Crain's Petrophysical Handbook - Common Porosity Methods

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WELCOME TO
CRAIN'S PETROPHYSICAL

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THE COMMON POROSITY METHODS

PORE VOLUME
This page is a highly abbreviated version of Chapter 12 on this website. For more about
effextive porosity, alternate methods and examples, go to the Main Index Page.

THIS PAGE
Pore Volume
Porosity From Sonic Log
Porosity From Density Log

The second calculation step in a log analysis is to find shale corrected porosity. Pore
volume is the space in a rock filled with oil, gas, or water. Total porosity includes the
bound water in the shale and is called PHIt. Effective porosity does not include bound
water, and is called PHIe. When there is no shale, PHIe equals PHIt.
Logs read total porosity. All our analysis methods correct for shale, so the answers
from any method presented below will give effective porosity. Some analysis methods
NEED total porosity as an intermediate step, so you may also need to calculate it.
Raw log porosity, as presented in the field by the service company, does NOT take into
account shale or lithology effects, so raw log readings should NEVER be used as
answers. Log analysis MUST ALWAYS be done to find the correct porosity. All our
analysis methods also account for matrix rock (lithology), but YOU may be required to
define the rock type for some methods. Other methods will define the lithology for you.

Porosity From Neutron Log

Porosity From Complex
Lithology Density Neutron
Crossplot
Porosity From Dual Water
Density Neutron
Crossplot
Porosity From Photoelectric
Density Neutron Crossplot
Material Balance for Porosity
(Maximum Porosity)
Useful Porosity
Porosity From Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Log
Fracture Porosity
Porosity from Old ES Logs

YOU MUST choose a method that is appropriate for the available data and for the rock
type being analyzed. The easiest methods are:
In all cases, the results must be trimmed to prevent too high a porosity in shaly zones and in bad hole by using
Section 5.07: Material Balance for Porosity (Maximum Porosity). The META/ESP spreadsheet, available on the
Downloads tab at www.spec2000.net, handles these models and makes the work relatively painless.
Unfortunately, there is no standard logging program, so there is no single foolproof log analysis method. Each
method has its own usage rules. These rules may need to be adjusted to suit local conditions. In the classroom or
when starting work in a new area, you may want to try several methods, and see which matches core porosity the
best.

Calibration of log analysis porosity is usually accomplished by comparing it to conventional core porosity.

POROSITY FROM THE SONIC LOG

The sonic is a simple method and must be employed if more modern density neutron data is not available. The
method shown is called the Wyllie time average equation. Other porosity methods are presented in following
sections.
Other methods for the sonic have been proposed, but they are really specific to certain areas, although this is not
clearly stated in the literature. For example, the Hunt-Raymer transform is appropriate for the US Gulf Coast, but a
poor model for the Lower Cretaceous in Western Canada. The Wyllie approach, when calibrated to core, is
universally applicable.

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NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Calculate shale porosity (PHISSH), a constant for each zone:
1: PHISSH = (DTCSH DTCMA) / (DTCW DTCMA)
DTCSH is a constant for the zone, chosen from the sonic log in a nearby shale.
STEP 2: Calculate porosity from sonic log (PHIsc) for each layer in the zone:
2: PHIs = (DTC DTCMA) / (DTCW DTCMA)
3: PHIsc = PHIs (Vsh * PHISSH)
The sonic porosity (PHIsc), after all corrections are applied, is called the effective porosity, PHIe.
SPECIAL CASES:
CASE 1: Correct each layer for lack of compaction, ONLY IF DTCSH > 328 (Metric) or DTCSH > 100 (English)
4: PHIe = PHIsc / KCP
CASE 2: Correct each layer for gas effect, ONLY IF PHIsc > PHItrue and gas is known or suspected
5: PHIe = PHIsc * KS
USAGE RULES:
Use when density log is unavailable, or when density log is affected by bad hole.
Of the three "one-log" porosity methods, the sonic corrected for shale is the preferred one for wells that have no
density log. However, crossplot methods or the density log corrected for shale are usually better if the log data is
available.
If lithology is unknown, sonic log corrected for shale is better than density log because the lithology effect on the
sonic is smaller.
Use the compaction correction KCP only if DTCSH > 100 usec/ft (for English units) or DTCSH > 328 usec/m (for
Metric units). In western North America, this is normally required when above 3,000 - 4,000 feet (900 l,200 meters).
8: KCP = DTCSH / 100 (for English units)
OR 9: KCP = DTCSH / 328 (for Metric units)
KCP is never less than 1.0.
Use the gas correction KS only if PHIsc is too high compared to other sources and if gas is known to be present.
The need for this correction is common, but it is unlikely that a gas correction will be needed in very shaly sands
since invasion should be relatively deep.
10: KS = PHItrue / PHIsc
KS is never greater than 1.0.
Another way of making gas corrections is to change DTCW to a higher value, representing the travel time of sound
in a mixture of gas and water. This value depends on water saturation in the invaded zone, pressure, temperature,
and gas compressibility. Values in the range of 600 usec/ft (1900 usec/m) at shallow depths to 300 usec/ft (950
usec/m) at 6000 feet (2000 meters) are recommended as a starting point.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust DTCMA, DTCW, DTCSH, KCP, KS, or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and
error. Appropriate crossplots may assist.
A newer method called the Hunt - Raymer equation has been proposed, but it seems to work well only in the Gulf
Coast of USA. Shale corrected data should be entered to this equation (not mentioned in original paper).
PARAMETERS:

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English
usec/ft

Metric
usec/m

DTCSH
KCP
KS

60 - 150
1.0 - 1.4
0.7 - 1.0

190 480 (choose from log)

1.0 - 1.4
0.7 - 1.0

DTCW
Fresh drilling mud
Salty drilling mud

200
188

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656
616

DTCMA
Clean Quartz
55.5
182
Calcite
47.3
155
Dolomite
44.0
144
Anhydrite
50.0
164
Gypsum
52.4
172
Mica Muscovite
47.3
155
Biotite
55.5
182
Clay Kaolinite
64.3
211
Glauconite
55.5
182
Illite
64.6
212
Chlorite
64.6
212
Montmorillonite
64.6
212
Barite
69.8
229
NaFeld Albite
47.3
155
Anorthite
45.1
148
K-Feld Orthoclase
68.9
226sands
Iron Siderite
44.0
144
Ankerite
45.7
150
Pyrite
39.6
130
Evaps Fluorite
45.7
150
Halite
67.0
220
Sylvite
73.8
242
DON'T use this graph in shaly sands !!!!
Carnalite
78.0
256
Coal Anthracite
105
345
Lignite
160
525

For mixtures, take the average of two pure values as a starting point, eg: dolomitic sand, DTCMA = (144 + 182) / 2 =
163 usec/m, or prorate the values in proportion to the described mineral assemblage.

POROSITY FROM THE DENSITY LOG

Another "one-log" method uses the density log data, and is favored in shaly sands because the shale correction is
quite small. In carbonates, the rock composition must be known accurately. This method is better than the sonic log,
provided lithology is well known and the density log is not affected by bad hole. The density neutron combination is
better than either sonic or density alone. Many people read the density log porosity directly from the log and call it
effective porosity, PHIe. This is NOT a good idea, as you could be wrong by as much as 12 percent porosity in the
worst case, and a few percent in most cases.

NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Calculate shale density (DENSSH) from shale porosity (a constant for each zone):
1: DENSSH = PHIDSH * KD1 + (1 PHIDSH) * KD2
PHIDSH is a constant for the zone, chosen from the density log in a nearby shale.

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STEP 2: Translate density porosity of each layer into density units:

2: DENS = PHID * KD1 + (1 PHID) * KD2
Where: KD1 = 1.00 for English units
KD1 = 1000 for Metric units
KD2 = 2.65 for English units Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2650 for Metric units Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2.71 for English units Limestone scale log
KD2 = 2710 for Metric units Limestone scale log
KD2 = 2.87 for English units Dolomite scale log
KD2 = 2870 for Metric units Dolomite scale log
STEP 3: Calculate porosity of each layer with matrix and fluid of your choice:
3: PHIDm = (DENS DENSMA) / (DENSW DENSMA)
4: PHIdc = PHIDm (Vsh * PHIDSH)
The density porosity (PHIdc), after all corrections are applied, is called the effective porosity, PHIe.
SPECIAL CASES:
CASE 1: Correct each layer for gas effect, ONLY IF PHIdc > PHItrue and gas is known or suspected
5: PHIe = PHIdc * KD
USAGE RULES:
Do not use in bad hole conditions.
Use if neutron log is not available, otherwise use density neutron crossplot
Use in preference to sonic in shaly sands if both logs are available.
The density log corrected for shale AND lithology is a very good approximation to porosity, but the log was not
common before 1965, so sonic or neutron methods may be necessary for wells drilled before that time.
Use gas correction KD only if PHIdc is too high compared to other sources and if gas is known to be present.
6: KD = PHItrue / PHIdc
KD is never greater than 1.0.
Another way of making gas corrections is to change DENSW to a lower value, representing the density in a mixture
of gas and water. This value depends on water saturation in the invaded zone, pressure, temperature, and gas
density. Values in the range of 0.25 g/cc (250 Kg/m3) at shallow depths to 0.70 g/cc (700 Kg/m3) at 6000 feet (2000
meters) are recommended as a starting point.
If density porosity data is in percent, rather than fractional, divide the data values by 100 before using them.
No compaction correction is made to density log data.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust DENSMA, DENSW, DENSSH, KD, or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and
error. Appropriate crossplots may assist.
PARAMETERS:
*
*
DENSSH
KD

English
gm/cc

Metric
Kg/m3

2.50 - 2.83
2500 2830
(choose from log)
0.25 - 0.70
0.25 - 0.70

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DENSW
Fresh drilling mud
Salty drilling mud

1.00
1.10

1000
1100

DENSMA
Clean Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Mica Muscovite
Biotite
Clay Kaolinite
Glauconite
Illite
Chlorite
Montmorillonite
Barite
NaFeld Albite
Anorthite
K-Feld Orthoclase
Iron Siderite
Ankerite
Pyrite
Evaps Fluorite
Halite
Sylvite
Carnalite
Coal Anthracite
Lignite

2.65
2.71
2.87
2.95
2.35
2.83
3.20
2.64
2.83
2.77
2.87
2.62
4.08
2.58
2.74
2.54
3.91
3.08
5.00
3.12
2.03
1.86
1.56
1.47
1.19

2650
2710
2870
2950
2350
2830
3200
2640
2830
2770
2870
2620
4080
2580
2740
2540
3910
3080
5000
3120
2030
1860
1560
1470
1190

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For mixtures, take the average of two pure values as a starting point, eg: dolomitic sand, DENSMA = (2870 + 2650) / 2
= 2760 Kg/m3 or prorate in proportion to mineral volumes.

POROSITY FROM THE NEUTRON LOG

The third, and least accurate, "one-log" method is based on neutron log data. The method is used in old wells or
cased holes where no other porosity data is available, or where the sonic log was not run and the density log suffers
from bad hole conditions.
NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Adjust log values from each layer to correct for matrix rock:
1: PHINm = (PHIN PHINMA + KN1) / (PHINW PHINMA)
Where: KN1 = 0.028 for Sandstone units log
KN1 = 0.000 for Limestone units log
KN1 = -0.100 for Dolomite units log
This lithology approximation is not sufficient in low porosity and service company chartbooks should be used for the
specific tool.
STEP 2: Apply shale corrections to each layer:
2: PHInc = PHINm (Vsh * PHINSH)
PHINSH is a constant for each zone, chosen from the neutron log in a nearby shale.
The neutron porosity (PHInc), after all corrections are applied, is called the effective porosity, PHIe.

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SPECIAL CASES:
CASE 1: Old style GRN or unscaled neutron logs recorded in counts per second or API units
1: SLOPE = (log (PHIHI / PHILO)) / (CPSHI CPSLO)
2: INTCPT = PHIHI / (10 ^ (CPSHI * SLOPE))
3: PHIn = INTCPT * (10 ^ (SLOPE * NCPS))
4: PHInc = PHIn Vsh * PHINSH

Example of Porosity from Neutron Counts per Second - no shale correction

A large number of charts for specific tools, spacings, borehole conditions and rock types are available from service
companies.
CASE 2: Apply gas correction to each layer, ONLY IF PHInc < PHItrue and gas is known or suspected
1: PHIe = PHInc * KN

USAGE RULES:
Use only if sonic and density log are unavailable or unusable.
The neutron log corrected for shale is one of the least accurate methods in shaly sands and should only be used if
no other porosity data is available. This is common for wells drilled prior to 1957 or for wells logged through casing
or drill pipe.
Old style neutron logs recorded in counts per second need to be scaled logarithmically between a high and a low
porosity point, calibrated by core or modern logs from offset wells.
Use the gas correction KN only if gas is known to be present and log reading is still too low after lithology
corrections. This correction is very crude and not recommended. KN = PHItrue / PHIN
KN is never less than 1.0, range is 1.0 to 3.0.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust PHINMA, PHINW, PHINSH, KN, or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and error.
Appropriate crossplots may assist.
PARAMETERS:
PHINSH
KN
PHINW
Fresh drilling mud

0.15 - 0.45 (choose from log)

1.0 - 3.0

1.00

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Salty drilling mud

PHINMA
Clean Quartz Calcite
Dolomite
PHIe = 5.5 - 30%
PHIe = 1.5 - 5.5%
PHIe = 0 - 1.5%
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Mica Muscovite
Biotite
Clay Kaolinite
Glauconite
Illite
Chlorite
Montmorillonite
Barite
NaFeld Albite Anorthite
K-Feld Orthoclase
Iron Siderite
Ankerite
Pyrite
Evaps Fluorite Halite
Sylvite
Carnalite
Coal Anthracite
Lignite

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1.00

0.028
0.000
0.100
0.050
0.005
0.002
0.507
0.165
0.225
0.491
0.175
0.158
0.428
0.115
0.002
0.013
0.018
0.011
0.129
0.057
0.019
0.006
0.018
0.041
0.584
0.414
0.542

POROSITY FROM THE COMPLEX LITHOLOGY DENSITY NEUTRON CROSSPLOT

The best method available for modern, simple, log analysis involves the density neutron crossplot. Several variations
on the theme are common, but not all models are recommended. A crossplot method, called the shaly sand model
was once widely used. It was found to be a poor model for any sandstone that contained other minerals in addition to
quartz. The complex lithology model works equally well in quartz sands as in mixtures, so it is the preferred model
today. Although the name of the method is complicated, the mathematics are not.
NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Shale correct the density and neutron log data for each layer:
1: PHIdc = PHID (Vsh * PHIDSH)
2: PHInc = PHIN (Vsh * PHINSH)
PHIDSH and PHINSH are constants for each zone, and are picked only once.
STEP 2: Check for gas crossover after shale corrections and calculate porosity for each layer from the correct
equation:
3: IF PHInc >= PHIdc, there is no gas crossover
4: THEN PHIxdn = (PHInc + PHIdc) / 2
The density neutron crossplot porosity, PHIxdn, after all corrections are applied, is called the effective porosity, PHIe.

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Density Neutron Complex Lithology Crossplot - Oil and Water cases, or Gas zones with crossover.
Chartbook solutions are provided above. Shale corrected data must be entered.
SPECIAL CASES:
CASE 1: IF gas is known to be present AND gas crossover occurs after shale corrections, apply the following gas
correction:
6: IF PHInc < PHIdc, there is gas crossover
7: THEN PHIxdn = ((PHInc ^ 2 + PHIdc ^ 2) / 2) ^ 0.5

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CASE 2: IF gas is known to be present but no crossover occurs after shale corrections, this usually means gas in
dolomite or in a sandstone with lots of heavy minerals, apply the following gas correction:
8: PHIx = PHIdc / (PHInc / 0.8 1) / (1 + PHIdc / (0.8 PHInc))
9: PHIxdn = PHIx + KD3 * (0.30 PHIx) * (DENSMA / KD1 KD2)
Where: KD1 = 1.00 for English units
KD1 = 1000 for Metric units
KD2 = 2.65 for Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2.71 for Limestone scale log
KD3 = 1.80 for Sandstone scale log
KD3 = 2.00 for Limestone scale log

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Density Neutron Complex Lithology Crossplot - Gas zones with NO crossover. Enter shale corrected data and then
slide data point to the right until it reaches the line representing the matrix density of the reservoir - travel parallel to
the nearest heavy black line.
Do not use Dolomite scale log for this special case. Figure PP5.14 shows the effect of using this gas correction.
Notice that computed porosity does not match core porosity unless the correct DENSMA is chosen. DENSMA should
reflect the matrix density of the expected lithology. This can be predicted accurately if the PE curve can be used to
determine mineral volumes in a two mineral model. Density and neutron data cannot be used for this purpose
because the gas effect masks the mineral effect.
Chartbook solutions are provided below when gas is present. Shale corrected data must be entered.

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CASE 3: IF rock is dolomite AND porosity is less than 5%, use the following instead of Equation 4 or 5:
10: E = (4 - (3.3 + 10 ^ (-5 * PHInc - 0.16))
11: PHIxdn = (E * PHIdc + 0.754 * PHInc) / (E + 0.754)
This option can be used instead of equation 4 as long as there is no gas crossover after shale corrections. It is
slightly more accurate, but requires a computer or preprogrammed calculator.
CASE 4: IF Archie or dual water model is to be used for water saturation, the following is needed:
12: BVWSH = (PHIDSH + PHINSH) / 2 (a constant for the zone)
13: PHIt = (PHID + PHIN) / 2
(one value for each layer)
CASE 5: IF zone is vuggy carbonate, calculate secondary porosity:
14: PHIsec = PHIxdn - PHIsc
USAGE RULES:
Use in preference to most methods if data is available, even in shaly sands to correct for heavy mineral content.
Do not use when density is affected by bad hole conditions.
No correction for log units (eg Sandstone or Limestone units) is needed for most cases, except gas in dolomite and
low porosity dolomite. Use Limestone units log ONLY for these two special cases.
Answer porosity is accurate to +/- 1% porosity using the simplified rules.
For better accuracy, use Equations 10 and 11 with Limestone units logs instead of simpler rules, except gas rules
must still be applied.
The matrix density required for the gas correction must be assumed from the sample descriptions or by calculating
the lithology from the PE (photoelectric effect) log if it is available.
Shale corrections could create apparent gas crossover and this may be real or an artifact of excessive correction.
Check against known data from the well if shale correction creates crossover.
Charts and math for sonic density and sonic neutron crossplots are provided in Chapter Seven of Crains
Petrophysical Handbook.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust DENSMA, PHIDSH, PHINSH or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and error.
Appropriate crossplots may assist, or regression of PHIxdn vs core porosity may be used.
PARAMETERS:
PHIDSH
PHINSH

-0.06 - 0.15 (choose from log)

0.15 - 0.45 (choose from log)

See Section 5.02 for matrix density (DENSMA) if needed for gas correction.

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Effect of DENSMA on density neutron crossplot porosity with gas in heavy minerals. Core porosity (square black
lines) and log analysis porosity (smooth black curves) show a good match when DENSMA was set at
2710 - 2740 Kg/m3. Log analysis shows near zero porosity if DENSMA set at 2650 for this heavy sandstone.

POROSITY FROM THE DUAL WATER DENSITY NEUTRON CROSSPLOT

Another version of the density neutron crossplot is the dual water, or bulk volume water method. This form should be
used only in shaly sands with no heavy minerals. The simplified equations (5a and 6a) account for heavy minerals
and are recommended over the original, more complex formulation which was meant for quartz sands ONLY.
For people who prefer chartbook solutions instead of calculators, a graph must be made manually for each zone to
be analyzed. This is not recommended, so dig out the calculator and get at it.
NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Adjust log values for each layer to correct units. If in limestone units, put logs into sandstone units:
1: PHID = PHID 0.03
2: PHIN = PHIN + 0.04

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STEP 2: Calculate neutron dry clay (PHINDC) from PHIDDC, and shale bound water (BVWSH), which are constants for
the zone
3: PHIDDC = (DENSDC KD2) / (KD1 KD2)
Where: KD1 = 1.00 for English units
KD1 = 1000 for Metric units
KD2 = 2.65 for English units Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2650 for Metric units Sandstone scale log
4: PHINDC = 1.00 - (1.00 - PHIDDC) * (1.00 - PHINSH) / (1.00 - PHIDSH)
5: BVWSH = (PHINDC * PHIDSH - PHIDDC * PHINSH) / (PHINDC - PHIDDC)
These are constants for each zone. PHIDDC is usually negative, so watch the minus sign when using the above
equations.
STEP 3: Calculate total porosity for each layer:
6: PHIt = (PHINDC * PHID PHIDDC * PHIN) / (PHINDC PHIDDC)
An easier approximation is:
5a: BVWSH = (PHIDSH + PHINSH) / 2 (a constant for the zone)
6a: PHIt = (PHID + PHIN) / 2 (one value for each layer)
STEP 4: Calculate effective porosity in each layer:
7: PHIbvw = PHIt (Vsh * BVWSH)
SPECIAL CASES:
If matrix offset is required for heavy minerals, apply the offset to all neutron and density values including shale
points, then use the above equation.
Nothing special is done in gas zones, as the values computed for PHIt and PHIe are reasonable even if gas crossover
occurs. If this rule seems uncomfortable use:
8: PHIbvw = ((PHInc ^ 2 + PHIdc ^ 2) / 2) ^ 0.5
The dual water density neutron crossplot porosity PHIbvw, after all corrections are applied, is called the effective
porosity, PHIe.
USAGE RULES:
Use in shaly sands without heavy minerals. If heavy minerals are present, the complex lithology density neutron
crossplot is preferred.
The method is also called the bulk volume water (BVW) method and is the basis of many wellsite and office
computer programs.
If the simplified equations 5a and 6a are used, the results are numerically identical to the Complex Lithology Model,
except that no special cases are covered.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust DENSDC, PHIDSH, PHINSH or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and error.
Appropriate crossplots may assist, or regression of PHIbvw vs core porosity may be used.

PARAMETERS:
*
*
DENSDC
Mica Muscovite
Biotite
Clay Kaolinite
Glauconite
Illite

English
gm/cc

Metric
Kg/m3

2.83
3.20
2.64
2.83
2.77

2830
3200
2640
2830
2770

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Chlorite
Montmorillonite
Barite

2.87
2.62
4.08

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2870
2620
4080

POROSITY FROM THE PHOTOELECTRIC DENSITY NEUTRON CROSSPLOT

This method assumes that lithology is known from a UMA - DENSMA 3 mineral model or some other method that will
determine mineral volumes accurately. The method can also be used if V1 and V2 (and V3 if desired) are derived from
sonic density neutron (Mlith/Nlith or DTCMA/DENSMA), core description, or sample description.
NORMAL CASES:
STEP 1: Calculate shale density from shale porosity (a constant for each zone):
1: DENSSH = PHIDSH * KD1 + (1 PHIDSH) * KD2
PHIDSH and DENSSH are constants for each zone, chosen from the density log in a nearby shale.
STEP 2: Translate density porosity for each layer to density units:
2: DENS = PHID * KD1 + (1 PHID) * KD2
Where: KD1 = 1.00 for English units
KD1 = 1000 for Metric units
KD2 = 2.65 for English units Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2650 for Metric units Sandstone scale log
KD2 = 2.71 for English units Limestone scale log
KD2 = 2710 for Metric units Limestone scale log
KD2 = 2.87 for English units Dolomite scale log
KD2 = 2870 for Metric units Dolomite scale log
STEP 3: Calculate matrix density from lithology results:
3: DENSma = (Vmin1 * DENS1 + Vmin2 * DENS2 + (1 Vmin1 Vmin2) * DENS3) * (1 Vsh)
+ Vsh * DENSSH
STEP 4: Calculate porosity from density response equation:
4: PHIped = (DENS DENSma) / (DENSW DENSma)
The photoelectric density neutron crossplot porosity, after all corrections are applied, is called the effective porosity,
PHIe.
SPECIAL CASES:
Cannot be used in gas zones or in bad hole.

USAGE RULES:
Use when data is available, but use care since errors in lithology calculation are exaggerated into the porosity
equation.
Do not use in bad hole conditions or in gas zones.
This method is equivalent to a 4 mineral model where one mineral is considered to be porosity. Shale, which is
calculated separately, is a fifth mineral.
The model can be rephrased as a two mineral model by setting V3 to zero (ie V1 + V2 = 1.0.
To calibrate to core porosity, adjust DENS1, DENS2, DENS3, DENSSH or Vsh to obtain a better match by trial and
error. Appropriate crossplots may assist, or regression of PHIped vs core porosity may be used.

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PARAMETERS:
See Section 5.02 for matrix density (DENS1, 2, 3) values to represent minerals 1, 2, and 3.

Material Balance for Porosity (Maximum Porosity)

Bad hole, high shale volume, and statistical variations can cause erratic results in both very low and high porosities.
Values from any method used should be trimmed by the following:
1: IF PHIe < 0
2: THEN PHIe = 0
3: IF PHIe > PHIMAX * (1 - Vsh)
4: THEN PHImx = PHIMAX * (1 - Vsh)
5: AND PHIe = Min (PHIe, PHImx)
USAGE RULES:
Use always to trim excessive porosity due to wet shales or bad hole conditions.
This material balance prevents the sum of shale volume, porosity, and rock matrix from exceeding 100%, and
prevents porosity in the sand fraction of a shaly sand from reaching ridiculous values.
It is also useful for estimating porosity in shaly sands where only an SP or gamma ray log is available. Bear in mind
that this approach provides a porosity value based only upon the shale content and the analyst's assumed maximum
possible porosity. With offset well data for control this is not a bad approach for wells with a very limited log suite. It
is often used in computer analysis of ancient logs. Because of its gross assumptions, a warning note should be
annotated on the results, if the method is used in this manner.
The figure below shows results from a number of different porosity techniques, all of which have been trimmed by
PHIMAX. A spreadsheet called META/ESP is available on the Downloads tab at www.spec2000.net that makes the
work relatively painless.

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Comparison of results from various porosity methods. It is fairly easy to calibrate any method to match core porosity
but more difficult to match perfectly in shaly sands.

USEFUL POROSITY
There is a recent trend among petrophysicists and engineers to partition porosity into a useful and a non- useful
fraction. The concept of useful porosity, as opposed to effective porosity, is helpful where very small pores exist.
These tiny pores do not connect to other pores and thus do not contribute to useful reservoir volume or reservoir
energy. They are invariably water filled and nothing flows from them or through them. The tiny pores are called micro
porosity; the larger, more effective, pores are called macro porosity. Thus:
1: PHIuse = PHIe PHImicro
In sandstones, micro porosity is often associated with volcanic rock fragments that are part of the sandstone mineral
mixture. In carbonates, micro porosity is associated with micrite, matrix, or pin point vugs.

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The quantity of micro porosity cannot always be found directly from logs but is usually assessed as a constant
fraction, KM1, of the effective porosity. This constant can be found by examination of thin section visual porosity.
Where micro porosity is associated with silt or a volcanic mineral (Vmin2) in a quartz sandstone:
2: KM1 = Vsilt / (Vqrtz + Vsilt)
OR
2A: KM1 = Vmin2 / (Vqrtz + Vmin2)
3: PHIuse = PHIe * (1 KM1)
In some cases, the micro porosity is assumed to be a constant, PHIoffset, over an interval (ie, PHImicro is not
proportional to effective porosity). This appears to happen in carbonates with unconnected pin point vugs (PHIppv),
micritic carbonates (PHImict), or carbonates with matrix porosity (PHImatr). In all three cases, PHIoffset is found by
comparing visual porosity in thin sections to log analysis porosity.
4: PHIuse = PHIe - PHIoffset
In log analysis terminology, matrix porosity usually means effective porosity (PHIe). However, in petrographic (thin
section) analysis, matrix porosity (PHImatr) is non-useful porosity contained in the very fine grained matrix material
deposited between the granular or crystalline rock structure.
PHIppv, PHImict, and PHImatr may be varied according to rules developed by the analyst for the zone. A crossplot of
visual porosity from thin section analysis versus PHIe from logs is a useful tool for determining the appropriate
correction to obtain PHIuse. Typical rules might be:
5: PHIuse = PHIe PHIsec
(This is pretty pessimistic)
6: PHIuse = PHIsec
(This may be optimistic)
7: PHIuse = PHIe KMATR * (1 PHIe) / (1 - KMATR)
8: PHIuse = PHIe PHIsc * KMICT / PHISavg
KMATR and KMICT would be in the range 0.01 to 0.08, averaging 0.04, and cannot exceed PHIt.

Porosity from Nuclear Magnetic Log

The Log Response Equation for modern nuclear magnetic logs is the same as for all other logs. The difference
between the NMR and other porosity logs is that the Log Response Equation is solved by the service company at
logging time, instead of by the analyst after the logs are delivered. This transform is illustrated below.
The matrix and dry clay terms of NMR response are zero. An NMR log run today can display clay bound water (CBW),
irreducible water (capillary bound water, BVI), and mobile fluids (hydrocarbon plus water, BVM), also called free fluids
or free fluid index (FFI). On older logs, only free fluids (FFI) is recorded and some subtractions, based on other open
hole logs, are required.

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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Response to Fluids

For modern logs:
1: PHIt = CBW + BVI + BVM
2: PHIe = BVI + BVM
3: PHIuse = BVM
4: SWir = BVI / PHIe
Some or all of the sums defined above may be displayed on the delivered log. Log presentation is far from standard
for NMR logs. In some situations, mobile water can be separated from hydrocarbon, and sometimes gas can be
distinguished from oil, by further (experimental) processing of the original signal. However, the depth of investigation
and measurement volume are tiny, so the hydrocarbon indication is from the invaded zone.
For the same reason, PHIt and PHIe from NMR do not always agree with that derived from density neutron methods,
which see much larger volumes of rock.
For older logs:
1: PHInmr = FFI
2: SWir = KBUCKL / PHInmr
3: PHIe = FFI / (1 SWir)
4: BVWSH = (PHINSH + PHIDSH) / 2
5: PHIt = PHIe + Vsh * BVWSH
IF PHIe is known from some other log:
6: BVI = PHIe - FFI
7: SWir = BVI / PHIe
PHIe and PHIt should be compared to density neutron or other methods defined earlier.
KBUCKL is in the range 0.010 to 0.100, with a default of 0.040.

FRACTURE POROSITY
There are a number of techniques published for calculating fracture porosity from conventional open hole logs. All
were developed before the processing of formation micro-scanner data for fracture aperture became common. These
older methods over-estimate fracture porosity. The only correct method is to use fracture aperture and frequency
data from FMI/FMS processed logs:
1: PHIfrac = 0.001 * Wf * Df * KF1
Where:

KF1 = number of main fracture directions

= 1 for sub-horizontal or sub-vertical
= 2 for orthogonal sub-vertical
= 3 for chaotic or brecciated
PHIfrac = fracture porosity (fractional)
Df = fracture frequency (fractures per meter)
Wf = fracture aperture (millimeters)

Fracture porosity is exceedingly small and seldom is larger

than 0.25% (0.0025 fractional). This is well below the noise
level of conventional open hole logs. Fracture aperture
from cores or thin section may be exaggerated due to
stress release, so be cautious using this data. Some
fracture-related porosity, such as solution porosity near
the fracture face, will be seen by conventional logs, which
is why some older fracture porosity methods give quite
high values for fracture porosity.

POROSITY FROM OLD ES LOGS

There are a number of techniques for handling ancient logs like the old electrical survey (ES). The simplest is to use
the shallow resistivity and assume that the flushed zone water saturation is near 1.0.

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1: PHIxo = (A / ((RXO / RMF@FT) * (SXO ^ N))) ^ (l / M)

This is pretty nearly a last resort. Old style neutron logs (Section 5.03) and the maximum porosity methods (Section
5.07) may work better,
The microlog can also be used:
1: IF RES2 > RES1
2: THEN PHIml = 0.614 ((RMF@FT * KML) ^ 0.61) / (R2 ^ 0.75)
3: OTHERWISE PHIml = 0
PARAMETERS
Mud Weight
lb/gal Kg/m3
8
1000
10
1200
11
1325
12
1440
13
1550
14
1680
16
1920
18
2160

KML
frac
1.000
0.847
0.708
0.584
0.488
0.412
0.380
0.350

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