Traffic Engineering

Elements of traffic engineering

1. Traffic studies and characteristics
2. Performance evaluation
3. Facility design
4. Traffic control
5. Traffic operations
6. Transportation systems management
7. Integration of intelligent transportation system technologies
TrafJic studies and characteristics involve measuring and quantifying various aspects of
highway traffic. Studies focus on data collection and analysis that is used to characterize traffic,
including (but not limited to) traffic volumes and demands, speed and travel time, delay,
accidents, origins and destinations, modal use, and other variables.
Performance evaluation is a means by which traffic engineers can rate the operating
characteristics of individual sections of facilities and facilities as a whole in relative terms. Such
evaluation relies on measures of performance quality and is often stated in terms of levels of
service. Levels of service are letter grades, from A to F, describing how well a facility is
operating using specified performance criteria. Like grades in a course, A is very good, while F
connotes failure (on some level). As part of performance evaluation, the capacity of highway
facilities must be determined.
Facility design involves traffic engineers in the functional and geometric design of highways and
other traffic facilities. Traffic engineers, per se, are not involved in the structural design of
highway facilities but should have some appreciation for structural characteristics of their
facilities.
Trafic control is a central function of traffic engineers and involves the establishment of traffic
regulations and their communication to the driver through the use of traffic control devices, such
as signs, markings, and signals.
Trafic operations involves measures that influence overall operation of traffic facilities, such as
one-way street systems, transit operations, curb management and surveillance and network
control systems.
Transportation systems management (TSM) involves virtually all aspects of traffic engineering
in a focus on optimizing system capacity and operations. Specific aspects of TSM include highoccupancy vehicle priority systems, car-pooling programs, pricing strategies to manage demand,
and similar functions.
Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) refers to the application of modern telecommunications
technology to the operation and control of transportation systems. Such systems include
automated highways, automated toll-collection systems, vehicle-tracking systems, in-vehicle
GPS and mapping systems, automated enforcement of traffic lights and speed laws, smart control
devices, and others. This is a rapidly emerging family of technologies with the potential to

radically alter the way we travel as well as the way in which transportation professionals gather
information and control facilities. While the technology continues to expand, society will grapple
with the substantial big brother issues that such systems invariably create.

Characteristics of Traffic elements

Road user characteristics
The physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human beings affect their ability to operate
motor vehicle safely or to service as a pedestrian. The various factors which affect road user
characteristics are classified under four heads: Physical, Mental, Psychological and
Environmental.
Physical characteristics of the road user may be either permanent or temporary. They include
vision, hearing, strength and the general reaction to traffic situations.
Mental characteristics include knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy. Knowledge
of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice, rules of roads and psychology of
road users will be quite useful for safe traffic operations.
Psychological factors affect reaction to traffic situations of road users to a great extent. The
emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear anger, superstition impatience, general attitude
towards traffic and regulations and maturity also come under this.
The various environmental conditions affecting the behaviour of road user are traffic stream
characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and the locality.
Driver characteristics such as the simple, reaction time, depth judgement, field of vision, visual
acuity, glare recovery etc. can be measured in the laboratory using Driver testing equipment.
Vehicular characteristics
Vehicle characteristics affect the design and traffic performance, because it is possible to design
a road for any vehicle but not for an indefinite vehicle. The various vehicular characteristics
affecting the road design may be classified as static and dynamic characteristic of the vehicles.
Static characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are the dimensions, weight and maximum
turning angle. The height of vehicle affects the clearance of the overhead structures. Dynamic
characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are speed, acceleration and braking
characteristics and some aspects of vehicle body design. Other vehicular characteristics affects
the road design are vehicle dimensions (width, height and length of different vehicles), weight of
loaded vehicle, power of vehicle, speed of vehicle and braking characteristics.

Traffic control devices

Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and road
users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Here traffic control devices comes to the help of the traffic engineer. The major types of traffic
control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings , traffic signals and parking control. This
chapter discusses traffic control signs. Different types of traffic signs are regulatory signs,
warning signs and informatory signs.
Requirements of traffic control devices
1. The control device should fulfill a need : Each device must have a specific purpose for the safe
and efficient operation of traffic flow. The superuous devices should not be used.
2. It should command attention from the road users: This affects the design of signs. For
commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be distinctive and
clear. The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no extra effort to see the
sign.
3. It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message is essential for the
driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of color, shape and legend as
codes becomes important in this regard. The legend should be kept short and simple so that even
a less educated driver could understand the message in less time.
4. Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers are
conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and important messages. Overuse, misuse
and confusing messages of devices tends the drivers to ignore them.
5. The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the road users:
This is again related to the design aspect of traffic control devices. The sign boards should be
placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sufficient time to respond to the
situation. For example, the STOP sign which is always placed at the stop line of the intersection
should be visible for atleast one safe stopping sight distance away from the stop line.
Types of traffic signs
There are several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide variety of traffic situations.
They can be classified into three main categories.
1. Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road
users.
2. Warning signs: These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the drivers
to obey these signs.
3. Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available
ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific destinations
Regulatory signs
These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey
these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These signs

have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red borders.
The regulatory signs can be further classified into :
1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected
approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign For example, when
one minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference should be given to the
vehicles passing through the major road. Hence the give way sign board will be placed on the
minor road to inform the driver on the minor road that he should give way for the vehicles on the
major road. In case two major roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the
traffic on which approach the sign board has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of
regulatory signs that comes in right of way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at
the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road.
They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs
are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons. Separate truck
speed limits are applied on high speed roadways where heavy commercial vehicles must be
limited to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons. Minimum speed limits are
applied on high speed roads like expressways, freeways etc. where safety is again a predominant
reason. Very slow vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers.
These include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs include
turn prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the
movements which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate
turns in unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions or
restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked,
duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the
safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites
etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a "KEEP OF
MEDIAN" sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous
cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
Warning signs
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of
drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for this
type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape used is
upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders.

Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating
prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)

Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road, sign
indicating railway track ahead)
Informative signs
Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place. The
guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location. Some of the
examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service
information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are used to identify
numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are written black
letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to the critical
destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distance in kilometers are sometimes
marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular with the long
dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with green
background. Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to
reach his destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various
services such as food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue

background. Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters
with brown background.

Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service centre
information etc)
Road markings
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and
signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe
movement of traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious
flow of traffic. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings,
object markings and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the
road etc. will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Classification of road markings
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set into
applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. The road markings are
classified as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word messages,
marking for parkings, marking at hazardous locations etc.
Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface, for the
purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway. Some of the guiding
principles in longitudinal markings are also discussed below. Longitudinal markings are
provided for separating traffic flow in the same direction and the predominant color used is
white. Yellow color is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite direction and also to separate
the pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or double solid. Broken lines are
permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if traffic situation permits. Solid
lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing except for entry or exit from a side
road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction.
Double solid lines indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except in case of
emergency. There can also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a solid line

may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line of the combination is nearer to the direction of
travel. Vehicles from the opposite directions are not permitted to cross the line. Different types
of longitudinal markings are centre line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning lines, border or
edge lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane markings.

Centre line marking for two lane road

Centre line marking for four lane road

Traffic lane lines

The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way helps
the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections,
these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements. Thus traffic
lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring more safety. The
traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width.

No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and three
lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited because of low sight distance. It may
be marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a double yellow line. In the case of a double
yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be a either a
broken line or a solid line . These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid line is to
the right of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the opposing traffic. Some
typical examples are shown in figures. In the latter case, the no passing zone is staggered for
each direction.

Traffic lane marking for a four lane road with broken centre line

Barrier line marking for a four lane road

No passing zone marking at horizontal curves

Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on horizontal
and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for no
overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven line
segments should be provided. A typical example is shown in figure
Edge lines
Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits upto which
the driver can safely venture. They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the
pavement. They are painted in yellow or white.

Warning line marking for a two lane road

Stop line marking near an intersection

Transverse markings
Transverse markings are marked across the direction of traffic. They are marked at intersections
etc. The site conditions play a very important role. The type of road marking for a particular
intersection depends on several variables such as speed characteristics of traffic, availability of
space etc. Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows, etc. are some
of the markings on approaches to intersections.
Stop line
Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when required to
stop by control devices like signals or by traffic police. They should be placed either parallel to
the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles.

Pedestrian marking near intersection

Pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between vehicular and pedestrian
traffic is severe. The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the pedestrians
and also the vehicles are not interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian crossings
should be preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized intersections and at a
distance of one metre for signalized intersections. Most commonly used pattern for pedestrian
crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A typical
example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in figure
Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows should be used to guide
the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should be
elongated in the direction of traffic for adequate visibility. The dimensions of these arrows are
also very important. A typical example of a directional arrow is shown in figure.
Object marking
Physical obstructions in a carriageway like traffic island or obstructions near carriageway like
signal posts, pier etc. cause serious hazard to the ow of traffic and should be adequately marked.
They may be marked on the objects adjacent to the carriageway.

Objects within the carriageway

The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raised medians, etc. may be
marked by not less than five alternate black and yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward
at an angle of 45 degrees with respect to the direction of traffic. These stripes shall be uniform
and should not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sufficient visibility

Directional arrow marking

Parking studies
Before taking any measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding availability of
parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand is essential. It is also required to estimate
the parking fares also. Parking surveys are intended to provide all these information. Since the
duration of parking varies with different vehicles, several statistics are used to access the parking
need.
Parking statistics
Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of time.
Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curve is the graph obtained by
plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of
time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of vehicles entered in
the area is recorded.

Parking load : Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be obtained
by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each time interval
with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked.
Parking duration = parking load/parking volume
Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of
parking bays available.
Parking turnover = parking volume/No:of bays available
This can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time duration.
Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of
number
of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It gives an aggregate measure of
how
effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking index can be found out as follows
parking index =parking load/parking capacity

Accidents
All of sudden and without any intention, the events known as accidents, occur in the traffic
stream which may result in minor or major injuries, deaths or damage to properties etc. The
collection and maintenance of accurate records of traffic accidents are essential for soling traffic
problems.
Objectives of accident studies
1. To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential location
2. To evaluate existing designs
3. To support proposed designs
4. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem
5. To make computations of financial loss and
6. To give economic justification for the improvements suggested by the traffic engineer
Cause of accidents
1. Road users (drivers, pedestrians, passengers)
2. Vehicles (vehicle defects)
3. Road and its condition (road condition, road design)
4. Environmental factors traffic, weather etc. (weather, animals, incorrect signals)
Investigations to be carried out during an accident survey:
1. Details of vehicles such as registration number, type of vehicle, loading details, etc.
2. Estimation of cost of accident
3. General data such a time, date, persons involved, etc.
4. Location of an accident
5. Nature of accident including injuries, damages, casualities, objects involved, etc.

6. Primary causes of accident

7. Road and traffic conditions at the site of accident; etc.
The accidents should be reported to police authorities who would take legal actions especially in
more serious accidents involving injuries, casualities or severe damage to property. The
recording of road accidents should be carried out in suitable forms and the results should be
exhibited on suitable maps, charts and diagrams. The analysis and study of such details help in
deciding actions to be taken to reduce the chances of road accidents.
Measures for the reduction in accident rates (3-Es)
1. Engineering
2. Enforcement
3. Education
4.
Engineering measures:
Road design: The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances, width of
pavement, horizontal and vertical alignment design details and intersection design elements are
checked and corrected if necessary.
Preventive maintenance of vehicles: The braking system, steering and lighting arrangements of
vehicles plying on the roads may be checked at suitable intervals and heavy penalties levied on
defective vehicles.
Before and after studies: The record of accidents and their patterns for different locations are
maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams.
Road lighting: Proper road lighting can decrease the rate of accidents during night, due to poor
visibility.
Enforcement measures
Speed control: To enable drivers of buses to develop correct speed habits tachometers may be
fitted so as to give the record of speeds.
Traffic control devices: Signals may be re-designed or signal system be introduced if necessary.
Similarly proper traffic control device like signs, markings, or channelizing islands may be
installed wherever found necessary.
Training and supervision: The transport authorities should be strict in testing and issuing license
to drivers of public service vehicles and taxis
Medical check: The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals,
say once in three years.
Specials precautions for commercial vehicles: It may be insisted on having a conductor or
attendant to help and give proper direction to drivers of heavy commercial vehicles.
Observance of law and regulation: Traffic and transport authorities should send study groups of
trained personnel, assisted by police to different locations to check whether the traffic regulations
are being followed by the road users and also to enforce the essential regulations.

Educational measures
Education of road users: It is very essential to educate the road users for the various
precautionary measures to use the road way facilities with safety. The passengers and pedestrians
should be taught the rules of the road, correct manner of crossing etc.
Safety drive: Imposing traffic safety week when the road users are properly directed by the help
of traffic police and transport staff is a common means of training the public these days. The IRC
has been organizing Highway Safety Workshop in different regions of the country.
Collision diagram
Collision diagrams are used to display and identify similar accident patterns. They provide
information on the type and number of accidents; including conditions such as time of day, day
of week, climatic conditions, pavement conditions, and other information critical to determining
the causes of safety problems. Accident reports should be organized by year of occurrence and
accident type for the analysis period. Accidents that occurred after significant changes in
highway or local land use should not be included.
1. Construction of Collision Diagram
Sketch the location diagram for either an intersection or roadway section using a standard form,
such as, shown on the following page.
1. The sketch need not be to scale.
2. Show the path of each vehicle involved in the accident with adequate room for information.
3. Place a north arrow for orientation and any other descriptive information: a. Location
identification b. Period of analysis c. Label the roads
4. Sketch the path of each vehicle to show vehicle maneuver, type of collision and accident
severity, and; a. Time of day b. Day of week c. Date d. Lighting condition e. Pavement condition
f. Other important information, e.g., alcohol involvement Collision Diagrams - 2 - Permit Writers
Workshop
2. Symbols
Symbols representing the nature of operation, vehicle or object involved and severity of the
accident are adopted. These are shown in the example collision diagram on the following page.
Symbols to represent types of collisions diagrams are also standardized.
3. Accident Patterns
Accident patterns seen on the collision diagram can often suggest possible accident problems.
For example, a large number of angle accidents would imply the potential of a sight distance
restriction. At the end of this set of notes is a set of Accident Pattern Tables which identify
accident type, possible causes, possible studies to determine the problem, and possible
countermeasures.

Condition diagram
The purpose of the Condition Diagram is to show the intersection and the conditions within the
surrounding area as it exists. The diagram should include the intersection alignment, items such
as buildings, sidewalks, trees, lighting poles, water hydrants, stop signs, number of lanes, and
lane use if required, associated with the streets forming the intersection. When applicable, the
Condition Diagram shall show the length of all exclusive lanes and associated tapers. (2) The
Condition Diagram provides the engineer with details of field conditions and helps investigate
the need for changes to existing traffic control devices. The diagram should also be part of an
intersection crash analysis.
Completing the condition diagram
(1) The engineer should enter the Location I.D. so that the intersection is thoroughly identified.
The names, state road numbers, U.S. route numbers, and county section numbers for both
streets should be included if applicable, as well as the County, City, Date, and Person(s)
preparing the diagram. Orient the intersection by indicating north on the north arrow.
(2) All items associated with the streets should be drawn using the symbols as outlined on the
bottom of the form. The diagram should also include the width and surface type of the streets,
the grades (if 5 percent or more), and traffic control devices. All measurements should be as
accurate as possible and indicated on the diagram. The usual distance measured from the
intersection is 80 to 100 feet; however, in those cases where pertinent signing or pavement
markings concerning the intersection (such as Stop Ahead) occur in advance of the intersection
in question, those conditions should be diagrammed and distances indicated with a broken
arrow. It is the engineers judgment to decide the distance away from the intersection to include
elements in the Condition Diagram.