1.

2 Proof
A theorem is a statement that can be shown true.
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a theorem.
In this section, I will be showing you 3 main kinds of proof (with tonnes of subproofs).

DIRECT PROOF
This proof is very straightforward. A direct proof of a conditional statement pq, is
shown by showing that p is true, then show that q is true. Basically what it means is
that you show that something is true, and therefore some other thing follows to be
true as well. Let me give you an example:
Show that the sum of 2 odd integers is even.
Did you notice that this is actually a conditional statement? We let p be m & n are
odd integers and q be the sum of m & n are even. Putting pq, we have
If m & n are odd, then their sum is even. So the proof is:
Let m = 2j + 1, and n = 2k + 1, where j and k are integers. Here we can see
that m & nare odd. Then m + n = (2j + 1) + (2k + 1) = 2(j+k+1), which is even.
Therefore, the statement is proven valid.
Try to get used to the definition of odd and even integers, being 2k +
1 and 2krespectively, where k is an arbitrary integer (arbitrary means anything).
Actually, when you are asked to prove odd and even integer stuff, it will definitely be
a direct proof, and just substitute these definitions in, then you will find the answer.
Another case is in proving theorems related to perfect squares, where you use the
definition n = k2. One more case is in proving rational and irrational numbers, where
you define a rational number n = j/k. All these definitions will help you a lot, and you
may use it in the later chapters, likeNumber Theory

INDIRECT PROOF
Literally, an indirect proof is a proof that is not direct, i.e. you dont prove straight
usingpq. There are many kinds of indirect proofs:
1. Proof by Contraposition
This proof basically proves the statement pq using its contrapositive, which
is ~q~p. Example:
Show that if x + y 2 (where x & y R), then x 1 or y 1.

Looking at the question, you know you wont get anywhere if you try to manipulate
the first statement, x + y 2. So what you do is by assuming that ~q is true, which
means x < 1and y < 1. Remember the fact that the contrapositive of a conditional
statement has the same truth value as it has! So here we have
Suppose x < 1 and y < 1. Then x + y < 1 + 1, x + y < 2, which is the negation of x +
y 2. Therefore, the statement is proven valid.
2. Proof by Contradiction (Reductio ad absurdum)
What this proof does is to first assume that p is true, and ~q is true (p~q). You will
eventually evaluate ~q and find out that ~p is also true. Now you have p ~p, which
is a contradiction (a statement which is always false)! From here, you conclude
that pq. Example:
Prove that the sum of an irrational number and a rational number is irrational.
Putting it in a pq form, we rewrite the statement as if m & n are irrational and
rational respectively, then their sum is not rational. Now lets try solving it:
Suppose r is rational and i is irrational, and r + i = s is rational. [p is true, ~q is true]
Then s could be written as p/q for some integers p and q which have no common
factors.r could also be written in the form t/u, where t and u are integers with no
common factors too. Using some algebra,

which is contradicting, since i is irrational. So it follows that the sum of an irrational

number and a rational number is irrational.
3. Vacuous Proof
All you need to do in this proof is to show that p in the pq statement is false. (Note
that when p is false, the statement will definitely be false!) This is used to proof
statements like if 2 + 2 = 5, then it will snow in Malaysia. Wont come out in STPM, I
assume
4. Trivial Proof
This proof is similar to the above, but here you must show that q is true in
the pqstatement. (Once again recall, when q is true, whether p is true or false, the
statement still holds!) For the statement if you give me RM1, then the sun will rise in
the east. I dont need to explain, right?

5. Proof of Equivalence
This proof is for proving statements of the form pq, where you need to
prove pq and its converse, qp. You can use one of the above methods (direct
proof, proof by contraposition or contradiction) to solve the pq and qp part.
Basically this proof is a combination of proofs, and I dont think I need to elaborate
much on this.
6. Proof by Cases
In this proof, you need to proof something using a case by case basis. For
example, Prove that |x| + 2 > 0. I wont show you the answer. All you need to do is
use case by case: case 1 where x > 0, case 2 where x < 0, and case 3 where x = 0,
substitute the values of x in it, then show that it is true.
7. Exhaustive Proof
This proof requires you to use up all the possibly numbers in that domain, substitute
them into the equation to show that it is valid. E.g., Prove that n2 + 1 > 2n, where 0 <
n < 5. Just use up all the values n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and substitute them into the equation
to prove it. Very straightforward for a small domain of n.
8. Existence Proof
The questions for this kind of proof normally starts with something like show that
there exist a. There are 2 kinds of existence proof, it can either
be constructive or non-constructive. A constructive one will make you find the
exact answer to the question, while the non-constructive approach will prove the
statement true even without finding a solution. Ill show you the examples:
Show that there is an integer that can written as the sum of cubes of two integers in
two different ways.
This is true as 1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13. [constructive]
Show that the equation x3 + x - 1 = 0 has a solution.
Let P(x) = x3 + x - 1. Then P(0) = -1 and P(1) = 1. Thus (by the intermediate value
theorem), the equation P(x) = 0 has a solution which is between 0 and 1. [nonconstructive. Interesting isnt it?]
9. Uniqueness Proof
This proof is an extension of the previous proof. First you show that there is a
solution xfor the statement P(x). Then you find a value of c which is true for P(x). So
lastly, you show that if x c, then P(x) is false. Example:
Show that if a, b R with a 0, there is unique r R such that ar - b = 0.
Certainly r = b/a satisfies ar - b = 0. [1st & 2nd part]
Next, suppose s, t both satisfy as - b = 0 and at - b = 0. Then as - b = at - b and
so as = at. Since a 0, we have s = t, which means that the solution is unique. [3rd
part]
10. Proof by giving a Counterexample
A counterexample is used to disprove something. This is super easy, for example:
Prove or disprove that the product of 2 irrational numbers is irrational.

Using a counterexample, 2 2 = 2, which is rational. So the statement is invalid.

All you need to disprove something is to find a counterexample. Thats it.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Mathematical induction is the most common proof that you will use and see in your
exams. There are lots of information on this proof in A-level books, so I dont need to
give you too much examples. What mathematical induction does is that it proves that
an equation is true for a particular value, we call it the basis. Then we go on to prove
that the equation is valid for any value greater than that basis. To sum up,
mathematical induction involves 2 steps:
1. The basis step: you proof that the equation is true for n = 0, n = 1 or whatever
initial value they give you in the question.
2. The inductive step: you now assume that the equation is true for n = k. Then you
try solving the equation in terms of n = k + 1, and show that the relationship holds
too. From here you can conclude that by mathematical induction, the equation is true
in that domain.
Let me show you an example:
Use proof by induction to prove that

Since

LHS = RHS, we see that the formula is true for n = 1. We assume that the formula is
true for n = k, then we have

and letting n = k+1, we have

Hence

is true for all n 1. [proven]

I will show you some tips on how to solve different kinds of questions. Remember to
do A LOT of exercises on Mathematical Induction!
* Questions involving summations
Try to make use of the fact

* Questions involving matrices

Try to make use of the fact
Ak+1 = Ak A, where A is a matrix.
* Questions involving differentials
Try to make use of the fact

* Questions involving recurring terms

Try to make use of the fact
if un + un+1 is divisible by a, then either un & un+1 are both divisible by a, or both not
divisible by a.