Chapter-1.7

Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications
Chapter 1: The Foundations:

Logic and Proofs
1.7 Introduction to Proofs
1
Some Terminologies
 Theorems – statements that can be shown to be true.

They can also be referred to as facts or results.
 We demonstrate that a theorem is true with a proof.
 Proof - sequence of statements, a valid argument, to show

that a theorem is true. The statements used in the proof
can include axioms (or postulates), which are statements
we assume to be true.
 Axioms – Statements which are universally true and do

not require any proofs.
2 + 5 = 7 3 * 5 = 15
2
Some Terminologies
 Corollary – is a “post-theorem”, a result which has been
established from the theorem that has been proved.
 Lemma - is a “pre-theorem” or a result that needs to be

proved to prove the theorem
Pythagorean Theorem : a2 + b2 = c2
Here, Lemma would be to have some values for which the

theorem is true, such as a = 3, b = 4 and c = 5.
Corollary will be further results that can be proved by this

theorem.
3
Some Terminologies
 Conjecture is a statement believed to be true but for
which there is not a proof yet but based on some partial
evidence, it is being proposed to be true. If the
conjecture is proved true it becomes a theorem.
4
Direct Proof
 A direct proof of a conditional statement p → q is constructed
when the first step is the assumption that p is true; subsequent
steps are constructed using rules of inference, with the final
step showing that q is also true.
 Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd

integer, then n2 is odd.”
 Solution: By using direct proof method, we assume that the

hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, (we assume
that n is odd). By the definition of an odd integer, it follows
that n = 2k + 1, where k is some integer. We want to show that
n2 is also odd.
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
By the definition of an odd integer, we can conclude that n2 is an

odd integer. Consequently, we have proved that if n is an odd 5
integer, then n2 is an odd integer.
Direct Proof
 Example: Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect
squares, then mn is also a perfect square. (An integer a is a
perfect square if there is an integer b such that a = b2.)
 Solution: By using direct proof method, we assume that the

hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, (we assume that m
and n are both perfect squares). By the definition of a perfect square,
it follows that there are integers s and t such that m = s2 and n = t2.
We now substitute s2 for m and t2 for n into mn.

mn = s2t2
Hence, mn = s2t2 = (ss)(tt) = (st)(st)
= (st)2, [using commutativity and
associativity of multiplication]
By the definition of perfect square, it follows that mn is also a

perfect square, because it is the square of st, which is an integer. We
have proved that if m and n are both perfect squares, then mn is also6 a
perfect square.
Proof by Contraposition
 Proof of theorems which do not start with the premises
and end with the conclusion are called indirect proof.
 An useful type of indirect proof is proof by

contraposition.
 It makes use of the fact that the statement p → q is

equal and equivalent to its contrapositive ¬q → ¬p. Here,
we take ¬q as premise and using axioms, definitions and
previously proven theorems, we show that ¬p must follow.
7
Proof by Contraposition
 Example: Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then
n is odd.
 Solution: The first step in a proof by contraposition is to

assume that the conclusion of the conditional statement “If
3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd” is false; namely, assume that n is
even. Then, by the definition of an even integer, n = 2k for
some integer k.
Substituting 2k for n, we find that

3n +2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1). This tells us that 3n + 2
is even (because it is a multiple of 2), and therefore not odd.
This is the negation of the premise of the theorem. Because

the negation of the conclusion of the conditional statement
implies that the hypothesis is false, the original conditional
statement is true. Our proof by contraposition succeeded
8
Proofs by Contradiction
 To prove something by contradiction, we assume that what
we want to prove is not true, and then show that the
consequences of this are not possible. That is, the
consequences contradict either what we have just assumed,
or something we already know to be true.
9
 Example: Prove that √2 is irrational by giving a proof by
contradiction.
 Solution: To start a proof by contradiction, we suppose that

√2 is rational. We will show that assuming this leads to a
contradiction.
If √2 is rational, there exist integers a and b with √2 = a ∕b,
where b ≠ 0 and a and b have no common factors (so that the
fraction a ∕b is in lowest terms).
√2 = a ∕ b
2 = a2 / b2
2b2 = a2
By the definition of an even integer it follows that a2 is even.

And therefore, a must also be even.
10
 because a is even, by the definition of an even integer, a = 2c
for some integer c. Thus,
2b2 = 4c2
Dividing both sides of this equation by 2 gives b2 = 2c2. By the

definition of even, this means that b2 is even. Again using the
fact that if the square of an integer is even, then the integer
itself must be even, we conclude that b must be even as well.
Since a and b both are even, then in the equation, √2 = a ∕b,

both a and b must not be in their lowest terms since 2 must be
able to divide both. However, our assumption says a and b are in
their lowest terms. This leads to a contraction and hence, we
can conclude that √2 is not rational.
11

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Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications

Chapter 1: The Foundations:

1.7 Introduction to Proofs

 Theorems – statements that can be shown to be true.

 We demonstrate that a theorem is true with a proof.

 Proof - sequence of statements, a valid argument, to show

 Axioms – Statements which are universally true and do

 Lemma - is a “pre-theorem” or a result that needs to be

Here, Lemma would be to have some values for which the

Corollary will be further results that can be proved by this

 Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd

 Solution: By using direct proof method, we assume that the

By the definition of an odd integer, we can conclude that n2 is an

 Solution: By using direct proof method, we assume that the

We now substitute s2 for m and t2 for n into mn.

By the definition of perfect square, it follows that mn is also a

 An useful type of indirect proof is proof by

 It makes use of the fact that the statement p → q is

 Solution: The first step in a proof by contraposition is to

Substituting 2k for n, we find that

This is the negation of the premise of the theorem. Because

 Solution: To start a proof by contradiction, we suppose that

By the definition of an even integer it follows that a2 is even.

Dividing both sides of this equation by 2 gives b2 = 2c2. By the

Since a and b both are even, then in the equation, √2 = a ∕b,

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