Types of Proof

Nama : Dhiyanti Wardani Hutapea
NIM : 1902907
TYPES OF PROOF
A. Direct Proof
Direct proof method is a proving process using a forward flow, starting from
hypotheses using logical implications to concluding statements. Laws in mathematics are
generally in the form of propositions or statements in the form of implication or
biimplication or quantification statements that can be transformed into implication
statements.
The procedure of direct proof.
At this point, we have seen a few examples of mathematical proofs. These have the
following procedures:
1. Start with the given facts.
2. Use logical reasoning to deduce other facts.
3. Keep going until we reach our goal.
Example 1:
Theorem 1+2+3+...+n = n(n+1)/2
Proof:
Let x = 1 + 2 + 3 +...+ n (starting point)
Then x = n + (n+1) + (n+2) +...+ 1 (commutavity)
So, 2x = (n+1) + (n+1) + (n+1) +...+ (n+1)
= n(n+1) (add the previous two equations)
So, x = n(n+1)/2 (goal reached)
Example2:
Give a direct proof of the theorem "if n is an odd integer, then n² is odd"
Solution
Let p be the statement that n is an odd integer and q be the statement that n² is an odd
integer. Assume that n is an odd integer, then by definition n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. We
will now use this to show that n² is also an odd integer.
n² = (2k + 1)² since n = 2k + 1
= (2k + 1)(2k + 1)
= 4k + 2k + 2k + 1
= 4k² + 4k + 1
= 2(2k² +2k) + 1
Hence proved n² is also odd integer
B. Indirect Proof
There are two types of indirect prove :
1. Contrapositive
Proof by contrapositive takes advantage of the logical equivalence between "P
implies Q" and "Not Q implies Not P". For example, the assertion "If it is my car, then it is
red" is equivalent to "If that car is not red, then it is not mine". So, to prove "If P, Then Q" by
the method of contrapositive means to prove "If Not Q, Then Not P". To prove the truth of
p→q, it is sufficient to prove truth ~p→~q.
Example :
2. Contradiction
To prove a sentence P by contradiction we assume ¬P and derive a statement that is
known to be false. Since mathematics is consistent (at least we hope so), this means P must
be true. In the case that the sentence we are trying to prove is of the form P ⇒ Q, we
assume that P is true and Q is false (because P ∧ ¬ Q is the negation of P ⇒ Q), and try to
derive a statement known to be false. Note that this statement need not be ¬P this is the
principal difference between proof by contradiction and proof of the contrapositive. In a
proof of the contrapositive, we assume that Q is false and try to prove that P is false.
Example:
Theorem “Let x be real numbers. If x> 0 then 1 / x> 0 "
Proof:
Symbolically the form above: p ⇒ q with,
p≡x>0
q ≡ 1/x > 0
According to the second form argument, p ∧ ~ q ⇒ C ≡ p ⇒ q.
So starting with, if x > 0 and 1/x ≤ 0.
Because, x> 0 then it can be multiplied by the two sides of the inequality,
(x) (1/x) ≤ (x) (0) ⇔ 1 ≤ 0, contradicts the fact that 1> 0.
So it's true that "Let x be real numbers. If x> 0 then 1 / x> 0 ".
The difference between the Contrapositive method and the Contradiction method is
subtle. Let's examine how the two methods work when trying to prove "If P, Then Q".
· Method of Contradiction: Assume P and Not Q and prove some sort of contradiction.
· Method of Contrapositive: Assume Not Q and prove Not P.
The method of contrapositive has the advantage that your goal is clear: Prove Not P. In the
method of Contradiction, the goal is to prove a contradiction, but it is not always clear what
the contradiction is going to be at the start.
C. Proof With Counter Example

Showing that a mathematical statement is true requires a formal proof. However,
showing that a mathematical statement is false only requires finding one example where the
statement isn't true. Such an example is called a counter example because it's an example
that counters, or goes against, the statement's conclusion.
In mathematics, counterexamples are often used to prove the boundaries of
possible theorems. By using counterexamples to show that certain conjectures are false,
mathematical researchers can then avoid going down blind alleys and learn to modify
conjectures to produce provable theorems. It is sometimes said that mathematical
development consists primarily in finding (and proving) theorems and counterexamples.
The structure of proof by counter example is
1. Guess whether the statement is true or false
2. If true, prove the statement
3. If one look for an example that refutes the statement
Example :
Known the the function f(n) = n^2 + n + 17.
f(1) = 19
f(2) = 23
f(3) = 29
f(4) = 37
....
f(15) = 257
From the data above, a conjunction is made that if n is a positive integer then f(n) is
always a prime number. If written in symbolic then ( ∀n ∈N). p(n), where p(n) is n^2 + n + 17
prime. Now the question arises, is the statement true? Is so, how about the details? To
prove the truth of the conjuntion, one way to use mathematical induction, because p(n)
involves natural number. In fact we find it difficult to prove it. Now the question arises, is
this conjunction false? If it's false, how to prove it? Since the conjunction is a universal
quantor, it is sufficient to show an example that makes the statement false. One of these
example is called counter example.
One example of the counter is n=16.
f(16) = 16^2 + 16 + 16 = 16 (16+1) + 17 = 17^2
It is clear that is not a prime number, so ( ∀n ∈N). p(n) is false.
Thus, the role of the counter example has been shown in showing the validity of a theorem.

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Nama : Dhiyanti Wardani Hutapea

· Method of Contrapositive: Assume Not Q and prove Not P.

C. Proof With Counter Example

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