Chapter 28

Introduction
Nervous Systems
Spinal cord injuries disrupt communication between
the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
the rest of the body.

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Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition

Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
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Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

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Introduction

Figure 28.0_1

Chapter 28: Big Ideas

Over 250,000 Americans are living with spinal cord

injuries.
Spinal cord injuries
happen more often to men,

Nervous System
Structure and Function

Nerve Signals and

Their Transmission

An Overview of Animal
Nervous Systems

The Human Brain

happen mostly to people in their teens and 20s,

are caused by vehicle accidents, gunshots, and falls, and
are usually permanent because the spinal cord cannot be
repaired.

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Figure 28.0_2

NERVOUS SYSTEM
STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION

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28.1 Nervous systems receive sensory input,

interpret it, and send out appropriate
commands

Figure 28.1A

Sensory input

The nervous system

Integration
Sensory receptor

obtains sensory information, sensory input,

processes sensory information, integration, and
sends commands to effector cells (muscles) that carry out
appropriate responses, motor output.

Motor output

Brain and spinal cord

Effector cells
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)

Central nervous
system (CNS)

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28.1 Nervous systems receive sensory input,

interpret it, and send out appropriate
commands

28.1 Nervous systems receive sensory input,

interpret it, and send out appropriate
commands

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the

Sensory neurons

brain and

convey signals from sensory receptors

spinal cord (vertebrates).

to the CNS.

Interneurons

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

are located entirely in the CNS,

is located outside the CNS and

integrate information, and

consists of
nerves (bundles of neurons wrapped in connective tissue) and

send it to motor neurons.

Motor neurons convey signals to effector cells.

ganglia (clusters of neuron cell bodies).

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Figure 28.1B

Sensory
receptor

28.2 Neurons are the functional units of nervous

systems

Sensory
neuron
Brain

Neurons are
cells specialized for carrying signals and

Ganglion
Motor
neuron

the functional units of the nervous system.

Spinal
cord

Quadriceps
muscles

A neuron consists of

Interneuron

a cell body and

two types of extensions (fibers) that conduct signals,

Nerve

dendrites and

Flexor
muscles

axons.
PNS

CNS
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28.2 Neurons are the functional units of nervous

systems

Figure 28.2

Signal direction

Myelin sheaths
enclose axons,

Cell body
Nucleus

form a cellular insulation, and

speed up signal transmission.

Node of Ranvier

Signal
pathway

Layers of
myelin

Nodes of
Ranvier
Myelin
sheath

Dendrites

Schwann
cell

Synaptic
terminals
Nucleus

Cell
body

Schwann
cell

Axon

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28.3 Nerve function depends on charge differences

across neuron membranes

NERVE SIGNALS
AND THEIR TRANSMISSION

At rest, a neurons plasma membrane has potential

energythe membrane potential, in which
just inside the cell is slightly negative and
just outside the cell is slightly positive.

The resting potential is the voltage across the

plasma membrane of a resting neuron.

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28.3 Nerve function depends on charge differences

across neuron membranes

Figure 28.3

Neuron

The resting potential exists because of differences in

ion concentration of the fluids inside and outside the
neuron.

K+

Plasma
membrane
Outside of neuron

Inside the neuron

Na

is high and

Na

Na

Na
channel

Na

Na

Plasma
membrane

K+ is low and

Na
K

Na

Na

Na

Na

Na -K
pump

Na

Na

Na

Na
Na

ATP

K channel

K
Na

Na+ is high.

Animation: Resting Potential

Inside of neuron

Na

Na

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Na

Na+ is low.

Outside the neuron

Axon

28.4 A nerve signal begins as a change in the

membrane potential

28.4 A nerve signal begins as a change in the

membrane potential

A stimulus is any factor that causes a nerve signal

to be generated. A stimulus

A nerve signal, called an action potential, is

a change in the membrane voltage,

alters the permeability of a portion of the membrane,

from the resting potential,

allows ions to pass through, and

to a maximum level, and

changes the membranes voltage.

back to the resting potential.

Animation: Action Potential

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Figure 28.4
Na

28.5 The action potential propagates itself along

the axon

Na
Na

Na

Action potentials are

Additional Na channels
open, K channels are
closed; interior of cell
becomes more positive.
Na

50
Membrane potential
(mV)

Na

K
2

Action
potential
3

The K channels
close relatively
slowly, causing a
brief undershoot.

50 Threshold
1

self-propagated in a one-way chain reaction along a

neuron and
all-or-none events.

Resting potential

100

Time (msec)

Sodium Potassium
Na channel channel

Na channels close
and inactivate; K
channels open, and
K rushes out;
interior of cell is more
negative than outside.

A stimulus opens some Na

channels; if threshold is reached,
an action potential is triggered.

Na

Na

Outside
of neuron

Na

Plasma membrane
K
1

Inside of neuron

Resting state: Voltage-gated Na

and K channels are closed;
resting potential is maintained by
ungated channels (not shown).

Return to resting
state.

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Figure 28.5

28.5 The action potential propagates itself along

the axon
Axon

The frequency of action potentials (but not their

strength) changes with the strength of the stimulus.

Plasma
membrane

Action
Na potential

Axon
segment

Na

Action potential
Na

Na

Action potential
Na

K
3

K
Na
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28.6 Neurons communicate at synapses

28.6 Neurons communicate at synapses

Synapses are junctions where signals are

transmitted between

Electrical signals pass between cells at electrical

synapses.
At chemical synapses

two neurons or
between neurons and effector cells.

the ending (presynaptic) cell secretes a chemical signal, a

neurotransmitter,
the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft, and
the neurotransmitter binds to a specific receptor on the
surface of the receiving (postsynaptic) cell.

Animation: Synapse
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Figure 28.6

28.7 Chemical synapses enable complex

information to be processed

Sending cell
Axon of
sending
cell
Synaptic
terminal
of sending
cell

Action
potential
arrives

Synaptic
vesicles

Some neurotransmitters

Synaptic
terminal
2

Dendrite
of receiving
cell

excite a receiving cell, and

Vesicle fuses
with plasma
membrane

Neurotransmitter
is released into
synaptic cleft

others inhibit a receiving cells activity by decreasing its

ability to develop action potentials.

Synaptic
cleft
4

Neurotransmitter
binds to receptor

Receiving
cell

Ion channels

Neurotransmitter
molecules

Neurotransmitter
Receptor

Neurotransmitter broken
down and released

Ions

Ion channel opens

Ion channel closes

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28.7 Chemical synapses enable complex

information to be processed

Figure 28.7

Synaptic terminals
Dendrites

Inhibitory

Excitatory

A receiving neurons membrane may receive signals

that are both excitatory and inhibitory and
from many different sending neurons.

The summation of excitation and inhibition

determines if a neuron will transmit a nerve signal.

Myelin
sheath
Receiving
cell body
Axon
Synaptic
terminals

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28.8 A variety of small molecules function as

neurotransmitters
Many small, nitrogen-containing molecules are
neurotransmitters.

28.8 A variety of small molecules function as

neurotransmitters
Many neuropeptides
consist of relatively short chains of amino acids important in the
CNS and

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter

include endorphins, decreasing our perception of pain.

in the brain and
at synapses between motor neurons and muscle cells.

Nitric oxide
is a dissolved gas and

Biogenic amines

triggers erections during sexual arousal in men.

are important neurotransmitters in the CNS and
include serotonin and dopamine, which affect sleep, mood, and
attention.

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28.9 CONNECTION: Many drugs act at chemical

synapses

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Figure 28.9

Many psychoactive drugs

act at synapses and
affect neurotransmitter action.

Caffeine counters the effect of inhibitory

neurotransmitters.
Nicotine acts as a stimulant by binding to
acetylcholine receptors.
Alcohol is a depressant.
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AN OVERVIEW
OF ANIMAL
NERVOUS SYSTEMS

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28.10 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The

evolution of animal nervous systems reflects
changes in body symmetry
Radially symmetrical animals have a nervous system
arranged in a weblike system of neurons called a
nerve net.

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Figure 28.10A

28.10 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The

evolution of animal nervous systems reflects
changes in body symmetry
Most bilaterally symmetrical animals evolved
cephalization, the concentration of the nervous system
at the head end, and

Nerve
net
Neuron

centralization, the presence of a central nervous system

distinct from a peripheral nervous system.

Hydra (cnidarian)

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Figure 28.10B

Figure 28.10C

Eyespot

Brain

Brain

Ventral
nerve
cord

Nerve
cord
Transverse
nerve

Segmental
ganglion

Leech (annelid)

Flatworm (planarian)

Figure 28.10D

Figure 28.10E

Brain
Ventral
nerve
cord

Brain
Giant
axon

Ganglia

Insect (arthropod)

Squid (mollusc)

28.11 Vertebrate nervous systems are highly

centralized

Figure 28.11A

Central
nervous
system
(CNS)

In the vertebrates, the central nervous system (CNS)

Brain

Cranial
nerves

Spinal
cord

Ganglia
outside
CNS

consists of the brain and spinal cord and

includes spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Peripheral
nervous
system
(PNS)

Spinal
nerves

forming ventricles of the brain,

forming the central canal of the spinal cord, and
surrounding the brain.

The vertebrate peripheral nervous system (PNS)

consists of
cranial nerves,
spinal nerves, and
ganglia.
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Figure 28.11B

28.12 The peripheral nervous system of

vertebrates is a functional hierarchy
Gray matter

Brain

Cerebrospinal fluid
White
matter

Meninges

Dorsal root
ganglion
(part of PNS)

The PNS can be divided into two functional

components:
1. the motor system, mostly voluntary, and
2. the autonomic nervous system, mostly involuntary.

Central canal

Ventricles
Central canal
of spinal cord

Spinal nerve
(part of PNS)

Spinal cord
(cross section)

Spinal cord

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28.12 The peripheral nervous system of

vertebrates is a functional hierarchy
The motor nervous system
carries signals to and from skeletal muscles and
mainly responds to external stimuli.

Figure 28.12A

Peripheral nervous system

(to and from the central
nervous system)

Motor system
(voluntary and
involuntary; to and from
skeletal muscles)

Autonomic nervous system

(involuntary; smooth and
cardiac muscles, various glands)

The autonomic nervous system

regulates the internal environment and
controls smooth and cardiac muscle and organs and
glands of the digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and
endocrine systems.

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Parasympathetic
division
(Rest and digest)

Sympathetic
division
(Flight and fight)

Enteric division
(muscles and glands
of the digestive system)

28.12 The peripheral nervous system of

vertebrates is a functional hierarchy

Figure 28.12B
Parasympathetic division

Sympathetic division

Brain
Eye
Dilates pupil

Constricts pupil

The autonomic nervous system is composed of

three divisions.

Salivary
glands
Stimulates
saliva
secretion

Inhibits
saliva
secretion
Lung

1. The parasympathetic division primes the body for

activities that gain and conserve energy for the body.

Relaxes
bronchi

Constricts
bronchi
Slows
heart

2. The sympathetic division prepares the body for intense,

energy-consuming activities.

Accelerates
heart

Heart
Adrenal
gland

Spinal
cord

Liver
Stomach
Stimulates
stomach,
pancreas,
and intestines

3. The enteric division consists of networks of neurons in

the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder that control
secretion and peristalsis.

Pancreas

Stimulates
epinephrine
and norepinephrine release
Stimulates
glucose release
Inhibits
stomach,
pancreas,
and intestines

Intestines
Bladder
Stimulates
urination

Inhibits
urination

Promotes
erection of
genitalia

Promotes ejaculation and vaginal

contractions

Genitalia

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Figure 28.12B_1

Figure 28.12B_2

Sympathetic division

Parasympathetic division

Adrenal
gland

Sympathetic division

Parasympathetic division
Eye

Stimulates
epinephrine
and norepinephrine release

Liver

Constricts pupil

Stomach

Dilates pupil
Salivary
glands

Stimulates
saliva
secretion

Inhibits
saliva
secretion

Stimulates
stomach,
pancreas,
and intestines

Pancreas Stimulates
glucose release
Inhibits
stomach,
pancreas,
and intestines

Intestines
Lung
Relaxes
bronchi

Constricts
bronchi
Slows
heart

Heart

Accelerates
heart

28.13 The vertebrate brain develops from three

anterior bulges of the neural tube
The vertebrate brain evolved by the enlargement
and subdivision of the

Bladder
Stimulates
urination

Inhibits
urination

Promotes
erection of
genitalia

Figure 28.13

Promotes ejaculation and vaginal

contractions

Genitalia

Embryonic
Brain Regions

Brain Structures
Present in Adult
Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes
cerebral cortex, white matter, basal ganglia)

Forebrain
Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus,
posterior pituitary, pineal gland)
Midbrain

Midbrain (part of brainstem)

forebrain,
Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

midbrain, and

Hindbrain
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

hindbrain.

In the course of vertebrate evolution, the forebrain

and hindbrain gradually became subdivided

Cerebrum
Midbrain
Hindbrain

Midbrain
Pons
Cerebellum

structurally and

Medulla
oblongata

functionally.
Forebrain
Embryo (1 month old)
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Diencephalon

Spinal cord
Fetus (3 months old)

28.13 The vertebrate brain develops from three

anterior bulges of the neural tube
In birds and mammals the cerebrum

THE HUMAN BRAIN

is much larger and

correlates with their sophisticated behavior.

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28.14 The structure of a living supercomputer:

The human brain

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Figure 28.14A

Cerebral cortex
(outer region
of cerebrum)

The human brain is

more powerful than the most sophisticated computer and
composed of three main parts:

Cerebrum
Forebrain

1. forebrain,

Thalamus
Hypothalamus

2. midbrain, and

Pituitary gland

3. hindbrain.

Midbrain

Pons
Spinal
cord

Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum

Hindbrain

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28.14 The structure of a living supercomputer:

The human brain

Figure 28.14B

Left cerebral
hemisphere

The midbrain, subdivisions of the hindbrain, the

thalamus, and the hypothalamus
conduct information to and from higher brain centers,

Right cerebral
hemisphere

Thalamus

Cerebrum

regulate homeostatic functions,

keep track of body position, and
sort sensory information.

Cerebellum

Basal
nuclei

Corpus
callosum
Medulla
oblongata

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Table 28.14

28.14 The structure of a living supercomputer:

The human brain
The cerebrum is
part of the forebrain and
the largest and most complex part of the brain.
Most of the cerebrums integrative power resides in the
cerebral cortex of the two cerebral hemispheres.

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28.15 The cerebral cortex is a mosaic of

specialized, interactive regions

28.15 The cerebral cortex is a mosaic of

specialized, interactive regions

The cerebral cortex

The motor cortex directs responses.

is less than 5 mm thick and

Association areas

accounts for 80% of the total human brain mass.

Specialized integrative regions of the cerebral cortex

include
the somatosensory cortex and

make up most of the cerebrum and

are concerned with higher mental activities such as
reasoning and language.

In a phenomenon known as lateralization, right and

left cerebral hemispheres tend to specialize in
different mental tasks.

centers for vision, hearing, taste, and smell.

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Figure 28.15

Parietal lobe

cor
t

ex
ato
sen
sor
yc
ort
ex

Frontal lobe

Speech

So
m

Mo
tor

Frontal
association
area

Somatosensory
association
area
Reading

28.16 CONNECTION: Injuries and brain

operations provide insight into brain
function
Brain injuries and surgeries reveal brain functions.
After a 13-pound steel rod pierced his skull, Phineas
Gage appeared to have an intact intellect but his
associates noted negative changes to his personality.

Speech
Hearing
Smell
Auditory
association
area

Visual
association
area

Stimulation of the cerebral cortex during surgeries caused

patients to recall sensations and memories.
Cutting the corpus callosum revealed information about
brain lateralization.

Vision

Temporal lobe

Occipital lobe
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Figure 28.16A

28.17 CONNECTION: fMRI scans provide insight

into brain structure and function

Figure 28.16B

Figure 28.17

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is

a scanning and imaging technology used to study brain
functions,
used on conscious patients,
monitors changes in blood oxygen usage in the brain, and
correlates to regions of intense brain function.

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28.18 Several parts of the brain regulate sleep and

arousal

28.18 Several parts of the brain regulate sleep and

arousal

Sleep and arousal involve activity by the

Sleep

hypothalamus,

is essential for survival,

medulla oblongata,

is an active state, and

pons, and

may be involved in consolidating learning and memory.

neurons of the reticular formation.

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28.19 The limbic system is involved in emotions,

memory, and learning

Figure 28.19

Thalamus

Cerebrum

Hypothalamus

The limbic system is

a functional group of integrating centers in the

Prefrontal
cortex

cerebral cortex,
thalamus,
hypothalamus, and

involved in
emotions, such as nurturing infants and bonding emotionally to
other people,

Smell

memory, and
learning.

Olfactory
bulb

Amygdala

Hippocampus

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28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain

physiology can produce neurological
disorders

28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain

physiology can produce neurological
disorders

Many neurological disorders can be linked to

changes in brain physiology, including

Schizophrenia is

schizophrenia,
major depression,

a severe mental disturbance and

characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients
lose the ability to distinguish reality.

Alzheimers disease, and

Parkinsons disease.

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28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain

physiology can produce neurological
disorders
Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness have been
identified:
1. major depression and
2. bipolar disorder, manic-depressive disorder.

Treatments may include selective serotonin reuptake

inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the amount of time
serotonin is available to stimulate certain neurons in the
brain.

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Figure 28.20A

Figure 28.20B

28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain

physiology can produce neurological
disorders

140

Prescriptions (millions)

120

Alzheimers disease is

100
80

characterized by confusion, memory loss, and personality

changes and

60

difficult to diagnose.

40
20
0
95 96

97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

05 06 07 08

Year
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28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain

physiology can produce neurological
disorders

Figure 28.20C

Parkinsons disease is
a motor disorder and
characterized by
difficulty in initiating movements,
slowness of movement, and
rigidity.

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You should now be able to

You should now be able to

1. Describe the structural and functional subdivisions

of the nervous system.

5. Explain how an action potential is produced and

the resting membrane potential restored.

2. Describe the three parts of a reflex, distinguishing

the three types of neurons that may be involved in
the reaction.

6. Explain how an action potential propagates itself

along a neuron.

3. Describe the structures and functions of neurons

and myelin sheaths.
4. Define a resting potential and explain how it is
created.

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7. Compare the structures, functions, and locations of

electrical and chemical synapses.
8. Compare excitatory and inhibitory
neurotransmitters.
9. Describe the types and functions of
neurotransmitters known in humans.
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You should now be able to

You should now be able to

10. Explain how drugs can alter chemical synapses.

11. Describe the diversity of animal nervous systems
and provide examples.

14. Compare the structures, functions, and

interrelationships of the parasympathetic,
sympathetic, and enteric divisions of the
peripheral nervous system.

12. Describe the general structure of the brain, spinal

cord, and associated nerves of vertebrates.

15. Explain how the vertebrate brain develops from an

embryonic tube.

13. Compare the functions of the motor nervous

system and autonomic nervous system.

16. Describe the main parts and functions of the

human brain.
17. Explain how injuries, illness, and surgery provide
insight into the functions of the brain.

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You should now be able to

18. Explain how fMRI scans help us understand brain
functions.
19. Explain how the brain regulates sleep and
arousal.
20. Describe the structure and functions of the limbic
system.
21. Describe the causes, symptoms, and treatments
of schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimers
disease, and Parkinsons disease.
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