.

...........................................................................................................
SynopsidSinopsis ..........................................................................................
Preface

Hierdi@dokument handel oor die struktuurontwerp van stedelike geplaveide en

gruis~aaie
. Dit dek die keuse en ontwerpstrategieg, die skatting van ontwerpverkeer, materiale, praktiese en omgewingsoorwegings. struktuurontwerp en koste-

Structural design urban roads. paved roads. gravel roads. catalogue of designs.
design traffic materials. environment, cost analysis

introduction: The scope and philosophy of the report

..................

1.1
1.2

.........................................................
General objective ...................:
.
,
The design process .............................................................................

2
2.1

Road categoy
Definition of road categories

................................................................................
...............................................................

3
3

2.2

Importance. service level. traffic and road standard ............................

3.2

......................:....................................................
Analysis period. structuraldesign period and design strategy .............
Selection of analysis periodand structuraldesign period ....................

Design traffic

'9

4.2

....................................................................................
Traffic classes for structural design purposes .....................................
Detailedcomputation of equivalent traffic ...........................................

10

Materials ...:.....................................................................................

19

5.1

General list of pavement materialsand abbreviatedstandards

19

5.3

...........
.....................................................
Descriptionof major material types
Availability. experience and current unit costs .....................................

Environment

6.2
6.3

Topography ........................................................................................
Climatic regions and the design of pavements ....................................

23
23

6.4

Climate andsubgrade CBR .................................................................

23

6.5

Material depth .....................................................................................

24

3.1

5.2

iv

4.1

S m u r a l m g n d u b ~ mad8
n
UTG3 Pretoria Souh AM j s

iii

Design strategy

...................................................................................

6
6

19
22
23

6.6

Delineationof subgrade areas

24

6.7

DesignCBR af subgrade .....................................................................

24

BNOml d a g n d urban mads

UTQ3.R~Sovthli(nes
1988

DesignCBR in cut

..............................................................................

26

Structural design and pavement type selection ............................ 27

General ...............................................................................................27
Behaviourof different pavement types

..............................................

27

Possiblecondition at end of structural design period .......................... 33

Selection of pavement types for different road categories. traffic
classes and climatic regions .............................................................. 33
The catalogue design method .............................................................34
Gravel roads

.......................................................................................37

..................................................................
4j
Drainage .............................................................................................
41
41
Compaction ........................................................................................
Subgrade below material depth .......................
.
.
........................... 42
Road levels .........................................................................................42
Practical considerations

............................................................................... 43
Pavement cross-section .................................................................. 43
Considerations for concrete pavements ..........................................
43
Kerbs and channels .........................................................................
44
Edging ................................................................................................
44
...
Access~b~l~ty
........................................................................................44
Service trenches

................................................................................... 46
...............................................................................................46
Present worth ...................................................................................
47
Construction costs (C) ....................................................................... 48
Real discount rate (r) .......................................................................... 48
Future maintenance (MJ ................................................................... 48
Salvagevalue (S) ...............................................................................
51
Cost analysis

General

References

........................................................................................

2
3

Glossary ............................................................................................. 53
The influence of township layout on thechoice of road category ......... 55

.....................

Exampleof the structural design of aCategory UB road

56
Example of the structural design of C a t e g o ~UC and UD roads
within a township ................................................................................
65

The catalogueof designs

.: .................................................................
.

LIST OF FIGURES
Structural design flow diagram (mainly for Category UA and UB
1
roads) ..................................................................................................
Simplified design flow diagram for residential roads (Category UC or
UD) ......................................................................................................

67

n
L

illustration of different road categories ............................................. 4

Illustrationof design periods and alternative design strategies

...........

Nomogram for determining design traffic class from the initial

EBOs/lane/day. thegrowth rateand the structural design period ......... 18
Definition of material symbols used in catalogue of designs ................ 20

....................................
Macroclimaticregions of southern Africa ............................................
~eneralized
behaviour characteristics ................................

Check-list of material availability and unit cost

22
25
29

Ranges of terminal rut depth conditions for different road categorles ...................................................................................................... 34

................................
CBR design curvesfor cover thicknessof gravel roads .......................

Design curve forthe passability of unpaved road

39
40

The degree of structural distress to be expected at the time of rehabilitationfor different structural design periods ................................... 45
pavement structure terminology ......................................................... 46
m e influence of layout on mad category ............................................. 55
Check-list of material availability and unit cost .................................... 58
possible pavement structures (SDP = 15 years)..................................

61

52

vii

LIST OF TABLES

21

Definitionofthe four road categories ................................................. 5

22

23

.........................
Classificationof traffic for structural design purposes .......:.................

80 kN single-axle equivalency factors derived from

Structural design periods for various road categories

F=

(9)':.........................................................................

8
9

1,

Determmatlonof E8Os per commerc~al

veh~cle.................................... 12

Traffic growth factor (g) for calculation of future or initial traffic from
14
present traffic ..................................................................................

Traffic growth factor (fy) for calculation of cumulative traffic over prediction period from initial (daily) traffic .............................................. 15

Design factors for the distribution of traffic and equivalent traffic

among lanes and shoulders ......................................................... 16
Material depths to be used for determining the design CBR of the
26
subgrade ...........................................................................................

9
10

11
12

13
14
15

16

Subgrade CBR groups used for structural design ............................... 26

Possible condition at end of structural design period for various road
categories and pavement types .....................................................
33
Suggested pavement types for different road categories and traffic
classes ...............:................................................................................ 35
Preparation of subgrade and required selected layers for the different subgrade design CBRs ............................................................... 36
Design thickness of gravel wearing course for different road categories ......................................................................................................38
Compaction requirements for the construction of pavement layers
(and reinstatement of pavement layers) .............................................. 41
Typical ranges of surfacing life periods for various surfacing types
for the different road categories and base types (if Me surfacings are
used as 9iven in the catalogue) ...................... ............................... 49

.
.

17
18
19
20

viii

Typical future maintenance for cost analysis ....................................... 50

Cumulative equivalent traffic and applicable traffic class for
SDP=15years .....:.........................................................................
57

.............................................................
Selected layers for the differentsubgrade areas .................................
Design CBR of the subgrade

59
59

........
Typical salvage Values for different pavement types ...........................
Present worth of costs ........................................................................
Typical maintenancemeasures forthedifferent pavement types

62
62
63

INTRODUCTION: THE SCOPE AND PHILOSOPHY OF

THE REPORT

The procedures for the structural design of road pavements presented in this
document are applicable to urban roads and surfaced residential roads in
southern Africa. A special section on gravel roads has also been included. The
procedures are based on a~wmbinationof existing methods, experience and
fundamental theory on the behaviour of structures and materials. It must be kept
in mind that the proposed procedures do not necessarily exclude other design
methods.
It is important to attend to layout planning and drainage design before the
structural des~gnof a road is addressed. The structural design of a pavement is
aimed at the protection of the subgrade through the provis~onof pavement
layers. With rehabilitation a chosen level of service has to be achieved over the
analysis period as cheaply as possible. Structural design encompasses factors
such as time, traffic, pavement materials, subgrade soils, environmental
conditions, construction details and economics. The procedures cover a range
of pavement types and materials currently used in local practice.

1.1

GENERAL OBJECTIVE

when a road pavement reaches the end of its serviceable life, it is usually
rehabilitated in some way to provide a further period of service. If the designer
has to make a fair comparison of proposed new pavement designs, he requires
a common basis, usually cost.
A comparison can be made by taking into account both the structural capacity
of the initial pavement and estimates of the rehabilitation measures that will
probably be necessary to maintain the pavement in a se~icablecondition over a
realistic analysis period. The design philosophy may be summarized as follows:
The aim of design is to produce a structurally balanced pavement which, at
minimum present workh of cost, will carry the traffic for the structural design
period in the prevailing environment at an acceptable service level without
major structural distress. If necessary, the pavement should be capable of
being strengthened by means of various rehabilitation measures tocarry the
traffic over the full analysis period.
1.2

THE DESIGN PROCESS

A flow diagram of the design process discussed in this document is shown in

Figure 1. The Row diagram has eight sections. Each section will be treated
separately but all sections have to be wnsidered as a whole before a deslgn
can be produced.
The first five sections represent the basic inputs to pavement design, namely
road category, design strategy, design traffic. materials available and

environment. With these as inputs the design will use the catalogue of various
pavement types to obtain possible pavement structures, to include future
maintenance measures and some construction considerations, and eventually to
compare the different pavement structures on the basis of cost.

STRUCTURAL

SELECT
CATEGORY

S E ~ T ~( O ~ ROAD

UA,U&UC

A simplified design flow diagram for the structural design of residential roads
(Category UC and UD) is suggested in Figure 2.

OR U D

SECTION 6

The catalogue is based on experience of pavement construction and pavement

behaviour throughout southern Africa. Each design has been checked by means
of mechanistic pavement design techniques.

ESTIMATE

BEHAVIWR
.PAVEMENT TYPE
SELECTION
.CATALOGUE

.CONSIDER

The catalogue should be adequate to provide the basic design required.

However, special conditions mav
. reauire a more detailed analysis by means of
other methods.

INCLUDE
PRICTICAL
CONSIOERATIOHS

.
I.

DRAINAGE

SECTION 7
SECTION 4

.AVAILABILITY
MATERIALS
.UNIT

OF

COSTS

.PROBLEM
SUBGRADES
CRDSS-KCTtDN
CONCRETE
PAVEMENTS

ANALYSIS

DEFINE

SECTION 5

TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATIC REGION

COSTS.

SUBGRADEAREAS

..

CROSS-SECTION
OcHCRETE

.UNIT

FIGURE 2
Simplified design flow diagram for residentialroads
(Category UC or UD)

COSTS

Wter back 10 SECTION 2 . reiterate

FIGURE 1
Structuraldesign flow diagram
(Mainly for category UA and UB mads)

ROAD CATEGORY

2.1

DEFINITIONOF ROAD CATEGORIES

For the purpose of this document, four different road categories, namely UA,
UB, UC and UD are considered (Figure 3). A road category is defined by a
combination of parameters (fable 1) such as importance, service level, traffic
and Const~Ctedstandard.,The four road categories mentioned above cover the
range from every important arterial road with a very high level of service and
very high volume of traffic, to less important, lightly trafficked residential,roads
and culs-de-sac with a moderate to low level of service. Figure 3 gives a
schematic illustrationof the different road categories.

2.2

IMPORTANCE, SERVICE LEVEL TRAFFIC AND ROAD STANDARD

The deslgner should ascertain whether the traffic volume and other factors
comply wlth Table 1 and whether they are acceptable to the controlling

authority.
The level of service that a user expects from a road is related to the function of
the road, to the generai standard of the facility and partly to the volume of trafk
carried. For example, the user will expect a better riding quality on a dualcarriageway arterial road than on a minor residential road. The design traffic is
expressed in terms of the total number of equivalent standard axles (E80s) over
the structural design period (refer to Section 4).

TABLE 1
Definitionof the four roadcategories

Road Catwow
..
I

UA

UB

UC

General
description

Primary and distributor roads

Local access
roads

Road class

1 and 2

3 and 4

5(al and 5@)

5@lto 5(f)

Detailed
Trunk roads
description and and prinWy
function
distributors
(SAICE:
Freeway and
major alterials).
Also by-passes
and certain
mral main
roads.

District and
local
distributors
(SAICE: Minor
arterials and
collectors). Also
industrialroads.
CBD roads,
goods loading
areas and bus
routes.

Residential
access
collectors. Also
car parks. No
bus routes.

Local access
roads Imps.
access ways,
access cwrts,
access strip
and culs-desac.

ImpMtanoBand Very important,

High level of
service level
mice.

Important
Moderate level
of service

Less important. Unimportant.

Moderate to low Low level of
level of service. m i c e .

c0.2 x 10'
EBOsnane

Total traffic
over structural
design period:

FIGURE 3
~Ilustration
of dinerent road cstsgo"es

UD

(a) if road
carries
contruction
traffic

0.8 - 50 x 100
E80sAane

0.05 - 3 x 10D
EBOsilane

(b) ifmad does

not carry
construction

0,8 - 50 x 10D
EWane

0.05 3 x 100
. EBOsllane

~0.05x 10'
EBOdane

DESIGN STRATEGY

3.1

ANALYSIS PERIOD, STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD AND DESIGN

STRATEGY
The design strategy could influence the total cost of a pavement structure.
Normally a design strategy is applicable only to Category UA and UB roads. For
Category UC and UD roads, the design periods are fixed.
The analysis period is a convenient planning period during which complete
reconstruction of the pavement is undesirable. The structural design period is
defined as the period for which it is predicted with a high degree of confidence
that no structural maintenance will be required. In order to fulfil the design
objective of selecting the optimum pavement in terms of present worth of cost.
~tis necessary to consider how the pavement is expected to perform over the
analysis period. The manner in which a design strategy can be presented is
demonstrated schematically in Figure 4 which shows the generalized trends of
riding quality decreasing with time and traffic for two different pavement
structures, namely:

Design 1, which requires resurfacing to maintain the surface in a good

condition, and later some structural rehabilitation such as an overlay (Figure
4(a)), and
Design 2, which is structurally adequate for the whole of the analysis period
and requires only three resurfacings (Figure 4(b)).

TlME

1.3)
OESIGN I REQUIRES TWO RESURFACINGS AND ONE STRUCTURAL
REHABLITATION W I N G THE ANALISIS PERIOD

It is important to note that any design procedure can only estimate the timing
and nature of the maintenance measures that may be needed. Naturally such
estimates are only approximate but they provide a valuable guide for a design
strategy. The actual maintenance should be determined by way of a proper
maintenance procedure. The accuracy of the prediction could be improved by
having a feedback system.
3.2

SELECTION OF ANALYSIS PERIOD AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN

PERIOD

3.2.1
Selection of analysis perlod
The analysis period is a realistic cost period. There may be a difference between
the analysis period and the total period over which a facility will be used. The
analysis period i s often related to the geometric life. If the road alignment is
fixed, a period of 30 years should be used. In the case of a short geometric life
in a changing traffic situation, a short analysis period will be used. The analysis
period will influence the salvage value referred to in Section 9.
3.2.2
Selection of structural design period
(a) Category UA roads
For Category UA roads, the structural deslgn per~odshould be reasonably
long because
6

ShWEtUd da4lgn d " 6 8 8 &I

UTW, Rstona ~ o u m
~fnm
,988

TlME

Ibl
DESIGNZ REQUIRES THREE RESURFACIMS A N 0 NO STRENGTHENING
DURING THE AWLISIS PERWD

IF SURFACING 6 NOT W I N T A I H D AND IF WATER-SUSCEPTIBLE

M A T E W S A E USED IN THE P N E K N T
.I JTRUCTWAL REWBILITATION USUALLV OCWRS AT ALATER S T G

FIGURE4
ll~ustrationof design periods and aiternaiive design strategies

It is usually not politically acceptable for road authorities to carry out

heavy rehabilitation on recently constructed pavements.

DESIGN TRAFFIC

Road user costs are high and the cost of the disruption of traffic will
probably cancel out any pavement cost savings resulting from the choice
of short structural design periods.

4.1

TRAFFIC CLASSES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN PURPOSES

The road alignment is normally fixed.

As shown in Table 2, the structural design period adopted in this document
is 20 years, for Category UA roads.
(b) Category UB roads
For Category UB roads, the structural design period may vary depending on
the ctrcumstances. Long structural design periods (20 years) will be
selected when circumstances are the same as for Category UA roads.
Factors that encourage the selection of short structural design periods are:
a short geometric life for a facility in a changing traffic situation;
a lack of short-term funds, and
a lack of confidence in design assumptions, especially the design traffic.
Structural design periods may range from 10 to 25 years. Normally a period
of 20 years will be used (Table 2).

The cumulative damaging effect of all individual axle loads is expressed as the
number of equivalent 80 kN single-axle loads (80~).This is the number of 80 kN
single-axle loads that would cause the same damage to the pavement as the
actual spectrum of axle loads. For structural design, an estimate of the
cumulative equivalent traffic over the structural design period is required. This
cumulative equivalent traffic can be determined in two different ways:

by estimation from tabulated traffic classes, and

through detailed computation from initial and mean daily traffic, growth rates
and lane distribution factors.

The estimation of the cumulative equivalent traffic over the structural design
period from tabulated values is recommended, unless more specific information
is available.
m e cumulative equivalent traffic (total'~80sover the design period) is grouped
into six traffic classes, varying from ER for residential roads to E4 for very
heavily trafficked roads. The class of traffic is a major factor in the selection of
the actual pavement structure from the catalogue of designs. The traffic classes

TABLE 3
(c) Category UC roads
For Category UC roads (residential roads) a fixed structural design period of
20 years is recommended Fable 2).

TABLE 2
Structuraldesign periods for various road categories
Road
category

UA
UB
UC

Structural des~gnperlod'
(years)
Range

Recommended

15-25
10-25
10-30

20
20
20

Classificationof traffic for structural design purposes

Traffic
class

Cumulative equivalent
traffic, EBOs/lane
(C0.05

1OB)

Residential roads.

0,05 - 0.2 x 10'

Lightly traffickedcollector roads, very

few heavy vehicles.

0,2 - 0.8

10'

Collector roads and lightly trafficked

bus routes, manly cars and llght
delivery vehicles.

0.8 - 3,O x 10'

Medtum volume of traffic, bus routes

and arterial roads.

3.0

- 12 x 10'

'The analpls per~od

for Category UA and UB mads is 30 years.

12-50
(d) Category UD roads
The traffic volume is so limited that no structural des~gn period is
applicable.

Description

10'

High volume of traffc andlor many

heavy vehicles.
Major arterial routes.
Very high volume of traffic andlor a hlgh
proportton of fully laden heavy veh~cles.
Malor arterlal routes.

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This gives an estimate of the number of repetitions of a given axle load.

' of all equivalent traffic is due to laden commercial veGcles
More than 90 %
(ie Inore than 60 % full). Greater emphasis should therefore be placed on

period over which the visual estimation was done. Note that, over the last
10 years, the number of ~ 8 0 sper commercial vehicle has increased at a
rate of about 6 % per annum. The values in Table 5 could change in the
future, especially if the legal axle load limit changes. Table 5 also gives an
indication of the number of E80s per commercial vehicle on various types of

(b) Dynamic weighing procedures

The traffic data logger VDL) can be used to determine the dynamic load of
moving axles. The TDL sensor installed in the traffic lane determines the
load of every axle moving over it. The load of the axle is then classified into
one of 11 load groups, in increments of 2 000 kg. ~fan equivalency factor is
then atmuted to each load group, the equivalent traffic can be calculated
as described in 4.2.1.

other more detailed visual estimation procedures can be used5. In using these
more attention is given to the actual loading conditions of the
commercial vehicles on the specific route.

(c) Estimation procedures based on visual observations

These procedures are used when coStly traffic determinations are not
justified or when the characteristics of the road make dynamic weighing
difficult. The methods are based on information gained from countrywide

mostly unladen:

gx= (1 + 0,01 . i)x

where

...................................................................................4.3

g = growth factor
i = growth rate
= time between determination of axle load data and opening of

m e traffic growth factor (g) is given in Table 6.

(b) Computation of cumulative equivalent traffic

mostly fully laden.

me cumulative equivalent

TABLE 5
Determinationof E8Os per commercialvehicle
Loading of commercial vehicles
(or type of road)

projection of the traffic data over the structural design period

4.2.3
(a) Projectionto initial design Year
~h~ present average daily equivalent traffic (daily E8W can be projected to
the initial design year by multiplying by a growth factor determined fromthe

Number of E8Od
commercial vehicle

Mostly unladen (Category UC, residential

and collector roads)

traffic (total Ems) over the structural design

period may be calculated from the equivabnt traffic in the initial design year
the growth rate for the design period. Where possibk the growh rate
should be based on specific information. More than One growth rate may
apply
over the design period. There may also be a difference between the
rates for total and equivalent traffic. These rates will normally vary
between 2 O/J and 10 % and a value of 6 % is recommended.

medaily equivalent traffic in the initial year is given by:

Einitial = E,gx

.................................................................................................

4.4

mecumulative equivalent t r a k may be calculated from:

Ne = Einitial. fy

50 % laden, 50 % unladen (Category UA

or UB, arterial roads and bus routes)

...........................................................................................

where fy = cumulative growth factor, based on

fy = 365 (1 + 0,01.i)/(l + 0,Ol.i)Y- 1//(O,Ol.i)

> 70 % laden (Category UA or UB, main

arterials or major industrial routes)

(y = structural design period see Section 3)

m e cumulative growth factor (fy) is given in Table 7.
struoural d w n d umsn maas
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stmnural dergn d urban mads

Pmtona, S u f i AtnFa IQBB

ma.

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S9PS
E66P
.ESP
9LOP
LE9E
S6L E
L9L Z
BPEZ
LE6 1
VESL

OZ

81

91

PL

ZL

01

(ed %) I 'aya 4 1 ~ 0 ~
p u6n o d w o ~

----w

s-.~mq

m
o
w
N N
u?r--mo.-.
2u?r-.o?
- - - N N

m
$

~o u r - u r n o m
N W
qm
? nm qo
ro .oqoc qm- m
m. w h
h m

q rmc *q*mq 3

N - N N N ~m
-

4.2.4
Estimating the lane distribution of traffic
On rnulti-lane carriageways, the traffic will be distributed among the lanes. Note
that the distribution of total traffic and equivalent traffic will not be the same. The
distribution will also change along a length of road, depending on geometric
factors such as climbing lanes or interchange ramps. Suggested design factors
for total traffic (3) and equivalent traffic (Be) are given in Table 8. As far as
possible, these factors incorporate the change in lane distribution over the
geometric life of a facility. The factors should be regarded as maxima and
decreases may be justified.

TABLE 8
Design factors for the distribution of traffic and equivalent traffic amono lanes
-andshoulders

Total
number
of traffic
lanes

Design distribution factor, Be or B

Surfaced
slow
shoulder

Lane 1'

(a) Equivalent traffic (E80s) Factor Be

2
1,W
1,oo
4
0,95
0,95
6
0,70
0.70

Lane 2

Lane 3

0.30
0.60

(b) Trafflc (total axles or evu".) Factor B

2
1,oo
1.00
0.50
4
0,7C
0,70
6
0,30
0,30
0,50

...
"

Lane 1 1s the outer or slow lane

For dual-carriageway roads
evu = equivalerrt vehicle unit: one commercial vehicle

0,25

0.30
0.25

0.40

0,50
0.40

Surfaced
fast
shoulder"

3 evu

4.2.5
The design cumulative equivalent traffic
The design cumulatwe equivalent traffic may be calculated by multiplying the
equivalent traffic by a lane distribution factor (Bd:

Ne = (rti . Fj) . gx . fy . Be

..........................................................................

4.7

where

Zt, . Fi
gx

Y'

= equivalent daily traffic at time of survey

= growth factor to initial year (x = period from traffic survey

to initial design year)
= cumulative growth factor over structural design period
(y = structural design period)
= lane distribution factor for equivalent traffic

Be
m e designer should now go back to Table 3 to determine the design traffic
E4). Simple interpolation techniques are available (described in
class (ER
Section 7) if the pavement structure is to be designed to greater accuracy with
regard to traffic.

In order to check the geometric capacity of the road, the total daily traffic
towards the end of the structural design period can be calculated from:
n = (initial total daily traffic) . gx

...................................................................... 4.8

with gx as previously defined.

When projecting traffic over the structural design period, the designer should
take into account the possibility of capacity2 conditions being reached, which
would result in no further growth in traffic for that particular lane.
Figure 5 gives a nomogram for determining the design traffic class from the
initial E80s per lane per day, the growth rate and the structural design period. It
is applicable only to traffic classes E l to E4.

MATERIALS

5.1

GENERAL LIST OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND ABBREVIATED

STANDARDS

The selection of materiak for pavement design is based on a combination of

availability, economic factors and previous experience. These factors have to be
evaluated during the design in order to select the materials best suited to the
conditions.

.-

l--,a

GROWTH RATE

I
I

1%)

G9
:
2

I
\
,

CUMULATIVE E 8 0 I / L A N E OVER STRUCTUR4L DESIGN PERIOD

I
I

The design procedure generally uses the standard material specification defined
in TRH14 Guidelines for mad construction materialslo. The classification of the
materials is given in Figure 6. The material codes listed in this table are used
extensively in the catalogue of designs. Only abbreviated specifications are
given and TR~1410should be consulted for more details. Waste materials (eg
blast-furnace slags) and pedogenic materials have not been clas$ified because
of their valying quality. If these materials are used they should be classified
according to the appropriate material codeslo. The materials are classified into
various categories according to their fundamental behaviour and into different
classes according to their strength characteristics.
5.2

DESCRIPTIONOF MAJOR MATERIAL TYPES

This subsection describes the materials in Figure 6 and their major

characteristics. The behaviour of different pavement types consisting of
combinations of these materials is described in Subsection 6.2.
5.2.1
Granular materials and soils (01 to 010)
These materials show stress-dependent behaviour, and under repeated stresses
deformation can occur through shear andtor densification.

DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASS

FIGURE 51

A G I is a dense-graded, unweathered, crushed-stone material compacted to

86-88 96 of apparent density. A faulty grading may be adjusted only by means
of the addition of crusher sand or other stone fractions obtained from the
crushing of the parent rock. 62 and G3 may be a blend of crushed stone and
other fine aggregate to adjust the grading. If the fine aggregate is obtained from
a swrce other than the parent rock, its use must be approved by the purchaser
and the supplier must furnish the purchaser with full particulars regarding the
exact amount and nature of such fine aggregate. 6 4 to GI0 materials cover the
range from high-quality gravels used in pavement layers (CBR 25 - 60) to lowerquality materials used in selected layers (CBR 3-15).
In gravel roads natural gravel materials of quality G4 to GI0 are used for the
wearing course.

5.22
Bituminous materials (BC t o TS)
Bituminous materials are visco-slastic and under repeated stresses they may
either crack or deform or both. Normally a BC continuously graded bitumen hot

mix wdl have a higher stability and lower fatigue life than a semi-gapgraded BS
material. Tar hot mixes (lC,TS) will normally have lower fatigue llves than the
equivalent bltumen hot mlxes. Usually the stab~l~ty
of a tar mix is the same as or
h!gher than that of the equivalent bitumen mix.

5.2.3
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Concrete is an elastic, brittle material possessing tensile strength and it may
crack under excessive repeated flexure. In this document only one concrete
strength is considered.
5.2.4
Cemented materials (C1 t o C4)
As concrete, cemented materials are elastic, possess tensile strength and may
crack under repeated flexure. These materials also crack because of shrinkage
and drying. By the application of an upper limit to the strength specification,
wide shrinkage cracks can be avoided. Because of the excessive shrinkage
cracking of C1 materials, they are not generally used. A C2 material will be used
when a non-pumping erosion-resistant layer is required (as for a concrete
pavement).

C3 and C4 materials can be used as replacements for granular layers in bases

and subbases. They can be either cement-treated or lime-treated. depending on
the properties of the natural materials.
5.2.5
Surfacings (AG t o AO; S1 t o S8)
The surfaclngs cover the range from high-quality asphalt surfacings to surface
treatments and surface maintenance measures such as rejuvenators and d~luted
emulsion treatments.
52.6
Macadams WM to PM)
These are traditional, high-quality, but also labour-intensive, pavement materials
which can be used in the place of G1 to G4 materials. However, specific
knowledge of construction techniques is required. These materials are less
water-susceptible than the usual granular materials and using them should be
considered, especially in wet regions.
5.2.7
Paving blocks (S-A, S-6)
m e use of interlocking concrete paving blocks (S A) is limited to low-speed
(<SO kmh) mads or terminal areas. Blocks with good interlocking shapes
should be used.

FIGURE 6
Definitionof materialsymbols usadin catalogue of deabns

The use of clay bricks as paving blocks (S B)should be limited to Categoly UC

and UD roads. The performance of clay bricks is expected to be poorer than
that of concrete paving blocks.

Material depths to be used for determining

the design CBR of the subgrade
Road category

Material depth
(mml

TABLE 10
Subgrade CBR groups used for structuraldesign

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND PAVEMENT TYPE

may use a number of design procedures, such as the mechanistic

pavement costs are discussed in Section 8.

Subgrade CBR (%)

7 to 15
15 to 25
> 25"
Special treatment required
Use
The *Orrnai

ements with paving blocks. The behaviour of these different pavement types
determine the type of maintenance normally required (Subsection 9.5) and
may atso influence the selection of the pavement type. A brief description of the

150mm as subbaseor base material. compactedto the correct standardlo,

TRH14 requirements shouldbe met.

Untreated granular-base pavements

comprises a thin bituminous Surfacing, a base of
of
gravel or crushed stone, a granular or cemented subbase and a
soilsor gravels. The mode of distress in a pavement with an
grade of
subbase is usually deformation arising from shear or densification in
untreated materials, The deformation may manifest itself as rutting or as
ngitudinal roughness. This is illustrated in Figure 9(a).

When the

CBR ON FILL

is On
the designer must avail himself of the best information
ava'lable
On the localmaterials that are likely to be used, The material should be
at leastthe material depth. TRHg9
be consulted when a
material
with a CBR of less than 3 isused inthe fill,
6.9

DESIGN CBR IN CUT

The design CBR Of the subgrade in a cut should be the lowest CBR
encounteredwithin the material depth,

pavements with cemented subbases, the subbase improves the load

of the pavement, but at some stage the subbase will crack under
cracking may propagate until the layer eventually exhibits ProPenies
those of a natural granular material. It is unlikely that cracking will
to the ~ ~ randf there
~ ~is likely
~ , to be tittle rutting or longitudinal
the subbase has cracked extensively. H~wever,if the
ation until
the
exhibits large shrinkage or thermal cracks, they may reflect
~ & work
~ t has shown that the post-cracked phase of a cement-treated
subbase under granular and bituminous bases adds substantially to the useful

'?::

life of the Pavement. Deflection measurements at various

Pavement have indicated that the initial effective modulus o f t
- 3000 to 5000 MPa as shown in Figure 9(c).
This relatively rigid subbase generally fatigues under traffic, or in
even under construction traffic, and assumes a lower effective mo
1000 M W . This change in modulus does not normally
increase in deformation, but the resilient deflection and radius of cu
change, as shown in Figure 9(d).

In the mechanistic design6 these phases have been termed

post-cracked phases. The design accommodates the chang
subbase, and although the safety factor in the baqe will be red
well within acceptable limits.
1
The eventual modulus of the cemented subbases will depend on the qu
the material originally stabilized, the cementing agent, the effectiveness
mixing Process, the absolute density achieved and the degre
ingress of moisture can affect the modulus in the po
significantly. In some cases the layer may behave like a go
m e r i a l with a modulus of 200 to 500 MPa, whereas in other cases the
will be between 50 and 200 MPa. This change is shown diagramma
Figure 9(c).
The result is that the modulus of the cemented subbase assumes very
values and this causes fatigue and high shear stresses in t
surface cracking will occur, and with the ingress of water, there may be pum
from the subbase.
For high-quality, heavily trafficked pavements it is necessary to avoid mate.
that will eventually deteriorate to a very low modulus. Many of these lower-cl
materials have, however, proved to be adequate for lower classes of traffic.

( . I GRANULAR BASE

( b 1 BITUMINOUS BASE

CEMENTED-SUBBASE
MODULUS BEHAV~OUR

The surfacing may also crack owing to ageing of the binder or to

associated fatigue cracking. Granular materials are often susceptible to
and excessive deformation may occur when water ingresses through the su
cracks. The water-susceptibility depends on factors such as grading,'the PI
the fines, and density. Waterbound rnacadams are less susceptible to wat
than crushed-stone bases and are therefore preferred in wet regions.
7.2.2
Bituminous-base pavements
These pavements have a bituminous base layer of more than 80 mm thick. Th
can be subdivided into two major groups, namely bitumen- and tar-ba
pavements.

( t i CEMENTED BASE

(a) Bitumen-base pavements

In bitumen-base Pavements both deformation and fatigue cracking are
Possible. Two types Of subbase are recommended, namely either an
28

Smrtural W

W.

n ofurnan mad

sMM Afvim 1988

d.rign Of "M"

"rw. Relala

'988

avements consisting'-! cemented bases on granular subbeses are very

ensitive to overloadingland to ingress of moisture through the cracks. When
0th the base and the subbase are cemented, the pavement will be less
ensitive to overloading and moisture. The latter type of pavement is generally

wnted subbase.
untreated granular subbase or a weakly stabilized
Rutting may originate in either the bituminous or the untreated layers, or in
both. This is illustrated in Figure 9(b). If the subbase is cemented there is a
probability that shrinkage or thermal cracking will reflect to the surfacing.
especially if the bituminous layer is less than 150 mm thick or if the subbase
is excessively stabilized. Maintenance usually consists of a surface
treatment to provide better skid resistance and to seal small cracks, an
asphalt overlay in cases where riding quality needs to be restored and when
it is necessary to prolong the fatigue life of the base, or recycling of the
base when further overlays are no longer adequate.
(b) Tar-base pavements
~h~ fatigue life of a tar premix is well below that of most bituminous
materials. Only weakly cemented subbases are used. The main distress
appears to be cracking of the cemented subbase, fobwed by fatigue
cracking of the tar base.
Maintenance for tar bases is the same as for bituminous bases.
7.2.3
Concrete pavements
ln concrete pavements, most of the traffic loading
and little stress is transferred to the subgrade. Th
a uniformfoundation and limits pumping of'subbase
Through the use of tied shoulders, most of the distress stemming from the
of the pavement Can be eliminated and the slab thickness can also be red
Distress of the pavement usually appears first as spalli
may then progress to cracking in the wheel paths.
evident, deterioration is usually rapid. See Figure 9(e).

Maintenance consists of patching, joint repair, cra

grinding, or thin concrete or bituminous overlays. hl
thick concrete, bituminous or granular overlays will be used, Or the
may be recycled.
7.2.4
Cemented-base pavements
In these pavements, most of the traffic stresses are a
layers and a littlg by the subgrade. It is likely that SO
evident very early in the life of cemented bases; this is caused
mechanism of drying shrinkage and by thermal stresses in the cemented
Traffic-induced cracking will cause the blocks to break up into smaller
These cracks propagate through the Surface. Th
surface cracks may cause the blocks to rock
pumping of fines from the lower layers. Rutting or roughness will
low up to this stage but is likely to accelerate as
increases. See Figure 9(d).

30

e initial cracks may be rehabiliated by sealing. Once traffic-load-associated

acking has become extensive, rehabilitation involves either the reprocessing oP
e base or the application of a substantial bituminous or granular overlay.
Paving blocks
es of interlocking and non-interlocking segmental blocks are used in a
iety of applications which range from footpaths and driveways to heavily
industrial stacking and servicing yards. The use of segmental block
avements is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. The popularity of these
cks is increasing due to a number of factors:

2.5

he blacks are manufacturedfrom local materials;

they can either ~rovidea labour-intensive operation or can be manufactured
and laid by machine;
they are aesthetically acceptable in a wide range of applications, and
' 0 they are versatile as they have some of the advantages of both flexible and
concrete pavements.

In current practice a small Plate vibrator is used to bed the blocks into a sand
bedding of approximately 20 mm and to compact jointing sand between
'ndividual 'blocks. The selection of the right type of sand for these purposes is
on-plastic material serves best as bedding while some
quired to fill the joints.
rly laid block pavements are adequately waterproof and ingress of large
tities of water into the foundations does not occur. The procedures for the
ents are presented in UTG2
ts in southem Africa13 and are
are manufactured with vertically square side faces. Those that
e shaped so as to allow them to fit ''jigsaw" fashion into a paved
They can be made of pressed concrete, fired-clay brick or any other
id. The current recommended minimum strength for structural use is given
wet compressive strength of not less than 25 MPa.
k Pavements require the paved area to be "contained either by kerbs or by
means Of stopping lateral spread of the block. This is a requirement for
terlocking and non-interlocking shapes. Lateral movements are induced
fficking and these movements cause breaks in the jointing sand. The
ociated opening-up of the block pavement makes it more susceptible to the
ess of surface water. In heavily loaded areas interlocking shapes have
r8l d W n o( urban roads
Pretoria. South Ahim ism

81

<

advantages over.non-interlocking shapes, especially ;-.?hides with a Slew'

. .,
action are involved.
Experience has shown that joints should be 2 to 5 mm wide. Geometric design
should follow practices for other pavements. Variable road widths, cures and
junctions do not present problems in practice, since the blocks are small an
can easily be cut and placed to suit the geometry of the pavement. In practic
the minimum cross-fall for block pavements should be one per cent. For wid
areas of industrial paving, special care should be taken to ensure that the cross
fall of the surface is adequate. Cambered cross-sections are also satisfactory. , ;
Edge,restraint is required along the edges of a block pavement to prevent
outward migration of blocks, which would result in the opening of joints and I
of bond between the blocks. Edge restraint can be provided by means
conventional kerbing. The joints between the blocks seal better with time due
the action of weathering and the addition of road detritus to the joints, there
improving the total strength of the block pavement. One per cent falls (minimu
to the surface of block pavements allow water to drain across the paveme
reducing ingress by absorption through the joints, and eliminate pon
joints between the blocks on steep gradients may form the drainage
rainwater. In such cases the pattern of the blocks is an important cons
Experience has shown that a herringbone pattern is best for use
gradients and for industrial paving.
.

Gadvantage of the blocks is that they '?an be re-used. They can be lift
repairs have to be carried out to failed areas of subbase or if services have
installed and can be relaid afterwards. As far as the structural desi
segmental block pavements is concerned, this re-use of the biocks h disadvantages.

7.3

POSSlBl -'~!ONDITION
AT END OF STRUCTJRAL DESIGN PERloo
-There is no design method available to predict the exact condition of a length of
road 10 to 20 years in the future. However, as shown in the previous paragraph,
certain kinds of distress can be expected in certain pavement types and
account must be taken of such distress. Table 11 shows acceptable terminal
conditions of rut depth and cracking for the various road categories and
pavement types. Figure 10 demonstrates that the rut depth values in Table 11
actually represent ranges of failure conditions.
~

Secimental ~avinaDrovideS an exciting addition to the ~avementconstruction'

TABLE 11

Possible condition at end of

structural design period

Rut depth (mm)

Length of road exceeding stated
rut depth (%)(refer to Figure 10)
Type of cracking:
Granular base
Bituminous base

Road category
UA

UB

UC

UD

2n
--

.-

20

20

10

15
.-

7*

--

40

Crocodile cracking, surface loss,

pumping of fines
Crocodile cracking, pumplng

Concrete pavement

Slab cracking, spall~ngat joints,

Pumping of fines

Cemented base

Block cracking. rocking blocks,

pumping of fines

~.
>

Little maintenance work is normally required with segmental block

Maintenance involves the treatment of weeds and the correcting of 1
surfacing if the initial construction had been poor. The correction of
levels is done by removing the area of blocks affected, levelling the sub
compacting the subbase (often with hand hammers) and replacing the blo

~~

Length Of road on which stated

types of cracking occur (%)

10

15

25

40

71TABLE12

-.

Suggestedpavementty&'for different road categories and trafic

classes

RANOES OF FAIWRE WNDlTlONS

ROAD CATEGORY

P
b3
R

10

LENGTH OF ROAD EXCEEDING

+ WCAL REPAIRS ONLY

STATED

RUT

OEPTH

(%I

FIGURE 10
Rsngesaf terminal rut depth conditions for different road categwies

Figure 9 indicates that the more rigid siwctures deteriorate rapidly once distres
is shown, whereas the more flexible pavements generally deteriorate mo
slowly. Signs of distress are often more visible on rigid pavements.
Pavement structures consisting of water-susceptible material
undesirable for Wet climatic regions, unless special provision is
drainage.
Table 12 shows .recommended pavement types (base and subbase) for differe
road categories and traffic classes. Reasons why certain pavement types a
not recommended are also stated briefly..

7.5

Cemented

\/ \/ \/ \/

Granular

Cemented

\i \/

Granular

Csmented

\/

11

\rY \rY

X .X
$1

low. tmexpensive
E4: Uncertain behaviour.
EO. ER tm expsnsivs

Extra thickness required to

prevent fatigue cracking.
pumping and fauting
TW ~xpallsive,
IW
difficult

\/ \/ V \/

to trench
Fatigue cracking. pumping
and rocking blocks

\/ \/ V \/

Shrinkagecracks

Recommended
=Not recommended
Not recommendedfor wet regions without special provisionfor drainage
Only for steep gradients
still act as a guide. The catalogue does not necessarily exclude other
sible pavement structures.

assumes that all subgrades are brought to equal support

THE CATALOGUE DESIGN METHOD

7.5.1
Introduction to the catalogue
Before the catalpgue is used, all the factors noted in Sections 2 to 6 shouki

special conditions arise; other methods should then be used, but the catal
34

mete

Cemsnted

Smrtural dasign Df
mG3. RetoM. S r u t h m 1

cted to a depth of 150 mm. On top of this prepared layer, one or two
layers will be added. The required selected subgrade layers will vary

pavement structures in the catalogue are wnsidered adequate to carry the

I design traffic according to the upper value of the traffic classes defined in
3 w i n ol urban mads
,~ a m i aSouth
.
A1988

35

TABLE 13

.
0

turning movements, intersections, braking movements, and

gradients.
.
~

The catalogue specifies the sirfacing type, but allows a choice of surfacings for
the lower categories of road. The controlling authority should Select a surfacing
from the catalogue that will give satisfactory performance.
If a waterbound macadam is used in the base in the place of a G1 to G4

7.6

Not applicable to Category UD roads: for these use only one selected layer
required.
" Compacted to the appropriate density (refer to Table 10).
Section 4 Vabie 3). The total design traffic may be predicted with
accuracy than is implied by the traffic classes. In such a case the designer
use a simple linear interpolation technique. In many designs the only differ
between the structures for the various classes of traffic is a change in t
thickness. In these cases the designer may use linear interpolation. H
there is often a change in material quality as well as in thickness.
interpolation is theninadequate and the designer will have to use other des
methods6-12.
7.5.4
Surfacings
Urban and residential roads cany both traffic and stormwater run-off. The t
often consists of either large volumes of lightly loaded vehicles (eg on
roads) or virtually no trafficking (eg on residential roads and culs-de-sac). In
these cases a high-quality surfacing is required. Such a surfacing is al
necessary becaude the road acts as a water channel.

The factors influencing the choice of surfacing are:

local experience;
availability;
road category;
design traffic class:
environment (eg moisture, temperature and ultraviolet radiation);
pavement type:

. .

GRAVEL ROADS

7.6.1
General
These unpaved roads may still be used under certain conditions. A brief
description of design factors will follow. Normally, unpaved roads could be
considered for use as Category UC or UD roads, although there may be special
cases where they can be regarded as Category UB roads.

A gravel road may be regarded as a long-term facility or as an inteim step

towards a paved road. This will influence the level of the surface with regard to
stormwater facilities.
Selected layers for gravel roads
7.6.2
The selected layers should be designed according to 7.5.2. Therefore, at
subgrade level, there is no distinction between paved and unpaved roads. This
follows from fundamental strength requirements and it will also simplify possible
later changes from gravel to paved roads.

Design of gravel wearing course

7.6.3
The standards for gravel wearing courses are laid down in ~ ~ ~ 1 4The
1 0quality
.
and thickness of the wearing course may also depend on the design approach.
(a) The gravel road may be regarded as a long-term facility, in which case the
most suitable wearing course will be selected for the prevailing conditions
(climate, material availability and traffic). On more heavily trafficked roads,
the gravel wearing course should be used as a future subbase. On urban
access or residential roads it would constitute the future basecourse.

(b) The gravel wearing course may be regarded as an interim riding surface
which will be overlaid or removed when Me mad is paved. If the gravel
wearing course is going to be overlaid later, the material should comply with
the subbase standards applicable to the future pavement. If the wearing
course is to be removed later, consideration should be given to the
inclusion of a proper subbase during construction, should such a subbase
be necessary later.
suuam W n d wean m d s
LIW.Ratau.SwthAhica 1888

(c) The gravel wearing course may be regarded as the base layer of the
paved road. This will normally be possible only for some Category
UD roads, but then special restrictions should be placed on the plas
index of the fines.
The thickness of the gravel wearing course will depend on the road
and on the design approach chosen. Passability duri
best criterion to use in the design of a gravel road. It is best determined
soaked laboratory CBR of the surfacing gravel material. Figure 11
proposed limit related to the A D T ~ ~ .
When a gravel wearing course has to be provided the existing subgrade
support the traffic loads adequately under all climatic
gravel wearing course serves as protection to the subgrade. The thic
requirement for the gravel wearing course can be determined from em
models. Figure 12 shows a model which gives the minimum cover thickne
adequate protection of the subgradeld. When gravelling, the thickness of gr
should be the minimum cover thickness plus provision for gravel loss until
road has been regravelled (usually for a six-year life). In Table 14 the thickn
requirement is also given in general relation to the road category. A distinctio
made in each of these functional classes between a
interim facility involving upgrading possibilities. These values have be
selected to provide an adequate pavement, considering that some form
surface maintenance is usually applied and ruts as large as 75 mm ar
not tolerated in practice.

Rood i s lrofficablc
during wet season

Road becornel

TABLE 14
Design thickness of gravel wearing course for different road categories

FIGURE 11

~~~i~~ curve for thepassabil~of unpavedroads

'
'^

The quality of the wearing course may change depending on the climate, material
availability and the design approach.
Designtrafficclass >El.

Sf,ucluraI deign d "h

roads
UTW. M o n a . Souh A m l98B

.,

irnposrable d u n W
wet season

st~ctumldeslsndu h m t d s

LIT=.ma.
SOU~A- 1488

'

TABLE15

Compaction requirements for the construction ofpavement layers'

(and reinstatement of pavement layers)
'avement layer
Surfacing
.
Base (upper and lower)

Compacted density
Bituminous
Crushed stone

95 % 75-blow Marshall
~il00%t0102%
Mod: AASHTO

Crushed stone G3 and

gravel G4
Bituminous
Cemented
Subbase (upper and
iower)
Selected subgrade
Subgrade (within 200 mm
of selected subgrade)
(within matenai d e ~ t h l

('JWSS3NM31H1

U3A03

FIGURE 12
CBR design cuwes for cover thickness of gravel roads

rw

(coh&3nle~
sand)
~
Refer toTRH141

98 % Mod AASHTO
95 % 75-blow Marshall
92 %theoretical max
97 % Mod AASHTO
95 % Mod AASHTO
93 % ~ o AASHTO
d
90 % Mod AASHTO
8s % Mod AASHTO
90 % Mod AASHTO
(I 00 % Mod AASHTO)

-Table 15 gives the minimum compaction standards required

layers of the Pavement structure. Note that below base level th
independent of the type of material used.
8.3

SUBGRADE BELOW MATERIAL DEPTHa*

Special subgrade problems may arise that require individual

design procedure assumes that these have been taken into act
The main problems that have to be considered are:
the extreme changes in volume that occur in some soils
moisture changes, eg in expansive soils and soils with collapsib e
flaws in structural support, eg sinkholes, mining subsidence an
instability;
the non-uniform support that results from wide variations in
states;
the Presence of soluble salts which, under favourabie conditions, ma
upwards and cause cracking, blistering or loss of bond of the
disintegration of cemented bases and loss of density of untreated bas
the excessive deflection and rebound of highly resilient soils during
the Passage of a load, eg in ash, micaceous and diatomaceous soils.
The techniques available for terrain evaluation and soil mapping are
TRH28. The design of embankments should be done in accord
~ ~ ~ 1 0 9 .
8.4

ROAD LEVELS

The fact that the provision of vehicular access to adjoining roads, dwe
ComwCial establishments is the primary function of an urban road, m
road levels become a rather more important factor in urban areas tha
in rural or interurban road design. Urban road levels place some re
rehabilitation and create special moistureldrainage conditions.
In some cases, rehabilitation in the form of an overlay may cause a pr
particularly with respect to the level of kerbs and channels, camber an
overhead clearances. In these cases strong consideration should
bottom-heavy designs, ie designs with a cemented subbase and possib
cemented base, which would mainly require the same maintenance as
surfacings and iiple structural maintenance during the analysis period.
Urban roads are frequently used as drainage channels for surface water
This is in sharp Contrast with interurban and rural roads which are usual1
to shed the water to side table drains some distance from the road shoulde

SERVICE TRENCHES

hes excavated in the pavement to provide essential services (electricity.

, telephone, etc) are frequently a source of weakness. This is as a result of

er inadequate compaction or saturation of the backfill material.
paction must achieve at least the minimum densities specified in the
ogue of designs and material standards (Table 15). These densities are
d whengranular materials are used, but it become much more
n natural materials are used; particularly in the case of excavated
dealing with clay subgrades il is recommended that if it is
feasible, a moderate-quality granular material be used as a trench
ackfill in preference to the excavated Clay. In roads of Categoty UB and higher
is preferable to stabilize all the backfill material and in lower categories the
provision of a stabilized "cap" over the backfill may be considered to eliminate
settlement as far as possible.
rvice trenches can also be the focal points of drainage problems. Settlement
the trench, giving rise to standing water and possibly to cracking of the
surface, will permit the ingress of moisture. Fractured Water, Sewerage or
stormwater pipes lead to saturation in the subgrade and possibly in the
vement layers as well.
subsurface drain, but then provision for discharge must be made.
.6

PAVEMENT CROSS-SECTION

Generally it is preferable to keep the design of the whole caniagewaY the same.
with no change in layer thickness across the road. However, where there are
significant differences in the traffic carried by individual lanes, eg in climbing
lanes,
the pavement structure may be varied over the cross-~ectionof the
that this is economical and practical. Under these
carriageway,
circumstances, the actual traffic predicted for each lane should be Used in
determining the design traffic.
mecross-section can be varied by means of steps in the layer thickness. Under
no circumstances should the steps be located in such a way that water can be
trapped in them. A typical pavement cross-saction for a paved urban road is
shown in Figure 14.

8.7
CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
~onstructiondetails11 are beyond the scope of this document. However. the
following are some basic practical recommendations:
(a) The subgrade should be prepared to provide a uniform support.

(b) The subbase should be stabilised to a high quality to provide a nonpumping, erosion-resistant. homogeneous pavement support.

(c) When jointed concrete pavements are used, attention shou

the detail of the spacing, type of joint and joint sealing of
8.8

KERBS AND CHANNELS

Kerbs and channels are important to prevent edge erosi

stormwater to the road surface.
Consideration should be given to thetype and method of co
when deciding on a layer thickness for the base.
~t is common practice to construct 'kerbs upon the (upper) subb
provide edge restraint for a granular base. This restraint is b
achievement of specified density and strength.
In the case of kerbing with as-fixed size Fe precast kerbing or kwbin
shutters cast in situ) it may be advantageous to determine the base
from the kerb size, ?g if the design calls for a 30 mm AG underlain by a 12
G4. and the gutter face is 160 mrn. use a 130 mm G4.
8.9

EDGING

Instead of kerbs, edging could be used for certain low-traffic roads w

shoulder or sidewalk soil is of adequate stability. The shoulder should be sh
to the correct level and the edge may be sealed by a prime coat, a san
slurry seal or a premix. A degree of saving may be possible by utilizing
grass verges where longitudinal gradients are slight and storrnw
low.

Access to dwelling units should be provided in such a way as to

adequate sight distances and a smooth entry, but the access ways shoul
same time keep stormwater on the road from running into adiacent prope
At pedestrian crossings special sloped openings in the kerbs should
provision for to accommodate the handicapped and hand-pushed carts

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LENGTH OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD
(YEARS)
FIGURE 13
degree of struciuraldisfressto be expscred st the tmm of rehabdation for drffferenr
structural design penods

.
A complete cost an$-? should be done for Category UA and UB roads. For
Category UC and UD'ioads, only a comparison of the construction costs will
normally suffice.
The method of cost analysis put forward in this document should only be used
to compare pavement structures in the same road category. This is because
roads in different categories are constructed to different standards and are
expected to perform differently with different terminal levels. The effect these
differences have on road user costs is not taken into account directly.
The choice of analysis period and structural design period will influence the cost
of a road, but in Section 3 it was shown that the final decision is not necessarily
based purely on economics.
The construction cost should be estimated from current contract rates for similar
projects. Maintenance costs should include the cost of maintaining adequate
surfacing integrity (eg through resealing) and the cost of structural maintenance
(eg the cost of an asphalt overlay). The salvage value of the pavement at the end
of the analysis period can make a contribution towards the next pavement.
However, geometric factors such as minor improvements to the vertical and
horizontal alignment and possible relocation of drainage facilities make the
estimation of the salvage value very difficult.
9.2
PRESENTWORTH
The total cost of a project over its Life is the construction cost plus maintenance
costs, minus the saivage value. The total cost can be expressed in a number of
different ways but for the purpose of this document, the present worth of costs
(PWOC) approach has been adopted.
The present worth of costs can be calculated as follows:
PWOC = C + M i (1 + r)-xl + ... Mj(1 r)-xj+
S(l + r)-2 .............. 9.1

where PWOC = present worth of costs

C = present cost of initial construction
Mi = cost of the jth maintenance measure expressed in terms of
current costs
r = real discount rate
xi = number of years from the present to the jth maintenance
measure, within the analysis period
z = analysis period
S'= salvage value of pavement at the end of the analysis period
expressed in terms of the present value.
If the difference in present worth of costs between two designs is 10 % or less,
it is assumed to be insignificant, and the present worth of costs of the two
designs is taken to be the same.
A computer program can be designed to facilitate the calculation of the present
worth of costs.

. A

TABLE 18
Typical ranges of surfacing life periods for various surfacing types for the
fferent road categories and base types (if the surfacmgs are used as given in
the catalogue)
Typical range of surfacing
life (years)

9.5

Surfacing type

iranular

Slurry seal
PVC-tar single surfacetreatment
Bitumen single surface treatment
Bitumen double surface treatment
Cape seal
Open-gradedasphalt'
Thin conl~nuouslygraded asphaw
Thln gap-graded asphan

jilumlnous

Slurry Seal
WC-tar stngle Surface treatment
Bitumen single surface treatment
Bitumen double surface treatment
Cape seal
Open-graded asphalt'
Thm cont~nuouslygraded asphalt
Thin gap-graded asphalt

Semenled

Slurry seal
PVC-tar single surface treatment
Bitumen single surface treatment
Bnumen double surface treatment
Cape seaf
Open-graded asphalt'
Thin continuously graded asphak
Thin gap-graded asphan "

FUTURE MAINTENANCE (Mi)

Maintenance management or maintenance design is be

document. However, it has been shown in Section 7 that t
between the type of pavement and the maintenance that might be
future. When different pavement types are compared on the basis of
future maintenance costs should be included in the analysis to ensu
sound comparison is made.
Figures 4 and 9 show that the life of the surfacing plays an importa
behaviour of some pavements. For this reason, planned m
surfacing is very important to ensure that these pavements
satisfactorily. The lives of the various types of surfacing will depend on t
and the type of base used. Table 16 gives guidelines regarding the
typical surfacing lives that can be expected of various su
values may be used for a more detailed analysis of future m
Typical maintenance measures that can be used for the pu
are given in Tabk 77. It should be noted that since the c
the present worth, the precise selection of the maintenan
important. Some maintensnce measures are used more commonly on.
pavement types and this is ref!ected in Table 17. There are two t
maintenance measure:
~

measures to improve the condition of the surfacing, and

0

ase type

structural maintenance measures applied at the end of the struc

period.

- on

Road category and trafic

A suriace type not normally used.

top of a continuously graded or gapgraded aspban.

typical maintenance measures given in Table 17 should be replaced by

e accurate values if specific knowledge about typical conditions is available.

TABLE 17

ad user delay costs should also be considered, although no proper guideline

eadily available. The factors that determine the road user costs are:
running costs (fuel, tyres, vehicle maintenance and depreciation) which
depend mostly on the road alignment, but also on riding quality (PSI);

Base type

accident costs, which depend on road alignment and riding quality, and
delay costs, which depend on the maintenance measures applied and the
traffic situation on the roads. (This is a difficult factor to assess as it may
include aspects such as the provision of detours.)

Granular

9.6

The salvage value of the pavement at the end of the period under consideration
is difficult to assess. If the road is to remain in the same location, the existing
pavement layers may have a salvage value, but if the road is to be abandoned at
the end of the period under consideration. the salvage value could be small or
zero. The assessment of the salvage value can be approached in a number-of
ways, depending on the method employed to rehabilitate or reconstruct the
pavement.

Bituminous

Concrete

Cemented

Paving
blocks

SALVAGE VALUE (S)

51 (8-13yrs)
S1 (16-24yn)
Sl(23-30yn)

S l ( 8-13 yn)
S l 116-24yn)
St 123-30yrsl

No maintenance measures

(a) Where the existing pavement is left In position and an overlay ts

constructed, the salvage value of the pavement would be the difference
between the cost of constructing an overlay and the cost of constructing a
new pavement to a standard equal to that of the existing pavement wlth the
overlay. This is termed the restdual structural value.

Fullher
surface
treatments

(b) Where the material in the existing pavement is taken up and recycled for

use in the construction of a new pavement. the salvage value of the

recycled layers would be the difference between the cost of furnishing new
materlals and the cost of tak~ngup and recycling the old materlals. This
salvage value is termed the recycling value.

Rebuild ba

Relevellingof
blocks

S1 (10 yrs

(d) In some cases the procedure followed could be a combination of (a) and (b)
above and the salvage value would have to be calculated accordingly.
The salvage values of individual layers of the pavement may differ considerably.
from estimates as high as 75 % to possibly as low as 10 %. The residual
salvage value of gravel and asphalt layers is generally high, whereas that of
concrete pavements can be high or low depending on the condition of the
pavement and the method of rehabilitation. The salvage value of the whole
pavement would be the sum of the salvage values of the individual layers. In the
absence of better information, a salvage value of 30 % of initial construction
cost 1s recommended.

The structural design period (SDP) has been defined (Section 3) as the pe '
which it is predicted with a high degree o f confidence that no str
maintenance will be required. Therefore typical structural maintenance WI
average only be necessary at a later stage. If structural maintenance is do
soon after the end of the structural design period, the distress encountered will
only be moderate. When structural maintenance is done much later the distress
will generally be more severe. Figure 13 gives guidelines regarding the degree of
distress to be expected at the time of rehabilitation for different structural design
periods. Table 17 makes provision for both moderate and severe distress.
Structura(m g n of urban m d a
UTG3. Rotooa, South~tnca1988

a5
3
.i:

>

..

Performance - the measure of satisfaction given by the pavem

user over a period of time, quantified by a seNiceability/age fun

E INFLUENCE OF TOWNSHIP LAYOUT ON THE CHOICE

F ROAD CATEGORY

Present worth of wsts sum of the costs of the initial con

Pavement, the later maintenance costs and the salvage val
present monetaty value.

ownship layout has a strong influence on the choice of ioad category,

especially as regards the roads within the township. A well-designed layout will
provide for bus routes (Category UB) within acceptable distances from all
dwellings, but also on well-defined roads. This implies that all other roads within
the township will be either Categoty UC or UD roads. However, a less-defined
layout may imply that a number of roads could act as bus routes, so that they all
have to be designed to carry buses, and these therefore have to be Category

Riding quality- the general extent to which road users experien

either smooth and comfortable or bumpy and thus unpleasa
dangerous.
Selected layer - the lowest of the pavement layers comp
material, either in situ or imporled (Classification codes GT-GI

Sewiceability the measure of satisfaction given by the pavement

user at a certain time, quantified by factors of riding quality and
Slab - the pavement layer of concrete which is placed over a pre
and that acts as base and surfacing combined.

Figure 15 illustrates this principle.

Structural design the design of the pavement layers for adequate

strength under the design conditions of traffic loading, environ
subg!ade support.
Structural design period - the chosen minimum period for which the
is designed to carty the traffic in the prevailing environment with a
degree of confidence that structural maintenance will not be require

- distress pertaining to the load-bearing capaci

Structural maintenance - measures that will strengthen, correct a stmct
Structural distress
pavement.

in, or improve the riding quality of an existing pavement, (eg

smoothing course and surface treatment, partial reconstruction (of say
base and surfacing), etc).
Subbase - the layer($ beneath the base or concrete slab and on t
selected layer.
Subgrade - the completed earthworks within the road prism prior t
construction of the pavement. This comprises the in situ material o
roadbed and any fill material. In structural design only the subgrade
material depthjs considered.
Subgrade desrgn unrt - a sectlon of subgrade with uniform properties and/or
load-beanng capactty.

Surfacrng the uppermost pavement layer which provides the ndmg surface for
vehicles.

Surfacing marntenance a measures that matntaln the integrity of the surface in

respect of skid resistance, disintegration and permeab~litywithout necessarily
Increasingthe structural strength of the pavement.

FIGURE 15

me influence of layout on mad category

APPENDIX 3
EXAMPLE OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A
UB ROAD
1

DESIGN TRAFFIC

.~ 1

e lane distribution factor (Be) from Table 8 is 0.95 for the slow lane. The fast
lane will be designed for the same traffic as the slow lane. The current
equivalent traffic may be projectedto the initial year using the growth factor (ge)
from Table 6. The cumulative equivalent traffic over the structural design period
can be determined by multiplying the initial equivalent traffic by the cumulative

OBJECTIVE

A district distributor road linking a township to the existin

"system of Johannesburg has to be designed. It will be a fou
following informationis available:

(a) Centre line subgrade CBR values:

3;5;4;5:5;6;3: 12; 10;7;8: 11; 14;20;2 ;20;18;19;15: 16
10; 8; 9:8; 7 ; 4; 5; 3; 6; 6; 7

growth rate, the design traffic class is E2.

@) Current traffic (from a transportation study):

Equivalent traffic = 200/day/direction, consisting mostly
of buses (70 % laden) and light 'as well as medium heavy com
vehicles.

Expected growth rate = between 2 and 8 %.

i
I

(C)

Road will be opened to traffic within three years.

Design pavement structures of different base types and compare

structures on the basis of costs before making a final selection.

1
1
I

'

"

2.1
Road category (Table 1)
This can be regarded as a Category UB road. The cumulative
traffic should therefore be between 0,05and 10' and 3 x 10'
structural design period. A moderate level of service (in terms of riding quality)
expected.

3
j

ROAD CATEGORY

DESIGN STRATEGY

for x = 3 years
for y = 15 years

MATERIALS
The table in Figure 16 may be filled in by using the check-list in Figure 7. The
unit prices listed are 1983 prices.
6.1

ENVIRONMENT
Climatic region

According to Figure 8, the road lies within the moderate climatic region.

3.1
Analysis period (Table 2)
The new alignment will probably not change again and th
30 years is selectbd.

Delineatiw of subgrade areas and design CBR of subgrade

6.2
Bv visual inspection of the given CBR values, five subgrade areas can be

3.2
Select structural design period (Table 2)
A period of 15 years is selected. A longer period could have been selected, b
as there is some uncertainty about the growth in traffic and
in the area, a period of 15 years is more suitable.
ThereforeAP = 30 years; SDP = 15 years.

Subgrade Area 1: CBR = 3; 5: 4; 5; 5; 6: 3

SubgradeArea2:CBR = 12; 10; 7; 8;11; 14
Subgrade Area 3: CBR = 20; 23; 20; 18; 19; 15; 16
Subgrade Area 4: CBR = 10; 12; 10; 10; 8; 9; 8; 7
Subgrade Area 5: CBR = 4; 5: 3; 6; 6; 7

8,

!:

56

I!

Str~cfvrald w g n of urban maa.

UTG3.Pretoria. Saum Africa 1988

Structura desogn ofurnan mads

UTG3,P~tnia,South Ahica 1988

7.3
Possible pavement structures
Figure 17 shows possible pavement structures according
(Category UB road, class E2 traffic).
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The designer should consider the conseq

considerations outlines in Section 8 for the p
example, if local materials are very sensitive to water, he m
special care should be given to the cross profile.

COST ANALYSIS

9.1
Construction c3st
For the comparison of different pavement types, the const
the subbase, base and surfacing need to be considered.
directly from the unit costs given in Figure 14.
9.2
Future maintenance
The structural design period is 15 years and the analysis period i
iuture maintenance can be estimated from Tables 16 and 17.Thi
regional office and one can expect timely maint
15 x SDP). The distress will therefore only be
shows estimated maintenance measures for the

TAR PREMIX

9.3
Discount rate
A discount rate of 10 % is normally selected. (A sensitivity analysis
discount rates of 8, 10 and 12 % showed that there is little difference betw
and 12 %).

E2
,,ova
toot,

CONCRETE PAVEMENT

9.4
Salvage value
The salvage value will probably vary with the type of pavement. Table 22 show
typical salvage values for the different pavement types.

...:. r.

I,OU

,111,

,;;'

CEMENTED

~ 3 0 ~ 4

I l,,

Because the catalogue of designs is updated from time to time, the designs m th~s
example may differ. The catalogue reflects the latest designs that have been accepted
by the Highway Materials Commlnee.

I
FIGURE 17

TABLE 23
Present worth of costs
gvement structure

lnlhsl
msls
Wm'

D~scounted
maintenanm wsts
Wm2

Measure
kphalt surfaang
iranular
base
.iranular subbase

3.68
4.20

Discounted
salvage
value Wm'

Present
worth of
costs
Rlmz

...

Cost

30 AG (12 years)
40AG (23 Years)

*halt surfacing
Sranular base
M e n t e d subbase

uphalt surfacing
Bitumen premix base
Granular subbase

TABLE 22
Typical salvage values for different pavement types

Asphail surfacing
Bilumen premix base
Cemented subbase

Asphalt surfacing
Tar premix base
CBmented subbase

Bituminous : Granular

Surface treatment
Cemented base
Cemented subbase

16.90
3.68
3,75
3.15

10.58

9.5
Present worth ofcosts
The present worth of costs can be calculated from:
P W O C = C + Z ~ M +tj-xi-.qr
~(~

+p
.............................................. 9.1

Table 23 shows the present ~ 0 1 t hof costs for each pavement type.

S l ( l 0 years)
S1 (16 Years)
Sl(22 Yeam)
150 GI (25 WB)
35 AG (25 yeas)

was designed for 20 years (say E3), this Value would not be lower
due to the
If
extra initial costs.

30 years is not required.

4

DESIGN TRAFFIC

For Category UC roads, the design traffic clas

or EO (0.05 to 0.20 x 10' 805). Constructi
important factor influencingthe decision about t
factors such as car ownership and use' could influence the decision
the design traffic class. (Note: These roads will n
of these roads act as a tempwary Category
development, appropriate traffic studies should be
5

MATERIALS

As before.
6

ENVIRONMENT

As before.

' CAMERON, J W M and DEL MISTRO. R F. Traffic movements in residential

environments: Six olse studies in Pretoria N m R Technicd Repon RTl35181. P l e t 0 ~ .
CSIR. 1981.
Smmmlda~n
lno urban me
WG3. Rncw S m h A W 1 9 8 8

65'

exclude some designs.

PRACTICAL CONS~DERATIONS

DESCRIPTION OF THE CATALOGUE

e catalogue deals with most of the factors that have to beconsidered by the

COST ANALYSIS

although the availability and cost of materials and also experience regarding the
materials have to be considered (Section 5). The subgrade has been treated
separately (Section 6) and the catalogue assumes that all subgrades are brought
to equal support standards (Section 7). The catalogue does not include practical
considerations such as drainage, compaction or pavement cross-section. These
aspects should still be consideredand are covered in Section 8.

THE USE OF THE CATALOGUE AND SPECIAL CONDITIONS

'

The catalogue should not be used without considering the behaviour of the

obtained if the catalogue is used together

catalogue does not necessarily exclud
pavement structures.

guide or fist approximation, but i

~ d ~ " o t " m " m a m

UTW.Rat~SoumAhkateaa

DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASS E 8 0 s / LANE DVER STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD

ROAD
CATEGORY

i S Y M B O L A DENOTES AG. AC OR i
FOR SELECTED LAYERS REFER TO
A 0 PERMITTED AS A SURFACING h

SYMBOL S OEN
LRAGRAPH 7.1: FOI
,SURE FOR SKI0 R

OR 5 4
ES 5 2
UTURE MAINTENANCE TO PARAGRAPHS 7.2. 7.3 AND
ST12NCE OR REDUCTION OF WATER SPRAYING.

9.5

TAR HOT-MIX BASES

DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASS EBOs / L A N E OVER STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD
ROAD
CATEGORY

..

DESIGNTRAFFIC CLASS 80,

/ LANE OVER STRUCTURAL DESIGN PERIOD

ROAD
CATEGORY

I
SYMBOL A DE
FOR SELECTEI
A 0 PERMITTEC

TES AG. AC OR AS. SYMBOL S DENOTES 5 2

OR 5 4
.AYERS REFER TO PARAGRAPH 7.5: FOR FUTURE MAINTENANCE TO PARAORAPHS 7.2. 7.3
i S A SURFACING MEASURE FOR SKID RESISTANCE OR REDUCTION OF WATER SPRAYING.

AND 9.5

I
CATEGORY

DESIGN T R A F F I C CLASS EB

C0.2 X

lo6