks, onions and Florence fennel is a cluster of fleshy leaf bases. The petiole is the edible product in celery and rhubarb.

Flower Structure
Collectively the sepals are called the calyx. Petals may contain perfume-collectively the petals are called the corolla.

The flower is very important for plant identification. Flowers of dicots typically have 4-5 sepals and or petals. Monocots typically come in 3s or multiple of 3s.

Types of flowers If a flower has a stamen, pistil, petals and sepals, it is called a complete flower. If one of these parts is missing, then it is called an incomplete flower. The stamen and pistal are the essential parts of a flower for seed production. If it contains both stamens and pistal, then it is called a perfect flower. If either the pital or stamen is missing, then it is called imperfect pistillate or staminate.

Plants with imperfect flowers are classified as: monoecious-have separate male and female flowers on the same plant (corn and pecan). dioecious-species have separate male and female plants (holly, ginko, papaya and pistachio)

Types of inflorescences: Some plants bear only one flower called a solitary flower. Most inflorescences belong to one of two groupsracemes and cymes. Racemes bloom from the bottom up while cymes bloom from the top down.

Pollination-is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, either by wind or by pollinators. A chemical in the stigma stimulates pollen to grow a long tube down the style to the ovules inside the ovary. When the pollen reaches the ovules, it releases sperm, and fertilization typically occurs. Cross-pollination-combines genetic material from two parents.

Fruit Fruit consists of fertilized, mature ovules (seeds) plus the ovary wall, which may be fleshy as in an apple, or dry and hard as in an acorn. In some fruit the seeds are enclosed within the ovary (apples, peaches, oranges, squash and cucumbers. In others, the seeds are situated on the outside of the fruit tissue (corn and strawberries). The only part of the fruit that has genes from both parents is the seed. The rest is maternal.

Types of fruit Simple-develops from a single ovary (cherries, and peaches (drupe), pears and apples (pome), and tomatoes (berry). Tomatoes, squash, cucumbers, and eggplants all develop from a flower and are considered to be fruits. Other types of simple fruit are dry. There wall is either papery or leathery and hard (peanuts/ legume, poppies/capsule, maples/samara, and walnuts/nut).

Types of fruit
Aggregate fruit-develops from a single flower with many ovaries (strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries). The flower is a simple flower with one corolla, one calyx, and one stem, but it has many pistils or ovaries. Each ovary is fertilized separately. If some ovules are not pollinated successfully, the fruit will be misshapen.

Types of fruit
Multiple fruits are derived from a tight cluster of separate, independent flowers borne on a single structure. Each flower has its own calyx and corolla. Examples are pines, pineapples and figs.

Seeds

Embryo-is a miniature plant in an arrested state of development. Endosperm-is a built in food supply. Seed coat-hard outer covering which protects the seed from disease and water loss.

Germination
Germination is a process whereby a seed goes from a dormant state to an actively growing state. Before this happen the seed must have water, oxygen and a favorable temperature. Some seeds such as celery also require light, while others require darkness.

Radicle-is the first part of the seedling to emerge from the seed. It develops the primary root and grows downward. Hypocotyl-is the structure between the radicle and the first leaf-like structure and grows upward. Cotyledons-encase the embryo.

Seed dormancy-because seeds are reproductive structures, they have many mechanisms to ensure their survival. There are two types of seed dormancy: seed coat dormancy-a hard seed does not allow water to penetrate. A process called scarification is used to break this dormancy. embryo dormancy-these seeds must go through a chilling before they will germinate.

Other factors affecting germination: age of the seed seedbed preparation planting depth moisture

Plant Growth and Development Photosynthesis Respiration Transpiration

The above 3 items drive plant growth

Photosynthesis=s carbon dioxide+water+sunlight=s Sugar+Oxygen photosynthates-after producing carbohydrates, the plant uses them for energy, stores them, or builds them into complex compounds (oils/proteins). The plant uses them when light is limited or stores them in roots or fruit. Photosynthesis occurs in the mesophyll in chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the pigment that makes leaves green. It is responsible for trapping light from the sun.

Respiration Carbohydrates (sugars and starches) made during photosynthesis are converted to energy which the plant uses for cell growth and building new tissue. This chemical process in which sugars and starches are converted to energy is called oxidation and is similar to burning wood or coal to produce heat. Controlled oxidation in a plant is called respiration. Respiration does not depend on light so it goes on during day and night.

Photosynthesis produces food stores energy uses water uses carbon dioxide releases oxygen occurs in sunlight

Respiration uses food releases energy produces water produces carbon dioxide uses oxygen occurs in the dark as well as the light

Transpiration

When a leafs guard cell shrinks, it stomata open and water is lost. As water is lost through the stomata, more water has to be taken in through the roots.

Transpiration is a necessary process for plants and accounts for about 90% of the water that a plant uses. Transpiration is affected by temperature, humidity, and wind or air movement. Transpiration is necessary for several things: Transporting minerals throughout the plant. Cooling the plant through evaporation Moving sugars and plant chemicals. Maintaining turgor pressure.

Environmental Factors Affecting Plant Growth These factors affecting plant growth include include light, temperature, water, humidity, and nutrition. It is important to know how these factors affect plant growth and development. With a basic understanding of these factors, you may be able manipulate plants to meet your needs. By recognizing the role of these factors, you may be better able to diagnose problems caused by environmental stress.

Light - Quality, Quantity and Duration Quantity - refers to intensity or concentration and varies with the season. Quality-light quality refers to the wavelength. Sunlight supplies the complete range of wavelengths. Plants absorb blue and red light. Blue light is mainly responsible for vegetative growth. Red light when combined with blue light encourages flowering. Knowing which light source to use is important to know for manipulating plant growth.

Duration or photoperiod refers to the amount of time the plant is exposed to light. It was first believed that day length was the main factor affecting plant flowering. However, it was later found out that it was the length of darkness. Plants are classified into 3 day length categories: Short day length plants flower when they are exposed to less than 12 hr. sunlight (mums, X-mas cactus, poinsettias)

 Long day plants flower when the day length

exceeds 12 hours. This includes most summer flowering plants and vegetables.

Day neutral plants flower regardless of day length such as tomatoes, corn, cucumber, and some strawberry cultivars. Some plants dont fit any category, but may respond to combinations of day lengths such as petunias.

Temperature Generally may speed up most processes to a point. When combined with day length, it may affect the change from vegetative to reproductive. Germination: Generally cool-season crops (spinach, radish, lettuce) germinate best at 55-65 degrees F. Warm season crops germinate best at 65-75 degrees F.

Flowering: Sometimes day length in combination with temperature can be used to manipulate flowering. Christmas cactus can be forced to bloom by exposing it to more than 12 hours of darkness each day and a temperature of 50-55 degrees F. Crop quality: Low temperatures reduce energy use and increase sugar storage. Citrus is sweeter after cold weather. Adverse temp. may cause stunted growth and poor quality. High temperatures cause bitter lettuce.

Thermoperiod - refers to daily temperature change. Plants grow best when daytime temperature is 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime. Under these conditions plant build-up and break down tissues at an optimum temperature with respiration at a nighttime minimum. Temperatures higher than needed increases respiration sometimes greater than photosynthesis so photosynthates are used faster than they are made.

Breaking dormancy - cold period Hardiness - ability to withstand cold. Less daylight and cooler temperatures stimulate plants to reduce photosynthesis and ship nutrients to twigs, buds, stems and roots. Water and humidity - needed for photosynthesis, respiration, turgor pressure, solvent for nutrients, cooling factor, regulator for stomatal opening, pressure to help roots move through soil and a medium for biochemical reactions.

Plants In Communities Ecology-interaction between plants is important for gardeners. The study of this interaction is called plant or landscape ecology. Plant succession-as plants mature you may find that some plants will have to be replaced. Allelopathy-when some plants produce compounds in their leaves, roots, or both that affect the growth of other plants.

Plant hormones and growth regulatorsAre chemicals (natural and synthetic) that affect flowering, aging; root growth; distortion and killing of leaves, stems and other parts; prevention and promotion of stem elongation; color enhancement of fruit; prevention of leafing and leaf fall, and many other conditions.

There are five groups of plant-growth-regulating compounds: 1. Auxins cause several responses to plants. a. bending toward a light source (phototropism). b. downward root growth (geotropism). c. promotion of apical dominance d. flower formation e. fruit set and growth f. formation of adventitious roots Auxin is the active ingredient in most rooting compounds.

2. Giberellins-stimulate cell division and elongation, break seed dormancy and speed germination. 3. Cytokinins-occur in both plants and animals. They promote cell division and are often used in sterile for growing plants from tissue culture. They are also used to delay aging (senescence). 4. Ethylene-it it only found in the gaseous form. It induces ripening, causes leaves to droop (epinasty) and drop (abscission), and promotes senescence.

5. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a general plant-growth inhibitor. It induces dormancy and prevents seeds from germinating; causes abscission of leaves, fruits and flowers; and causes stomata to close. High concentration of ABA in guard cells during drought stress probably play a role in closure.

THE END