Cir 305

AN/177

Operation of New Larger

Aeroplanes at Existing
Aerodromes

Approved by the Secretary General

and published under his authority

June 2004

International Civil Aviation Organization

Cir 305-AN/177
Corrigendum
(English and Spanish only)
14/3/05

OPERATION OF NEW LARGER AEROPLANES

AT EXISTING AERODROMES

CORRIGENDUM
Please make the following changes to Chapter 1, paragraph 1.15 (page 3):
1.15 If the operation of NLAs is contemplated on runways narrower than the 60 m recommended in
Annex 14, Volume I, due consideration should be given to all factors affecting safety, including:
a)

the type certification of the NLA concerned in accordance with Annex 8 Airworthiness of
Aircraft (see Chapter 5, paragraph 5.1.2 5.2 of this circular);

b) the use of possible mitigation measures discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2 Sections 4.5 to 4.24;
and
c)

local conditions and other operational factors.

___________________

FOREWORD

In the early 1990s, the major aeroplane manufacturers announced that plans were in hand to develop aeroplanes larger
than the Boeing B747-400 currently the largest passenger aeroplane in commercial service capable of carrying
more than 500 passengers.
In response to the stated need for appropriate ICAO provisions to facilitate aerodrome development for these new larger
aeroplanes (NLAs), ICAO undertook a study with the participation of several States, selected international organizations and
aeroplane manufacturers. The results of that study led to Amendment 3 to Annex 14 Aerodromes, Volume I
Aerodrome Design and Operations, which was adopted by the ICAO Council in March 1999. A new aerodrome reference
code letter F to cover aeroplanes with wingspans from 65 m up to but not including 80 m, and an outer main gear wheel span
from 14 m up to but not including 16 m was established. Consequent new specifications on aerodrome physical
characteristics for these aeroplanes were also developed. The new code F specifications in Annex 14, Volume I, became
applicable from 1 November 1999. Aerodrome rescue and fire fighting (RFF) specifications for aeroplanes with maximum
fuselage widths in excess of 7 m, and lengths greater than 76 m, RFF category 10, had already been developed and included
in the Annex.
Newer generations of aeroplanes generally have an impact on existing aerodrome facilities and services when the
dimensions and/or mass of these aeroplanes exceed the design parameters used in planning and developing the
aerodrome. Consequently, as such newer and larger aeroplanes have entered into commercial service, aerodromes have
evolved by making the necessary modifications to comply with the applicable Annex 14 specifications, as updated
from time to time.
In certain cases, such modifications may not be considered practicable. In such cases, in order to ensure that a new
aeroplane can be safely operated, States should carry out appropriate aeronautical studies to evaluate the suitability of
existing facilities and to determine the need for alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions
for the specific aeroplane concerned. Some States and international organizations have already undertaken such studies,
tailored to a specific aeroplane type, to determine if solutions can be developed for those existing aerodromes which
may not be able to comply fully with the code F provisions for the introduction of the NLA concerned.
In May 2003, the ICAO Council was presented with a twofold Action Plan developed by the Air Navigation
Commission for the introduction of NLAs into international civil aviation service. First, this circular was developed to
provide States with information concerning aerodrome facilities and services, air traffic management and flight
operations, which should be considered in accommodating NLAs at existing aerodromes. Second, a review will be
undertaken of the current Annex 14, Volume I, code F provisions, including their underlying basis, taking into
consideration the results of studies being conducted outside of ICAO.
It should be understood that Annex 14 contains all of the provisions aimed at ensuring the safe operation of NLAs in
general. However, each aeronautical study is specific to a particular context and to a particular NLA. Caution should
therefore be exercised in considering its applicability to other situations and locations. Each State that approves an
aeronautical study and its resulting alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions is
responsible for their application. Where operating restrictions are implemented, these should be reviewed periodically
and be considered only as a temporary alternative to Annex 14 compliance.
This circular was developed in close cooperation with the Air Navigation Commission. It should be noted that all references
in this circular to Annex 14, Volume I, are to the fourth edition which will become applicable on 25 November 2004.

(i)

(ii)

Circular 305-AN/177

Users are invited to offer comments and suggestions for improvements or additions based on their practical experience in
using this information in their national planning for the operation of NLAs at existing aerodromes. These should be directed
to the Secretary General of ICAO.

___________________

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Chapter 1.

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
1

Chapter 2.

Impact of the characteristics of new larger aeroplanes on the aerodrome infrastructure . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of NLAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuselage length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuselage width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuselage height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tail height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wingspan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wing tip vertical clearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cockpit view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distance from the pilots eye position to the nose landing gear and to the main landing gear .
Landing gear design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outer main gear wheel span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheelbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main gear steering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum aircraft mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Landing gear geometry, tire pressure and ACN values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engine data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum passenger- and fuel-carrying capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flight performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Technology evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3.

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4
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5
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9
10

Methodology for conducting aeronautical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety analysis aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures .
Risk assessment process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 4.

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Aerodrome facilities and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11
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Facilities . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . .
Runways . . . . . . .
Runway shoulders .

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14
14
15
17

(iv)

Circular 305-AN/177
Page
Runway strip and runway end safety area . . .
Taxiways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taxiway shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridges, tunnels, and culverts under taxiways
Taxiway minimum separation distances . . . .
Pavement design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aerodrome operational safety services . . . . . . . .
Aerodrome emergency planning . . . . . . . . . .
Rescue and fire fighting services . . . . . . . . .
Disabled aircraft removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aerodrome maintenance services . . . . . . . . .
Obstacle limitation surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obstacle free zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visual aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Markings and signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground servicing of aeroplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aeroplane de-icing/anti-icing facilities . . . . .

Chapter 5.

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36
36

Aircraft operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

Air operator certification . . . . . .

Flight procedures design . . . . . .
Obstacle limitation surfaces .
Obstacle free zone (OFZ). . .
Aircraft speed categorization
Environmental aspects . . . . . . .

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Air traffic management issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

Wake turbulence issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

Chapter 7.

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Chapter 6.

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Aeronautical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scope and applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Approval of an aeronautical study . . . . . . . .
Defining the scope of the aeronautical study .
Study plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations and conclusions . . . . . . .
Aeronautical information service (AIS) . . . .
ICAO specifications and guidance material. .

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Appendix A: Characteristics of new larger aeroplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix B: Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix C: Obstacle free zone Overview of a balked landing simulation study of NLAs . . . . . . . . . . .

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43

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE
1.1
The purpose of this circular is to assist States in addressing the various aspects of operating NLAs at
existing aerodromes and to draw the attention of States and aerodrome operators to the impact on existing aerodromes
of new larger aeroplanes (NLAs) such as the Airbus A380. This circular provides information on the issues concerning
aerodrome facilities and services, air traffic management and flight operations that should be considered in
accommodating NLAs at existing aerodromes.
1.2
This circular provides guidance on conducting aeronautical studies, including the development of
alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions that could, while preserving safety, allow
aerodromes that do not meet the relevant Annex 14, Volume I, code F criteria to accommodate a specific NLA. States
remain responsible for deciding what is acceptable as a measure, procedure or restriction.
1.3
This circular also addresses the impact of new longer aeroplanes such as the Airbus A340-600 and
the Boeing B777-300 which, though belonging to aerodrome reference code E, have a very long fuselage, causing some
problems at existing aerodrome stands, taxiway curves and holding positions. The need to conduct a specific study in
all such cases and to review the clearances from all relevant angles is emphasized.
1.4
In 1999, Amendment 3 to Annex 14, Volume I, introduced a new aerodrome reference code letter F
to accommodate aeroplanes with a wingspan from 65 m up to but not including 80 m, and an outer main gear wheel
span from 14 m up to but not including 16 m. The intent of the ICAO aerodrome reference code is to provide a simple
method for interrelating the numerous specifications concerning the characteristics of aerodromes so as to provide a
series of aerodrome facilities that are suitable for the aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the aerodrome. In light
of the above, the specifications on physical characteristics in Chapter 3 of the Annex were developed for code F using
the existing methodology applied to codes A to E and based on the aircraft characteristics data made available to ICAO.
It should be noted that these provisions are generic and intended for the most demanding dimensions in the given
aerodrome reference code letter; they were not developed for a specific aircraft type. The standard method of using
these specifications is to evaluate the most demanding aircraft and to establish the aerodrome reference code number
and letter using the aircraft performance characteristics and dimensions. The methodology used to develop the
Annex 14, Volume I, code F specifications for each aerodrome facility can be found in Chapter 4 of this circular.
1.5
While States are expected to implement the new code F specifications in developing their aerodromes to
receive NLAs in general, it is recognized that some States may have difficulties in complying with the new Annex 14,
Volume I, provisions before the entry into commercial service of a specific NLA at a given location. The main intent of
this circular is to bring together in one document all the relevant issues, with necessary cross-references to the appropriate
ICAO provisions, to assist States in their efforts to develop their aerodromes appropriately. Information on some issues
may not be mature at the time of publication of this circular and will be issued when available.
SCOPE
1.6
This circular identifies the issues that are of relevance to the operation of NLAs, including the A380.
Notwithstanding the information provided in this circular, the responsibility of States and aerodrome operators to

Circular 305-AN/177

ensure safety and efficiency remains unchanged. Any information provided herein should be evaluated for its
applicability and appropriateness in the specific aerodrome environment, and every effort should be made to comply
with the Annex 14, Volume I, provisions. Safety of operations must be the overriding concern whenever it is
contemplated to conduct such operations with clearances less than those specified in the Annex.
1.7
It should be noted that Article 37 of the Chicago Convention provides that Contracting States
undertake, inter alia, to conform with international Standards, unless it is found impracticable to fully comply with
them. In such a case, immediate notification thereof must be given to the ICAO Council, as stipulated in Article 38 of
the Convention. Furthermore, according to Assembly Resolution A33-14, Appendix D, Associated Practice 3,
Contracting States are called upon to notify to the Organization all differences from Standards and Recommended
Practices (SARPs), i.e. not only from Standards but also from Recommended Practices. While all such notified
differences are published by ICAO in Supplements to the relevant Annexes, Contracting States are also requested to
publish them (as well as differences from Procedures) in their Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs), when
significant, as required under paragraph 4.1.2 c) of Annex 15 Aeronautical Information Services.
1.8
Information is provided on the various issues concerning aerodrome facilities and services that should
be considered in accommodating, at existing aerodromes, the operation of NLAs and of the most demanding code E
aeroplane such as the Airbus A340-600 and the Boeing B777-300. The known pertinent features of the Airbus
A340-600, the A380, the Boeing B777-300 and the B747-Advanced are also provided. This circular is also intended to
assist in understanding the rationale behind the relevant Annex 14, Volume I, provisions as well as those related to
flight operations and air traffic management. Additionally, this circular provides information on the need to implement
suitable alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions so that safety will not be compromised
when operating at existing aerodromes that do not meet the relevant Annex 14, Volume I, provisions for such large
aeroplanes.
1.9
This circular also contains detailed information on the various factors to be considered in conducting
an aeronautical study to assess the operation of large aeroplanes at existing aerodromes. Suitable references to studies
conducted by some States have been included, which may provide assistance to a State wishing to carry out its own
studies if unable to comply with Annex 14, Volume I, provisions. A review of the general scope and applicability of
these studies indicates that their results are specific or particular to each aeroplane, to each aerodrome, its pavement
surfaces and weather conditions. While these studies may be of assistance to those intending to carry out similar studies,
it may not be appropriate to use the results directly where any or some of the factors are different from those used in
these studies. Appendix B to this circular contains references to these studies.
1.10
Though the results of a study may help to identify safety-related aspects, States and aerodrome
operators may also wish to consider the potential impact on aerodrome capacity and movement rates. At many
aerodromes, congestion is a critical issue. Authorities may therefore wish to link the studies to simulations of ground
movement traffic flows, including NLAs, as a gate-to-runway system, to identify any possible impact on aerodrome
capacity of operating an NLA, and to develop trade-off options on a cost-effective basis. Nevertheless, safety should
always be given utmost priority.
1.11
This circular also draws attention to the need to reconsider emergency plans to deal with incidents
involving larger aeroplanes, and consequential rescue and fire fighting aspects.
1.12
Aircraft design and certification issues are not directly addressed in this circular. However national
certification requirements may impact facilities, services or aerodrome infrastructure requirements.
1.13
During the early stages of the introduction of the NLA, and where it is expected that frequency of
movements will remain low, States may decide to consider the statistical implications of such frequency of movements
on safety in determining the measures to be implemented.
1.14
Aerodrome operators intending to handle operations of a given NLA may, with approval of the
appropriate authority, provide facilities with clearances less than those specified in Annex 14, Volume I, after carrying

Circular 305-AN/177

out aeronautical studies to ensure that the safety of operations is preserved for that specific aeroplane. However,
facilities meeting code F requirements should be provided, in full, on all relevant parts of the movement area whenever
new construction or major redevelopment is undertaken. When planning such construction or redevelopment, it may be
prudent to consider the requirements of future aeroplane types needing facilities in excess of code F. Guidance in this
respect is given in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 1 Runways and Part 2 Taxiways, Aprons and
Holding Bays. Long-term perspective planning to cater to future needs and the ability of the ground infrastructure to be
modified quickly, without disruption of ground operations and without compromising safety, would be advisable.
1.15
If the operation of NLAs is contemplated on runways narrower than the 60 m recommended in
Annex 14, Volume I, due consideration should be given to all factors affecting safety, including:
a)

the type certification of the NLA concerned in accordance with Annex 8 Airworthiness of
Aircraft (see Chapter 5, paragraph 5.2 of this circular);

b) the use of possible mitigation measures discussed in Chapter 4, Sections 4.5 to 4.24; and
c)

local conditions and other operational factors.

1.16
Attention is drawn to the fact that the alternative measures, operational procedures and operating
restrictions identified in this circular are applicable to those NLAs for which the critical characteristics are shown in
Appendix A. Should any of these characteristics change, appropriate studies will be needed to ensure the continued
safety of operations.

___________________

Chapter 2
IMPACT OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
NEW LARGER AEROPLANES ON THE
AERODROME INFRASTRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
2.1
The aim of this chapter is to relate the characteristics of NLAs to aerodrome dimensions, facilities
and services in the movement area. When preparing to accommodate an NLA, any dimensions that exceed those of
aeroplanes commonly using the facility should be taken into consideration. This chapter provides a comprehensive, but
not exhaustive, checklist of relevant items. Specific details of certain anticipated new aircraft types are provided in
Appendix A.
2.2

The following broad characteristics of NLAs are addressed:

a)

dimensions of NLAs;

b) landing gear characteristics, mass and aircraft classification number (ACN) values;
c)

engine data;

d) maximum passenger- and fuel-carrying capacities; and

e)

flight performance, including wake vortex.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NLAs
Fuselage length
2.3

The fuselage length may influence:

a)

the dimensions of aprons, passenger gates, terminal areas and holding bays;

b) the dimensions of aircraft maintenance and repair services facilities;

c)

the aerodrome category for rescue and fire fighting (RFF). The overall length of the most critical
aeroplane is one of the two Annex 14 criteria to determine the aerodrome category for RFF;

d) ground movement and control (e.g. reduced clearance behind a longer aeroplane holding at an
apron or a runway holding position to permit the passing of another aeroplane); and
e)

de-icing facilities.

Circular 305-AN/177

Fuselage width
2.4
The fuselage width may influence the aerodrome category for RFF. The maximum fuselage width of
the most critical aeroplane is one of the two Annex 14 criteria to determine the aerodrome category for RFF.
Fuselage height
2.5

The fuselage height may influence:

a)

the location of the runway holding position. The fuselage height is one of the Annex 14 criteria
used to determine the location of the runway holding position (including the tail height and the
distance from the nose to the highest part of the tail) of the critical aeroplane which shall be clear
of the runway obstacle free zone (OFZ);

b) passenger gates and terminal areas, in terms of upper-deck access; and

c)

the dimensions of aircraft maintenance facilities.

Tail height

2.6

The tail height may influence:

a)

the location of the runway holding position (see 2.3);

b) ILS sensitive areas. In addition to the tail height of the critical aircraft, tail composition, tail
position and obstacle density (also fuselage height and length) should be taken into account to
determine their effect on ILS sensitive areas;
c)

the dimensions of aircraft maintenance services;

d) de-icing/anti-icing facilities; and

e)

aeroplane parking position (in relation to aerodrome obstacle limitation surfaces).

Wingspan

2.7

The wingspan would influence:

a)

taxiway separation distances (including runway-taxiway separation distances);

b) the dimensions of the OFZ;

c)

the location of the runway holding position (due to the impact of the wingspan on OFZ
dimensions);

d) the dimensions of aprons and holding bays;

e)

shoulder dimensions;

f)

wake turbulence;

Circular 305-AN/177
g) gate selection;
h) aerodrome maintenance services (e.g. snow removal to ensure adequate emergency vehicle to
aircraft clearance);
i)

the dimensions of aerodrome or aircraft maintenance facilities; and

j)

equipment for disabled aeroplane removal.

Wing tip vertical clearance

2.8

The wing tip vertical clearance may influence:

a)

taxiway separation distances with height limited objects;

b) apron and holding bay clearances with height limited objects;

c)

aerodrome maintenance services (e.g. snow removal); and

d) airfield signage clearances.

Cockpit view
2.9
The relevant geometric parameters to assess the cockpit view are cockpit height, cockpit cut-off angle
and the corresponding obscured segment.
2.10

The cockpit view may influence:

a)

runway visual references;

b) runway sight distance;

c)

taxiing operations on straight and curved sections;

d) markings and signs on runways, taxiways, aprons and holding bays; and
e)

lights. In low visibility conditions, the number and spacing of visible lights when taxiing may
depend on the cockpit view.
Distance from the pilots eye position to the nose landing gear
and to the main landing gear

2.11
The design of taxiway curves is based on the cockpit-over-centre-line concept. The distance from the
pilots eye position to the nose landing gear and to the main landing gear may influence:
a)

taxiway fillets;

b) the dimensions of aprons and holding bays; and

c)

the dimensions of turn pads.

Circular 305-AN/177

2.12
The increased wheelbase dimensions of newer generation longer aeroplanes (A340-600, B777-300)
will require a specific study to ascertain the adequacy of existing fillets and when designing new facilities.

Landing gear design

2.13
The aeroplane landing gear design is such that the overall mass of the aeroplane is distributed so that
the stresses transferred to the soil through a well-designed pavement are within the bearing capacity of the soil. The
landing gear layout also has an effect on the manoeuvrability of the aeroplane. The various factors that would impact an
aerodrome pavement system are discussed hereafter.

Outer main gear wheel span

2.14

The outer main gear wheel span may influence:

a)

runway width;

b) the dimensions of turn pads;

c)

taxiway width;

d) taxiway fillets; and

e)

the dimensions of aprons and holding bays.

Wheelbase
2.15
The wheelbase may influence the dimensions of turn pads, taxiway fillets, and the dimensions of
aprons and holding bays.

Main gear steering system

2.16
The main gear steering system may influence the dimensions of turn pads and the dimensions of
aprons and holding bays.

Maximum aircraft mass

2.17

The maximum mass may influence:

a)

the design of pavements and underground structures;

b) the mass limitation on existing bridges, tunnels, and culverts under runways and taxiways;
c)

disabled aircraft removal; and

d) wake turbulence.

Circular 305-AN/177
Landing gear geometry, tire pressure
and ACN values

2.18
Landing gear geometry, tire pressure and ACN values may influence the design of airfield pavement
and the design of runway shoulders.
Engine data
Engine characteristics
2.19

The engine characteristics that may be of interest are the following:

a)

the number of engines;

b) the location of engines;

c)

the vertical clearance of engines;

d) engine thrust; and

e)
2.20

exhaust velocity.

The number and location of engines may influence:

a)

runway shoulder width (jet blast and ingestion issues during take-off and landing);

b) taxiway shoulder width (jet blast and ingestion issues during taxiing);
c)

bridge width (jet blast under the bridge);

d) the dimensions and location of fences;

e)

the location of signs;

f)

the characteristics of runway and taxiway edge lights; and

g) snow removal procedures.

Engine exhaust velocities
2.21
The relevant exhaust velocities to be considered are at take-off thrust, breakaway thrust, thrust
required during turning and idle thrust.
2.22

Engine exhaust velocity contours may influence:

a)

runway shoulder width;

b) taxiway shoulder width;

c)

bridge width;

Circular 305-AN/177

d) blast fence dimensions and blast pads (including blast protection near turn pads) or overall blast
limitations whilst manoeuvring;
e)

the location and structural integrity of signs;

f)

the characteristics of runway and taxiway edge lights;

g) the separation between subsequent or proximate aircraft, ground service personnel or vehicles;
and
h) snow removal procedures.
Engine thrust reverse
2.23
The engine thrust reverse system may influence the runway and shoulder width (lateral excursion, jet
blast and ingestion issues during take-off and landing).
Maximum passenger- and fuel-carrying capacities
2.24

The maximum passenger- and fuel-carrying capacities may influence:

a)

passenger terminal facilities;

b) fuel storage and distribution;

c)

aerodrome emergency planning; and

d) aerodrome rescue and fire fighting.

Flight performance
2.25

The relevant parameters to be considered are:

a)

approach attitude on glide slope;

b) approach speed;
c)

start of the visual segment;

d) autoland and manual modes; and

e)
2.26

flight handling qualities.

Flight performance (autoland and manual) may influence:

a)

runway width;

b) the OFZ;
c)

runway-taxiway separation;

10

Circular 305-AN/177
d) runway visual reference;
e)

markings and signs on runways;

f)

lighting in low visibility conditions;

g) flight safety and aircraft certification; and

h) wake turbulence.
Technology evolution
2.27

Technology evolution may influence:

a)

runway and shoulder width;

b) taxiway and shoulder width;

c)

aircraft certification criteria;

d) the OFZ and balked landing surface;

e)

the in-flight phase; and

f)

environmental aspects.

___________________

Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY FOR CONDUCTING
AERONAUTICAL STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
3.1
This chapter outlines the safety analysis methodology1 that is used in Chapter 4 of this circular to
assess the operational and infrastructure requirements for the accommodation of NLAs at existing aerodromes.
3.2
If the level of the aerodrome infrastructure is at least equal to that specified for code F aircraft in
Annex 14, Volume I, NLAs can be accommodated without alternative measures, operational procedures and operating
restrictions.
3.3
Annex 14, Volume I, permits the use of aeronautical studies in a few specific areas, namely taxiway
minimum separation distances and penetration of certain obstacle limitation surfaces by existing objects. For example,
paragraph 3.8.7 (Recommended Practice) envisages that it may be permissible to operate with lower taxiway minimum
separation distances than those specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Table 3-1, at an existing aerodrome if an aeronautical
study indicates that such lower separation distances would not adversely affect safety or significantly affect the
regularity of aeroplane operations. Each State that approves an aeronautical study and its resulting alternative measures,
operational procedures and operating restrictions is responsible for their application. The Aerodrome Design Manual
(Doc 9157), Part 2, Chapter 1, paragraphs 1.2.28 to 1.2.65, contain detailed guidance for conducting such aeronautical
studies.
3.4
A hazard analysis methodology has been developed which is divided into three steps. For each
infrastructure item to be evaluated, the analysis includes the Annex 14 requirements, hazard identification and analysis,
and risk assessment and possible mitigation measures.
3.5
This circular does not include definitive conclusions for each infrastructure item. It will be the
responsibility of airport operators and appropriate authorities (States) to initiate aeronautical studies and to endorse the
conclusions of the safety analysis, taking into consideration the characteristics of the aeroplane to be operated, local
conditions and their own legal, regulatory and other requirements.
3.6
Appendix B contains a list of references to existing studies that may assist States and airport
operators in developing their aeronautical studies in accordance with Chapters 3 and 7. However it should be
remembered that each study is specific to a particular context and to a particular NLA, and caution should be exercised
in considering its applicability to other situations and locations. Inclusion of these references does not imply ICAO
endorsement or recognition of the findings, which remains a matter for the respective State to decide.

___________________
1.

It should be noted that this is not the only way of conducting such an analysis and that there are other appropriate methods. For the sake
of consistency, it is advised that a single method be adopted as much as possible for all aerodrome infrastructure items.

11

12

Circular 305-AN/177
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

3.7
According to the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, the prime objective of an
aeronautical study is the assessment of the adequacy of protection provided by the existing aerodrome layout for the
operation of the critical aeroplane with respect to:
a)

collision with another aircraft, vehicle or object;

b) run-off from paved surfaces; and

c)
3.8
terms of:

engine damage from ingestion of foreign objects.

The areas of concern, which this assessment will address, relate to specific functional requirements in

a)

distance between centre line of runway and centre line of taxiway;

b) distance between centre line of taxiway and centre line of parallel taxiway;
c)

distance between centre line of taxiway and object;

d) distance between centre line of aircraft stand taxilane and object;

e)

runway and taxiway dimensions, surface and shoulders; and

f)

protection of engines against damage from foreign objects.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
3.9
It is recommended that an initial evaluation of the level of compliance with code F provisions in
Annex 14, Volume I, should be documented first and then the remaining areas of concern identified before proceeding
with the aeronautical study.

SAFETY ANALYSIS ASPECTS

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures
3.10
Hazard analysis to be applied in this context is the identification, using experience and operational
judgement, of undesirable events and hazards linked to an infrastructure item. The analysis should cover:
a)

accident causal factors and critical events based on a simple causal analysis of available accident
and incident databases; and

b) accident severity with a simple consequence analysis, based on experience and accident database
analysis.
3.11
The severity level of an incident/accident (minor, major, hazardous or catastrophic) may be
deduced from its consequences (effect on aircraft and occupants).

Circular 305-AN/177

13

3.12
Careful consideration should be given by the relevant authorities to the classification of levels of risk.
States should implement suitable risk assessment models. Examples of such models are given in Appendix B. Advisory
Material Joint-AMJ JAR 25.1309, containing material similar to United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Advisory Circular AC25.1309-1A (21 June 1988) defines catastrophic as failure conditions which would prevent
continued safe flight and landing.
3.13
Risk assessment models are commonly built on the principle that there should be an inverse
relationship between the severity of an incident and its probability. The appropriate level of safety for each type of
incident can be specified in either quantitative terms (identification of a numerical probability) or qualitative terms
(comparison with an existing situation). A quantitative risk assessment may be problematic and not always relevant. In
some cases, a probabilistic approach is possible and numerical target levels of safety can be used. In other instances, a
qualitative analysis is more relevant with, for instance, the objective of providing a level of safety equal to or better
than the one offered to a code E aeroplane on a code E-compliant infrastructure.
Risk assessment process
3.14
Once each undesirable event is identified and analysed in terms of causes and consequences, the main
remaining question is: Are all identified risks under control? The method for the evaluation of the level of risk is
strongly dependent on the nature and mechanism of the hazards. Depending on the nature of the risk, three methods can
be used to evaluate whether it is under control:
a)

Method type A. For certain hazards, risk assessment strongly depends on specific aeroplane
performance and handling qualities. The safety level is dependent upon aeroplane performance,
handling qualities and infrastructure characteristics. Risk assessment, then, can be based on
aeroplane design, certification, simulation results and accident analysis.

b) Method type B. For other hazards, risk assessment is not really linked with specific aeroplane
performance and handling qualities but can be calculated from existing aeroplane performance
measurements. Risk assessment, then, can be based on statistics (e.g. deviations) from existing
aeroplane operations or on accident analyses; development of generic quantitative risk models
can be well adapted.
c)

Method type C. In this case, a risk assessment study is not needed. A simple geometric
argument may be sufficient to calculate NLA infrastructure requirements, without waiting for
certification results or using statistics from existing aeroplane operations.

3.15
Understanding the risks is the basis for the subsequent evaluation of alternative measures, operational
procedures and operating restrictions needed to safely operate an NLA on an existing infrastructure.
3.16
Where possible, the result of the risk assessment should be the establishment of alternative measures,
operational procedures and operating restrictions to mitigate risks due to the non-compliance of aerodrome facilities
with ICAO code F requirements. These alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions should
be regarded as minimum conditions to achieve uniformity between similar operations at different aerodromes. However,
specific local conditions at an aerodrome may prohibit the provision or application of these minimum conditions. In
that case additional control measures should be implemented in order to provide an acceptable level of safety.

___________________

Chapter 4
AERODROME FACILITIES AND SERVICES

FACILITIES
Introduction
4.1
Newer generations of aeroplanes generally have an impact on existing aerodrome facilities and
services when the dimensions and/or mass of these aeroplanes exceed the design parameters used for planning and
developing the aerodromes. Due to their specific dimensions, the aerodrome infrastructure and operations may be
affected. This is not only the case with future NLAs (such as the Airbus A380 and the proposed Boeing B747Advanced) or existing ones (Lockheed C5 and Antonov AN124) but also with recent new aeroplanes within the wellestablished code E. The new Airbus A340-600 as well as the Boeing B777-300ER are within the upper boundaries of
code E but require changes to many aspects of the aerodrome infrastructure due to their long fuselage and the
associated long wheelbase, i.e. the distance from the nose wheel gear to the main landing gear.
4.2
This chapter describes the effect of these NLAs on the aerodrome infrastructure. The following items
that may be affected by the introduction of NLAs are:
a)

runways and shoulders;

b) runway strips and runway end safety areas;

c)

taxiways and shoulders;

d) bridges, tunnels, and culverts under taxiways;

4.3

e)

taxiway minimum separation distances; and

f)

aprons and holding bays.

For each infrastructure item the following is presented:

a)

The ICAO SARPs. The Standards and Recommended Practices contained in Annex 14, Volume I,
and the guidance material in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157) are described. Where
possible, information and formulae used to elaborate the ICAO provisions are given.

b) Hazard identification and analysis. Where it is impossible or impracticable for aerodromes to

adapt their infrastructure to the Annex 14, Volume I, code F provisions for the operation of a
given NLA, an aeronautical study will be required to show that the operation of the specific NLA
type at existing facilities is possible without compromising safety. For this reason a number of
possible hazards are identified.
c)

Risk assessment. Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures related to the specific
infrastructure item are given as a guideline. Information on risk assessment methods is contained
in Chapter 3, paragraph 3.14 of this circular.

14

Circular 305-AN/177

15

4.4
A reference list of studies is provided in Appendix B. Subject to the caution and guidance given
elsewhere in this circular, these studies and results may assist authorities in developing their own aeronautical studies.
Inclusion in this circular of references to studies conducted outside of ICAO does not imply ICAO endorsement. They
are provided solely for the information of the reader. Any application of the results of the studies listed in the
references to any ongoing studies in States remains a matter for decision by the appropriate authorities.
Runways
Runway width
4.5
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.1.9, recommends that the width of a runway should not be less than
45 m where the code letter is E, and 60 m where the code letter is F.
4.6
Guidance in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 1 Runways, indicates that, primarily
the runway width is related to the outer main gear wheel span and the clearance required on either side of the outer
main gear wheels when the aeroplane is centred on the runway centre line, as shown in the following formula:
Runway width = TM + 2 C
where TM = outer main gear wheel span and C = clearance between the outer main gear wheel and
the runway edge.
The guidance in Doc 9157, Part 1, states that other factors of operational significance indicate that it might be advisable,
for planning purposes, to consider a width of up to 60 m. The rationale for this is to have a margin for factors such as
wet or contaminated runway pavement, crosswind conditions, crab angle approaches to landing, and aircraft
controllability during aborted take-off.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.7
The main hazard linked to available runway width is from structural damage associated with an
aircraft running off the runway during take-off, rejected take-off or the landing phase.
4.8

The main causes and accident factors are:

a)

for take-off:
1) aircraft (asymmetric spin-up and/or reverse thrust, malfunctioning of control surfaces,
hydraulic system, tires, brakes, nose gear steering, aft centre of gravity);
2) power plant (engine failure, foreign object ingestion);
3) surface conditions (standing water, snow, runway friction coefficient);
4) weather conditions (heavy rain, crosswind, strong/gusty winds, visibility); and
5) Human Factors (crew, maintenance, balance, payload security).

b) for landing:
1) aircraft (malfunctioning of landing gear, control surfaces, hydraulic system, brakes, tires,
nose gear steering);

16

Circular 305-AN/177
2) power plant (reverse and thrust lever linkage);
3) surface conditions (standing water, snow, runway friction coefficient);
4) weather conditions (heavy rain, crosswind, strong/gusty winds, thunderstorms/wind shear,
visibility);
5) ILS localizer signal quality/interference; and
6) Human Factors (hard landings, crew, maintenance).

4.9
An analysis of lateral runway excursion reports shows that the casual factor in aircraft accidents is
not the same for take-off and for landing. Mechanical failure is, for instance, a frequent accident factor in excursions
during take-off, while bad weather conditions are more often associated with landing incidents. Engine reverse thrust
system malfunction has also been a factor in a significant number of landing veer-offs (see Appendix B).
4.10
A lateral runway excursion hazard can be classified as a major to catastrophic risk depending on the
aircraft speed. According to available reports, there were no fatal code E aircraft accidents due to runway excursion
alone reported from 1980 to 2000.
4.11
A review of an accident/incident database also revealed that only 1.3 per cent of the total number of
on-board fatalities from 1980 to 1998 occurred due to lateral runway excursions. However, it should be noted that a
large percentage of runway excursions result in serious damage or operational implications.
Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures
4.12
The lateral runway excursion risk is clearly linked to specific aircraft characteristics, performance/
handling qualities, controllability in response to such events as aircraft mechanical failures, pavement contamination
and crosswind conditions. This type of risk comes under the category for which risk assessment is mainly based on
aircraft performance and handling qualities. Aircraft type certification is one of the key factors to be considered in
order to ensure that this risk is under control.
4.13
For use of runways narrower than the 60-m width recommended by Annex 14, Volume I, all factors
affecting safety should be taken into account including the certification of the specific aircraft type, and local
conditions2. The approval of the appropriate authority should be sought. Possible mitigation measures for the operation
of a given NLA on runways that do not meet Annex 14, Volume I, code F specifications are the provision of:
a)

paved inner shoulders of adequate bearing strength to provide an overall width of the runway and
its (inner) shoulders of 60 m;

b) inset runway edge lights (in lieu of elevated lights);

c)

outer paved/stabilized shoulders with adequate bearing strength to provide an overall width of
the runway and its shoulder of 75 m; and

d) additional runway centre line guidance.

___________________
2.

Attention should be given to the crosswind performance of the aircraft on various runway surface conditions.

Circular 305-AN/177

17

4.14
At aerodromes with runways narrower than 60 m, operators should also take into account the
possibility that certain NLAs may not be able to make a 180-degree turn on such a runway. When there is no proper
taxiway to the end of the runway, the provision of a suitable runway turn pad is recommended.
Runway shoulders
Shoulder width
4.15
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.2.2, recommends that runway shoulders should be provided for a
runway where the code letter is F. Furthermore, runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side of the
runway so that the overall width of the runway and its shoulders is not less than 75 m where the code letter is F.
4.16
Runway shoulders are intended to provide a transition from the full-strength pavement to the runway
strip. In the event of an aeroplane running off a runway, the shoulders should be capable of withstanding the occasional
passage of the aeroplane that has the most demanding pavement loading impact operating at the aerodrome. Shoulders
also provide erosion protection for the areas beyond the pavement, thereby reducing consequent foreign object damage.
Shoulder strength
4.17

Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.2.5, recommends:

A runway shoulder should be prepared or constructed so as to be capable, in the event of an aeroplane
running off the runway, of supporting the aeroplane without inducing structural damage to the
aeroplane and of supporting ground vehicles which may operate on the shoulder.

4.18

The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 1, states that:

The shoulder of a runway should be prepared or constructed so as to minimize any hazard to an
aeroplane running off the runway (paragraph 5.2.2).
In some cases, the bearing strength of the natural ground may be sufficient, without special
preparation, to meet the requirements for shoulders (paragraph 5.2.3).
Attention should also be paid when designing shoulders to prevent the ingestion of stones or other
objects by turbine engines (paragraph 5.2.4).
In the case of special preparation, visual contrast between runway and runway shoulders may be
needed (paragraph 5.2.5).

Hazard identification and analysis

4.19

Runway shoulders have three main functions:

a)

to support occasional aircraft incursions without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane;

b) to provide jet blast protection and prevent engine ingestion; and

c)
4.20
are:

to support ground vehicle traffic (RFF vehicles in particular).

Potential hazards associated with runway shoulder characteristics (width, soil type, bearing strength)

18

Circular 305-AN/177
a)

aircraft damage that could occur after incursion onto the runway shoulder due to inadequate
bearing capacity;

b) shoulder erosion causing ingestion of foreign objects by jet engines due to unsealed surfaces; and
c)
4.21

difficulties for RFF services to access a damaged aircraft on the runway due to inadequate
bearing strength or width.

The main causes and accident factors are:

a)

runway centre line deviations (see runway excursion risk);

b) power plant characteristics (engine height, location and power); and

c)
4.22

inadequate shoulder width, soil type, and bearing strength.

The specific issues of concern to RFF vehicle traffic with regard to NLAs are:
a)

aeroplane wingspan, engine position, length of the escape chute; and

b) shoulder width and bearing strength.

4.23
Certification requirements define the impact of foreign object damage (FOD) on aircraft tires and
engines as a potentially major risk. Delay in RFF operations can be classified as major to catastrophic. Sudden
deceleration resulting from heavy braking or due to aircraft damage can cause injuries that can be classified as major or
catastrophic.
Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures
4.24
The hazards listed above are dependent on the relationship between the shoulder width, the bearing
capacity and the critical characteristics of the aeroplane (overall mass, gear width and configuration, wingspan, outer
engine position). Possible mitigation measures are:
a)

Incursion onto the runway shoulder. To prevent structural damage to an aircraft in the case of
veer-off from a runway that does not meet Annex 14, Volume I, specifications for a code F
aircraft, hard shoulders to ensure at least an overall width of the runway and its inner paved
shoulders of 60 m should be provided to allow pilots to steer the aircraft back onto the runway.
The thickness and composition of shoulder pavements would need to be such as to withstand the
occasional passage of the aeroplane that has the most demanding pavement loading impact
operating at the airport, as well as the full load of the most demanding airport emergency vehicle.
The impact of an NLA on pavements should be assessed and, if required, existing runways and
taxiways (if allowed to be used by these heavier aeroplanes) may need to be strengthened by
providing a suitable overlay. Similarly, the existing shoulders will also need to be evaluated for
adequacy.

b) Jet blast. Information about outer engine position and jet blast velocity contour at take-off is
needed to calculate the required width for jet blast protection. Jet blast velocity data are available
on the websites of the respective manufacturers. Lateral deviation from the runway centre line
should also be taken into account. Regarding the risk of ingestion of foreign objects by the outer
engines, additional data on the ingestion tendency in front of these engines at take-off thrust are,
in theory, needed before drawing any conclusions. Nevertheless, a comparison with the
respective geometry of current large aircraft operating on existing runways may provide a better

Circular 305-AN/177

19

understanding of the issue. The dimensions to be considered should include the margins between
the outer engine axis and the edge of the shoulder, and the distance from the outer engine to the
ground.
c)

RFF vehicles. Operational experience with current large aircraft on existing runways suggests
that an overall width of the runway and its shoulders of 75 m should be adequate to permit
intervention to NLAs (code F) by occasional RFF vehicle traffic at least as easily as for current
code E aircraft on a code E runway. However, the longer upper-deck escape chutes may reduce
the margin between the shoulder edge and the extremity of these escape slides and reduce the
supporting surface available to rescue vehicles. Additional ICAO guidance material is under
development and will be issued later.
Runway strip and runway end safety area

4.25
The runway strip and runway end safety area are based on the runway length classification and
instrument approach classification. The runway strip is intended to provide an area free of fixed and moving objects in
order to permit the safe landing and take-off of aeroplanes using the runway. Particularly, the graded portion of the
runway strip is provided to minimize the damage to an aeroplane in the event of a veer-off during a landing or take-off
operation. It is for this reason that Annex 14, Volume I, requires objects to be located away from this portion of the
runway strip unless they are needed for air navigation purposes and are frangibly mounted.
4.26
The runway end safety area is provided to prevent accidents/incidents due to aircraft
undershooting/overshooting the runway. ICAO Accident/Incident Reporting (ADREP) data for the ten-year period
(19871997) show that in the area extending to a distance of 300 m from the runway threshold, 21 per cent of the
overrunning aircraft were destroyed while nearly 48 per cent sustained substantial damage. Collision hazard after
runway excursion can be classified as a major to catastrophic risk, hence the need to provide adequate runway end
safety areas, as specified in Annex 14, Volume I.
4.27
The dimensions of the runway end safety area are dependent on the width of the runway. According
to the requirements in Annex 14, Volume I, this is dependent on aircraft size. The minimum requirement is 120 m
(2 60 m runway width) for code F aircraft and 90 m (2 45 m runway width) for code E aircraft. In most cases, the
width of the runway end safety area is greater than the minimum required in Annex 14, Volume I.
Taxiways
Width of a straight taxiway
4.28
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.1, specifies that taxiways should be provided to permit the safe
and expeditious surface movement of aircraft. Furthermore, paragraph 3.9.3 recommends that the minimum clearance
between the outer main wheel and the taxiway edge should be at least 4.5 m for code letters D, E and F. Additionally,
paragraph 3.9.4 specifies that the width of a straight portion of a taxiway should not be less than:
23 m where the code letter is E; and
25 m where the code letter is F.
4.29
Guidance material in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, indicates in paragraph 1.2.7
and Table 1-1 the formula for determining the width of a taxiway as follows:
Taxiway width = 2 clearance distance from wheel to pavement edge plus maximum outer main
gear wheel span for the code letter.

20

Circular 305-AN/177

Using the above formula, the taxiway width for code letters E and F would be as follows:
For code E: 2 4.5 m + 14 m = 23 m.
For code F: 2 4.5 m + 16 m = 25 m.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.30
The hazard arises from a lateral taxiway excursion on a straight section. The taxiway should be
sufficiently wide to permit smooth traffic flow while facilitating aircraft steering control.
4.31

The main causes and accident factors are:

a)

mechanical failure (hydraulic system, brakes, nose gear steering);

b) adverse surface conditions (standing water, loss of control on ice-covered surfaces, friction
coefficient);
c)

loss of the taxiway centre line visual guidance (markings and lights covered by snow or
inadequately maintained); and

d) Human Factors (including directional control, orientation error, pre-departure workload).

4.32
The consequences of a taxiway excursion are potentially major. In practice, according to common
accident/incident lateral taxiway excursion databases, no taxiway excursions on a straight section with passenger
injuries have been reported in the last twenty years. However, consideration should be given to the greater potential
impact of deviation of a larger aircraft in terms of blocked taxiways or disabled aircraft removal.
Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures
4.33
Loss of control due to mechanical failure, surface conditions and loss of the visual taxiway guidance
system are factors that should be considered when deciding on the taxiway width.
4.34
The risk associated with pilot precision and attention is a key issue since it is heavily related to the
margin between the outer main gear wheel and the taxiway edge. This risk is a generic one. All functioning aeroplanes
respond reliably to pilot directional input when taxiing at ordinary speeds. The expected behaviour of an NLA could be
deduced from the observation of existing large aircraft types (see Appendix B).
4.35

Optional studies could include:

a)

the use of taxiway deviation statistics to calculate the taxiway excursion probability of an NLA
depending on taxiway width. The impact of taxiway guidance systems, weather and surface
conditions on taxiway excursion probability should be assessed whenever possible. Several
taxiway deviation trials have already been conducted, and additional trials are being conducted at
a number of aerodromes to determine the extent of deviation from the taxiway centre line during
taxiing of large aircraft (see references in Appendix B); and

b) the ease of visibility of the taxiway from the cockpit, taking into account the visual reference
cockpit cut-off angle.
4.36
Possible mitigation measures for the operation of NLAs on taxiways narrower than those
recommended in Annex 14, Volume I, are:

Circular 305-AN/177
a)

21

the provision of taxiway centre line lights;

b) the provision of on-board taxi camera systems to assist taxi guidance;

c)

reduced taxi speed;

d) the provision of taxi side stripe markings (and taxiway edge lights);
e)

enhanced snow bank clearance (engine positions); and

f)

the use of alternative taxi routes.

4.37
Special attention should be given to the offset of centre line lights in relation to centre line markings.
Especially during winter conditions, distinguishing between markings and offset lights can be difficult.
Taxiway curves and intersections
4.38
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.8.5, recommends the provision of suitable curves to ensure that
when the cockpit remains over the taxiway centre line, the outer main wheel edge maintains a 4.5 m clearance from the
taxiway edge.
4.39
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, contains related guidance in paragraphs 1.2.9 and
1.2.22 and Table 1-3.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.40

Any hazard will be the result of a lateral taxiway excursion on a curved section.

4.41
The main causes and accident factors are the same as for a taxiway excursion on a straight taxiway
section. The use of the cockpit-over-centre-line steering technique on a curved taxiway will result in track-in of the
main landing gear from the centre line. The amount of track-in depends on the radius of the curved taxiway and the
distance from the cockpit to the main landing gear.
4.42

The consequences are the same as for lateral taxiway excursions on straight sections.

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures

4.43
The required width of the curved portions of taxiways is related to the clearance between the outer
main wheel and the taxiway edge on the inner curve. The hazard is related to the combination of the outer main gear
wheel span and the distance between the nose gear/cockpit and the main gear. Consideration may need to be given to
the effect on airfield signs and other objects nearby of jet blast from a turning aircraft.
4.44
Though the outer main gear wheel span of certain aircraft place them in code E, the effect of the
longer wheelbase on taxiway junctions will require wider fillets.
4.45
Possible mitigation measures for the operation of NLAs on taxiway curves and sections not
conforming to Annex 14, Volume I, specifications are:
a)

the widening of existing fillets or the provision of new fillets;

22

Circular 305-AN/177
b) reduced taxi speed; and
c)

the provision of taxiway centre line lights and taxi side stripe markings (and taxiway edge lights).

4.46
Special attention should be given to the offset of centre line lights in relation to centre line markings.
Especially during winter conditions, distinguishing between markings and offset lights can be difficult.
Taxiway shoulders
4.47
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.10.1, recommends that the overall width of the taxiway and its
shoulders on straight portions should be:
44 m where the code letter is E; and
60 m where the code letter is F.
These dimensions are based on current information regarding the width of the outer engine exhaust plume for
breakaway thrust. These are the minimum widths considered necessary for taxiway shoulders as detailed in
paragraph 4.48. Furthermore, Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.10.2, recommends that the surface should be so
prepared as to resist erosion and ingestion of the surface material by aeroplane engines.
4.48
The guidance material in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraphs 1.6.1 and
1.6.2, envisages that the shoulders are intended to protect an aeroplane operating on the taxiway and to reduce the risk
of damage to an aeroplane running off the taxiway.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.49

Taxiway shoulders have four main functions:

a)

to prevent jet engines that overhang the edge of a taxiway from ingesting stones or other objects
that might damage the engine or cause jet blast damage to following aircraft;

b) to prevent erosion of the area adjacent to the taxiway;

c)

to support occasional aircraft incursions without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane;
and

d) to support RFF vehicles.

4.50

The factors leading to reported problems are:

a)

power plant characteristics (engine height, location and power);

b) taxiway shoulder width, the nature of the surface and its treatment; and
c)

taxiway centre line deviation factors, both from the expected minor wander from tracking error
and the effect of main gear track-in in the turn area while using the cockpit-over-centre-line
steering technique.

4.51
Ingestion immediately prior to take-off can be classified as a major safety risk, whereas during
taxiing, it can be classified as minor. Infrastructure requirements relative to jet blast and engine ingestion should
consider the increased engine span and performance.

Circular 305-AN/177

23

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures

4.52
Information on engine position and jet blast velocity contour at breakaway thrust mode enables an
assessment to be made of jet blast protection requirements during taxiing operations. A lateral deviation from the
taxiway centre line should be taken into account, particularly in the case of a curved taxiway and the use of the cockpitover-centre-line steering technique.
Bridges, tunnels, and culverts under taxiways
Taxiways on bridges
4.53
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.19, specifies: The width of that portion of a taxiway bridge
capable of supporting aeroplanes, as measured perpendicularly to the taxiway centre line, shall not be less than the
width of the graded area of the strip provided for that taxiway, unless a proven method of lateral restraint is provided
which shall not be hazardous for aeroplanes for which the taxiway is intended.
4.54
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.20, also specifies that access should be provided for RFF vehicles
to intervene in both directions within the specified response time to the largest aeroplane for which the taxiway is
intended.
4.55
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.21, and the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2,
paragraph 1.4.4, specify that if aeroplane engines overhang the bridge structure, protection of adjacent areas, below the
bridge, from engine blast may be required.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.56

The following hazards are related to the width of taxiway bridges:

a)

landing gear leaving the load-bearing surface;

b) deployment of an escape slide beyond the bridge, in case of an emergency evacuation;

c)

lack of manoeuvring space for RFF vehicles around the aeroplane;

d) jet blast to vehicles, objects or personnel below the bridge;

4.57

e)

structural damage to the bridge due to the aeroplane mass exceeding the design load; and

f)

damage to the aeroplane due to insufficient clearance of engines, wings or fuselage from bridge
rails, lights or signs.

The main causes and accident factors are:

a)

mechanical failure (hydraulic system, brakes, nose gear steering);

b) surface conditions (standing water, loss of control on ice-covered surfaces, friction coefficient);
c)

loss of the visual taxiway guidance system (markings and lights covered by snow);

d) Human Factors (e.g. directional control, disorientation, pre-departure workload);

24

Circular 305-AN/177
e)

insufficient clearance between the outer wheels of the main gear and the edge of the bridge;

f)

the position of the extremity of the escape slides; and

g) undercarriage design.
4.58

The main causes of and accident factors for jet blast effect below the bridge are:
a)

power plant characteristics (engine height, location and power);

b) bridge blast protection width; and

c)
4.59

taxiway centre line deviation factors (see taxiway excursion risk).

These hazards can be classified as major to catastrophic.

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures

4.60
Hazard prevention mechanisms can be based on the critical dimensions of the aeroplane relative to
the bridge width. However, before permitting the use of taxiway bridges of narrower widths than those specified in
Annex 14, Volume I, States should evaluate the operational feasibility of doing so.
4.61
For RFF intervention, it is necessary to ensure that the vehicles have access to both sides of the
aircraft to fight any fire from the best position, allowing for wind direction as necessary. A wingspan of 80 m will in all
cases exceed the width of a bridge. However, based on experience at some aerodromes, it may be feasible to use
another bridge nearby for access to the other side of an aircraft rather than an increased bridge width. This would be
practicable only where bridges are paired (parallel taxiways) or when there is a service road in the vicinity. The surface
of the bypass routes would need to be stabilized where it is unpaved.
4.62
The requirement for jet blast protection of vehicle traffic under/near the bridge should be at least
consistent with the overall width of the taxiway and its shoulders.
4.63
For mass limitations, some alternative procedures may be required. Where an existing bridge does
not have the capability to support the mass of an NLA, alternate routes should be used or a new bridge should be
constructed.
4.64
In any case, the bridge width should be compatible with the deployment of escape slides. If the width
of the bridge does not meet this criterion, it should be ensured that the available blast protection provides a safe and
quick escape route.
4.65
The existing underground structures such as box culverts, bridges and pipe crossings all need to be
evaluated for their structural capability in view of the significant increase in the all-up mass of a given NLA. If
inadequate, suitable strengthening measures, if economical and technically feasible, would need to be implemented.
Otherwise, alternate taxi routes should be established that have suitably designed underground structures where needed.
4.66
Possible mitigation measures for the operation of a given NLA on taxiway bridges that do not meet
Annex 14, Volume I, code F specifications are:
a)

where feasible, strengthen existing bridges;

b) provide a proven method of lateral restraint to prevent the aeroplane from veering off the full
bearing strength of the taxiway bridge; and

Circular 305-AN/177
c)

25

provide an alternative path/bridge for RFF vehicles subject to its feasibility from an RFF point of
view.
Taxiway minimum separation distances

Runway to parallel taxiway separations

4.67
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.7, and Table 3-1, columns 5 and 9, specify, for code F, a
minimum distance between the centre line of a runway and the centre line of the associated parallel taxiway of 190 m
for instrument runways and 115 m for non-instrument runways. It may be permissible to operate with lower separation
distances at an existing aerodrome if an aeronautical study indicates that such lower separation distances would not
adversely affect the safety or significantly affect the regularity of operations of aeroplanes. See Note 2 to Table 3-1,
and Notes 2, 3 and 4 to paragraph 3.9.7 of Annex 14, Volume I.
4.68
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraph 1.2.19, and Table 1-5, clarify that the
runway/taxiway separation is based on the principle that the wing tip of an aeroplane taxiing on a parallel taxiway
should be clear of the runway strip.
The runway to taxiway separation distance = 1/2 wingspan + 1/2 strip width.
For code E: 1/2 65 m + 1/2 300 m = 182.5 m.
For code F: 1/2 80 m + 1/2 300 m = 190 m.
4.69
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, has related guidance in paragraphs 1.2.46 to
1.2.49. Furthermore, attention is drawn to the need to provide adequate clearance at an existing airport in order to
operate an NLA with the minimum possible risk.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.70

The potential hazards associated with runway and parallel taxiway separation distances are:
a)

the risk of a collision between an aeroplane in flight and an object (fixed or mobile) on the
aerodrome;

b) the risk of a collision between an aeroplane leaving the runway and an object (fixed or mobile)
on the aerodrome or the risk of a collision of an aircraft that runs off the taxiway into the runway
strip; and
c)

ILS signal interference due to a taxiing or stopped aeroplane.

4.71

The first two hazards are potentially catastrophic and the third one is potentially major.

4.72

The main causes and accident factors are:

a)

Human Factors (crew, ATS);

b) weather conditions (visibility);

c)

aircraft mechanical failure (engine, hydraulic system, flight instruments, control surfaces,
autopilot, etc.);

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d) surface conditions (standing water, loss of control on ice-covered surfaces, friction coefficient);
e)

lateral veer-off distance;

f)

aeroplane position relative to navigation aids, especially ILS; and

g) aeroplane size and characteristics (especially wingspan).

4.73
Common accident/incident databases deal with lateral runway excursions but do not include accident
reports relative to in-flight collisions and ILS signal interference. Therefore, the causes and accident factors specific to
the local environment and identified above for runway separation issues are mainly supported by local aerodrome
experience. The huge variety and complexity of accident factors for collision risk should be emphasized.
Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures
4.74
Collision between an aircraft in flight and an object (fixed or mobile) on the aerodrome. The ICAO
Obstacle Clearance Panel is conducting a study on NLA balked landing operations. Some simulation tests are still to be
done before analyses and final conclusions for all aircraft operating modes (autoland, flight director and visual
approach conditions) can be reached.
4.75
Collision between an aircraft veering off the runway and an object (fixed or mobile) on the
aerodrome. The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraph 1.2.19, states: Separation distances are
based on the concept of the wing tip of an aircraft centred on a parallel taxiway remaining clear of the strip. As such,
the following options may be considered:
a)

place a restriction on the wingspan of aircraft using the parallel taxiway if continued unrestricted
runway operation is desired;

b) conduct a local study to determine the impact on ILS signals; and

c)

in deciding whether to approve unrestricted operations, consider the expected frequency of

potentially limiting the operation of NLAs.

4.76
The minimum distance between the centre line of a runway and the centre line of a parallel taxiway
may need to be increased beyond those specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Table 3-1, taking into account the location of
the holding position, the length of the most demanding aircraft at the holding position, and the minimum distance (as
per Table 3-1, column 11) needed for an aircraft to taxi behind it safely3.
4.77
In some complex aerodrome layouts, a specific study may be needed to evaluate situations where
existing taxiways are permitted to be used by a code F aeroplane.
4.78
A review of present taxi procedures and guidance technologies may be needed. Mitigation measures
may require some surface movement restrictions, alternative operational procedures or additional guidance systems.
4.79
In addition, Annex 14, Volume I, section 2.9, advises effective control of runway surface friction
characteristics, reliable wind reporting and, where applicable, reporting of runway surface friction characteristics.
Aircraft operators can apply operational restrictions according to conditions.
___________________
3.

Additional guidance material on minimum separation distances will be included in the fourth edition of the Aerodrome Design Manual
(Doc 9157), Part 2.

Circular 305-AN/177

27

4.80
ILS signal interference by a taxiing or stationary aircraft. The risk of ILS signal distortion should be
assessed on a case-by-case study basis taking into account the specific aerodrome layout and traffic density. Individual
case studies could benefit from several ongoing generic studies dealing with the effect of current code E and expected
code F aircraft geometry on the ILS safety area.
Parallel taxiway separation
4.81
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.7, and Table 3-1, column 10, specify that the minimum distance
between the centre lines of two parallel taxiways should be 97.5 m where the code letter is F. It may be permissible to
operate with lower separation distances at an existing aerodrome if an aeronautical study indicates that such lower
separation distances would not adversely affect the safety or significantly affect the regularity of operations of
aeroplanes.
4.82
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraphs 1.2.13 to 1.2.15, Tables 1-1 and 1-4,
and Figure-1-4, clarify that this minimum separation distance is equal to the wingspan plus maximum lateral deviation
plus increment as follows:
For code E: 65 m + 4.5 m + 10.5 m = 80 m.
For code F: 80 m + 4.5 m + 13 m = 97.5 m.
Taxiway/apron taxilane to object separation
4.83
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.7, and Table 3-1, column 11, specify that the minimum distance
between a code F taxiway centre line and an object should be 57.5 m. It may be permissible to operate with lower
separation distances at an existing aerodrome if an aeronautical study indicates that such lower separation distances
would not adversely affect the safety or significantly affect the regularity of operations of aeroplanes.
4.84
Paragraph 3.11.3 of Annex 14, Volume I, also envisages that the taxiway strip should provide an area
clear of objects that may endanger an aircraft.
4.85
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraphs 1.2.13 to 1.2.18, Tables 1-1 and 1-4,
and Figure 1-4, state that:
Separation = 1/2 wingspan + maximum lateral deviation + increment.
For code E: 1/2 65 m + 4.5 m + 10.5 m = 47.5 m.
For code F: 1/2 80 m + 4.5 m + 13 m = 57.5 m.
Aircraft stand taxilane to object separation
(including service road)
4.86
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.7, and Table 3-1, column 12, specify that the minimum
separation distance between the taxilane centre line and an object should be 50.5 m. Note 4 to that paragraph envisages
that this distance may need to be increased if jet exhaust wake velocity is likely to be hazardous for ground servicing
personnel and equipment.
4.87
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, paragraphs 1.2.13 to 1.2.17, Tables 1-1 and 1-4,
and Figure 1-4, indicate that:

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Separation = 1/2 wingspan + maximum lateral deviation + increment.
For code E: 1/2 65 m + 2.5 m + 7.5 m = 42.5 m.
For code F: 1/2 80 m + 2.5 m + 8 m = 50.5 m.
Note. See paragraphs 1.2.61 and 1.2.62 of the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2.

Hazard identification and analysis

4.88
The separation distances during taxiing are intended to limit the risk of a collision between two
aeroplanes (taxiway/taxiway separation) and between an aeroplane and an object (taxiway/object separation, taxilane/
object separation).
4.89
A review of commonly used databases reveals that there is limited information relative to collisions
when taxiing because few such incidents have been recorded as serious incidents. However, the main causes and
accident factors could be:
a)

mechanical failure (hydraulic system, brakes, nose gear steering);

b) surface conditions (standing water, loss of control on ice-covered surfaces, friction coefficient);
c)

loss of the visual taxiway guidance system (markings and lights covered by snow); and

d) Human Factors (directional control, temporary loss of orientation, etc.).

4.90

The consequences of a collision when taxiing are potentially major.

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures

4.91
Operational experience with existing code E aeroplanes, under favourable conditions, shows that
deviations do not increase with aeroplane size. It is therefore expected that taxiway deviations by NLAs will not be
significantly different from those by code E aeroplanes. This has yet to be confirmed by actual operational experience
with NLAs. That is why the permissible deviation of code F aeroplanes in Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.9.3, is the
same as for code E aeroplanes.
4.92
Taxiway deviation statistics may be used to assess the risk of a collision between two aircraft or
between an aircraft and an object. Several taxiway deviation studies are available or in progress on different
aerodromes worldwide (New York-Kennedy, Anchorage, Amsterdam-Schiphol, London-Heathrow, Paris-Charles de
Gaulle, Frankfurt and Sydney). Final reports are expected in 2004.
4.93
Possible mitigation measures for the operation of NLAs on taxiways that do not meet the taxiway
minimum separation distances specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Table 3-1, for code F are:
a)

reduced taxiing speed;

b) the provision of taxiway centre line lights;

c)

the provision of taxi side stripe markings (and taxiway edge lights);

d) special taxi routing for NLAs;

Circular 305-AN/177
e)

restrictions on aircraft (wingspan) allowed to use parallel taxiways during the operation of NLAs;

f)

restrictions on vehicles using service roads adjacent to a designated NLA route;

29

g) the use of follow-me guidance; and

h) reduced spacing between taxiway centre line lights.
Note. Special attention should be given to the offset of centre line lights in relation to centre line
markings. Especially during winter conditions, distinguishing between markings and offset lights can be difficult.
Aprons clearance distances on aircraft stands
4.94
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.13.6, recommends that the minimum distance between an
aeroplane using the stand and an obstacle should be at least 7.5 m except in the following special circumstances at a
nose-in stand, this may be reduced:
a)

between the terminal (including any fixed passenger boarding bridge) and the aircraft nose; and

b) over any portion of the stand provided with azimuth guidance by a visual docking guidance
system.
Hazard identification and analysis
4.95
The existing aprons on most of todays airports were not designed with code F aircraft in mind.
Consequently, the safety margins tend to get reduced when used by such larger aeroplanes.
4.96
classified as:

The causes of a collision between an aeroplane and an obstacle on the apron or holding bay could be

a)

mechanical failure (hydraulic system, brakes, nose gear steering);

b) surface conditions (standing water, ice-covered surfaces, friction coefficient);

c)

loss of the visual taxi guidance system (docking system out of service); and

d) Human Factors (directional control, orientation error).

4.97

The consequences of a collision on the apron or holding bay are potentially major.

Risk assessment and possible mitigation measures

4.98
The collision hazard during taxiing depends more on Human Factors than on aeroplane performance
(all functioning aeroplanes respond reliably to pilot directional input when taxiing at ordinary speeds). Therefore, the
expected behaviour of an NLA could be inferred in part from that of existing aircraft. Nevertheless, caution should be
exercised with regard to the implications of the significantly increased wingspan of NLAs.
4.99
Reduced separation at the gate is possible where azimuth guidance by a visual docking guidance
system is provided.

30

Circular 305-AN/177

4.100
Some operational restrictions may be required. Adequate clearances behind parked or holding
aeroplanes will be required, noting the increased length of code F and some new code E aircraft.
Pavement design
4.101
The increased mass and/or gear load of the NLAs will require adequate pavement support. Existing
pavements will need to be evaluated for adequacy due to differences in wheel loading, tire pressure, and undercarriage
design. Bridge, tunnel and culvert load bearing capacities may be a limiting factor, requiring some operational
procedures. These may require alternative taxi routings where the aircraft classification number (ACN) of the aeroplane
exceeds the pavement classification number (PCN), or the maximum loads of the NLA concerned exceed those used in
the design of the underground structures.
4.102
Mitigation measures may restrict aircraft with higher ACNs to specific taxiways, bridges or runways.
These operational procedures may slow down movement of other aircraft on the ground.
4.103
To facilitate flight planning, various aerodrome data are required to be published, such as data
concerning the strength of pavements, which is one of the factors required to assess whether the aerodrome can be used
by an aeroplane of a specific all-up mass. ICAO has established the ACN/PCN method of reporting pavement strength.
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraphs 2.6.1 to 2.6.8, contain the requirements in this regard.
4.104
The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 3 Pavements contains guidance on reporting
pavement strength using the ICAO ACN/PCN method.
4.105
Criteria should be established to regulate the use of a pavement by an aircraft with an ACN higher
than the PCN reported.

AERODROME OPERATIONAL SAFETY SERVICES

Aerodrome emergency planning
General
4.106
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 9.1.1, requires the establishment of an aerodrome emergency plan
appropriate to the nature of aircraft operations and other activities at the aerodrome. It provides for the coordination of
the actions to be taken in an emergency occurring at an aerodrome or in the vicinity. Prior to the introduction of a given
NLA, the plan will need to be reviewed. Guidance material can be found in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137),
Part 7 Airport Emergency Planning.
4.107
The introduction of aircraft able to carry as many as 30 per cent more passengers than existing code E
aircraft, including upwards of 200 passengers on full-length upper decks, requires some additional consideration in
terms of emergency planning. The main issues involve the size of the airframe and the potential number of passengers
or casualties to be handled by the emergency services. Fuel quantities will exceed those of existing code E aircraft, and
some fuel tank locations may be different. In areas of difficult terrain or water, additional specialized rescue capability
will be needed.
4.108
Aircraft with a significant upper-deck passenger capacity and longer escape chutes will pose new
challenges to RFF services in terms of the areas to be protected during the evacuation phase. Additional extinguishing
agents and possibly additional, or enhanced, intervention vehicles may be required, as will a means of communicating

Circular 305-AN/177

31

with the pilot-in-command. Furthermore, consideration should be given to the need for special equipment for accessing
the upper deck to facilitate emergency evacuation of injured or handicapped persons. Studies on the above issues are in
progress.
4.109

Key issues associated with the introduction of NLAs will be to:

a)

provide aircraft information and briefing before the first flight, including a crash chart and
dimensional drawings;

b) provide briefing and training on doors and systems;

c)

revise emergency plans;

d) conduct a task analysis for staffing; and

e)

upgrade services to meet category 10 requirements.

Critical considerations
4.110
The following critical considerations will need to be addressed (see Part 7 of the Airport Services
Manual (Doc 9137)):
a)

the assessment and testing of the aerodrome emergency plan in order to be able to respond to an
emergency within a distance of 1 000 m from the threshold of each operational runway or within
the aerodrome boundary;

b) the potential for simulation to assist in testing the revised plan (e.g. desktop computer);
c)

medical requirements at an aerodrome commensurate with the number of passengers on-board;

d) the capacity of terminal building facilities to handle increased numbers of friends and relatives;
e)

scene management to account for the additional passenger numbers;

f)

additional transportation needs;

g) liaison with local hospitals to ensure that they can cope with the potential increase in casualties;
h) the implications of NLA-specific incidents on the ramp/stand or parking areas;
i)

the implications of any hazardous materials used in the specific aircrafts construction, and an
appropriate analysis to ensure safe working practices; and

j)

the updating of the aircraft recovery plan to include significantly larger aircraft.

Tactical issues for external and internal situations

4.111

The following issues will need to be considered:

a)

aircraft configuration (number of decks, exit locations, cabin crew rest area locations, cargo hold
layout, etc.);

32

Circular 305-AN/177
b) sill height of the upper deck for access and egress by RFF personnel who may need to enter the
aircraft, including forcible entry, where necessary;
c)

upper-deck escape slide deployment and a safe egress area, which will be greater than for current
code E aeroplanes;

d) enhanced command and control procedures appropriate to the aircraft type and size;
e)

fuel capacity, including the location of tanks and fuel pumps;

f)

the use of positive pressure ventilation (PPV)4 systems for internal fires;

g) holds and the capacity of on-board extinguishing systems;

h) aircraft size, including the gross mass, for recovery planning; and
i)

the adequacy of communications between emergency response teams and the pilot-in-command.

Appropriate level of service and equipment

4.112
Aerodrome operators will need to conduct a task resource analysis and generic assessment that
should consider the provision of specific resources, trained personnel and rescue equipment commensurate with the
level of operation of NLAs. Critical situations should be identified and addressed accordingly.
Rescue and fire fighting services
General
4.113
The introduction of NLAs and the evolutionary growth of existing types present new challenges to
RFF services. In particular, the greater airframe surface area and the need to protect a large number of passengers
exiting from more than one deck may require revised procedures, increased quantities of extinguishing agents, specific
training for cabin staff and emergency crews, direct communications between the pilot-in-command and the emergency
services, and strategies for access to an upper deck as appropriate. Rescue crews should be prepared for larger numbers
of passengers transiting the protection area during evacuation.
4.114
Passenger egress from, and emergency crew access to, double-deck aircraft under emergency
conditions, including the possible need for equipment to access the upper deck, have been identified as significant
issues. The specifics of dealing with certain NLAs will be addressed separately. In the meanwhile, attention is drawn to
the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 1 Rescue and Fire Fighting, Chapter 12, section 12.3.
4.115
Aerodrome operators planning to refit or replace existing emergency vehicles should consider any
projected increase in the size of aircraft types and the consequential requirement for additional agent capacity during
the planned service life of that equipment.
4.116
In the early stages of their introduction into service, new aircraft types such as the A380 may be
expected to regularly serve major aerodromes currently supporting B747 operations. Aerodrome operators will need to
take steps to provide for the additional requirements of these aeroplanes.
___________________
4.

A positive pressure ventilation system introduces breathable air into a smoke-filled fuselage.

Circular 305-AN/177

33

4.117
The most important factors bearing on an effective rescue in a survivable aircraft accident are the
training received, the effectiveness of the equipment and the speed with which personnel and equipment designated for
rescue and fire fighting purposes can be put into use.
4.118

Detailed guidelines are given in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part. 1.

Level of protection to be provided

4.119
The A380 falls into ICAO aerodrome RFF category 10 due to its fuselage width (8 m), though not its
overall length. Other projected aircraft-type stretches may warrant a higher category. The A380 has the capability to
deploy three upper-deck slides on each side compared to one for the B747. For double-deck aeroplanes, the increased
number and longer extension of the upper-deck slides widens the area around the aeroplane to be protected in the event
of an evacuation. Specific requirements in this regard are under consideration by ICAO and will be issued when
available.
4.120
The quantities of extinguishing agents specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Table 9-2, to meet the
requirements of a particular aerodrome category, are based on the size of the median aeroplane in the group. To meet
the needs of future aeroplane-type derivatives, calculations should take into account the actual aeroplane dimensions.
Where the largest aeroplane regularly operating at an aerodrome exceeds the size of the median aeroplane in a given
category, the actual quantities of agents required for that aeroplane should be calculated and provided as per the
guidance in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 1.
4.121
The ability of modern extinguishing agents to achieve a more rapid knockdown is under review and
may have some future impact on the recommended quantities of agents to be carried. Conversely, environmental
pressures may limit the extensive use of certain types of agents in the future. Further studies are in progress.
Training
4.122
Rescue and fire fighting personnel should receive specific training relevant to the NLA. The onstation training programme will need to take account of the size and type of the NLA and be appropriate to the risk.
Double-deck aircraft will bring new challenges in terms of Human Factors and procedures.
4.123
Emergency response training for the introduction of NLAs will require cooperation between airframe
manufacturers, aircraft operators, airport authorities and emergency services. Paragraph 17.2 of Attachment A to
Annex 14, Volume I, draws attention to the need for familiarization with aircraft types. Several useful training sources
are available, and airport operators may wish to note the increasing use of e-learning packages in general as a
valuable tool.
Disabled aircraft removal
4.124
The disabled aircraft removal plan established for an aerodrome will need to be updated to include
the specific requirements for removal of a disabled NLA. The aeroplane size and mass (see Appendix A) are critical
factors that should be considered in updating this plan.
4.125
Aircraft operators having regular scheduled flights to/from an aerodrome should present a plan to the
airport authorities concerned, outlining their procedures for removing a disabled aircraft. Airport authorities will
incorporate this in their aerodrome emergency plans, as well as the details of coordination with various agencies in this
regard.
4.126
Guidance on removal of disabled aircraft, including recovery equipment, is contained in the Airport
Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 5 Removal of Disabled Aircraft. A recovery manual for the Airbus A380 has not

34

Circular 305-AN/177

yet been published. Specific technical requirements and related procedures are currently being discussed among aircraft
manufacturers, aircraft operators and aerodrome operators, within the IATA Disabled Aircraft Recovery Working
Group; relevant information will be made available in due course.
Aerodrome maintenance services
4.127
With the introduction of NLAs such as the A380, aerodrome maintenance or reconstruction
programmes will need to ensure that the specific aircraft requirements in terms of increased aircraft mass, wheelbase
and wingspan; the wider location of the outboard engines; and possible jet blast to temporary structures are taken into
account. The wing tip track-in whilst negotiating turns will also need to be considered. Where the specific requirements
exceed those of current code E aircraft, special arrangements may be necessary.
4.128
Snow removal programmes will need to ensure clearance of snow banks to the full width of the
code F facilities, noting the wing tip and wheel track-ins during turns. With the increased mass of NLAs, particular
attention to the reporting of surface conditions, notably surface friction, will be necessary. Aerodrome surface
inspections will need to take the wider engine span and wheelbase into account.
4.129
Specific instructions will be required to be given to contractors or maintenance staff in terms of
control of safety and work in progress. General guidance is given in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 9
Airport Maintenance Practices.

OBSTACLE LIMITATION SURFACES

Obstacle free zone
4.130
The inner approach surface, inner transitional surface and balked landing surface define a volume of
airspace in the immediate vicinity of a precision approach runway that is known as the obstacle free zone (OFZ). This
zone shall be kept free from fixed objects other than lightweight and frangibly mounted aids to air navigation and from
transient objects such as aircraft and vehicles when the runway is being used for Cat II or Cat III ILS approaches.
4.131
For code F operations, the OFZ on a precision approach runway is designed to protect an aeroplane
with a wingspan of 80 m on a precision approach below a height of 30 m. Annex 14, Volume I, Table 4-1, defines the
obstacle limitation surfaces for approach runways. With regard to code F:
a)

the width of the inner horizontal surface has been increased from the code E dimension of 120 m
to 155 m. The inner approach surface begins 60 m from the threshold and extends to 900 m. It
has a slope of 2 per cent;

b) the inner transitional surface has a slope of 33.3 per cent; and
c)

4.132
holding points.

the length of the inner edge of the balked landing surface has been increased from the code E
dimension of 120 m to 155 m. The distance from the threshold or runway end (whichever is less)
is 1 800 m. The divergence (each side) is 10 per cent and the slope is 3.33 per cent.

The dimensions of the OFZ may have an impact on other airfield items such as the position of

Note. The dimensions of the OFZ are currently under review by the Obstacle Clearance Panel of
the Air Navigation Commission.

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35

VISUAL AIDS
Markings and signs

Location of existing aerodrome signs

4.133
Generally, existing signs should suffice for the operation of NLAs at most of the aerodromes that will
receive these aeroplanes.
4.134
Annex 14, Volume I, Table 5-4, specifies the distances from the edge of runways and taxiways at
which signs may be located. These distances may need to be increased to ensure that similar clearance is obtained for
the operation of NLAs. With an increased distance from the taxiway edge, the angle of signs relative to the taxiway
may have to be considered.
4.135
Due to aircraft engine clearance and engine thrust issues, the operation of NLAs may affect the
structural integrity and/or location of existing signs. Therefore signs along some taxiways may have to be strengthened
or relocated in order to perform their intended functions because they may be subjected to excessive jet blast.

Additional signs
4.136
NLAs may be limited to operating along specific taxiway routes. Where ATC procedures require
NLA movement along specific taxiway routes, these may need to be identified by additional information signs. All
signs should meet existing Annex 14, Volume I, requirements for size, colour and luminosity.
4.137
Additional signs may be required along service roads that run adjacent to or across an NLAdesignated taxiing route, to alert vehicle drivers to the potential exposure to excessive jet blast.
4.138
Where separations between taxiways are insufficient to allow simultaneous NLA-NLA or NLA-other
aircraft operations, air traffic control procedures may be required to control aircraft movement. These procedures may
require signs to indicate aircraft holding positions. This may also apply to new longer (code E) aircraft.
Information and mandatory instruction markings
4.139
Additional information and mandatory instruction markings may be required to identify NLApermitted taxi routes, speed restriction areas, prohibited movement areas and specific NLA holding positions. These
markings will need to be easily distinguished to eliminate confusion between NLA and other aircraft.
Lights
Existing lights
4.140
Lights may be liable to the effects of jet blast. Elevated runway and taxiway edge lights may have to
be replaced with inset units. Where inset runway edge lights are used, they should meet the requirements of Annex 14,
Volume I, paragraph 5.3.9.8.
4.141
The increased mass of the NLA may also create higher wheel loadings. The strength of all lights and
fittings over which the NLA may pass may have to be checked for adequacy.

36

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Additional lights
4.142
Where taxiways have been widened to allow for NLAs, additional stop bar lights and intermediate
holding position lights may be required at runway-holding and intermediate holding positions. This may also apply to
runway guard lights.
4.143
Additional stop bars and runway guard lights may be required if runway-holding positions are
relocated or new positions provided.
4.144
If NLAs are permitted to operate on taxiways that do not meet the Annex 14, Volume I, code F
provisions, such taxiways may require additional centre line lights to increase the conspicuity of the taxiway centre line.
In addition, the edges of these taxiways may need to be provided with taxiway edge lights.

PAPI/APAPI
4.145
It is expected that the eye-to-wheel height of the NLA will comply with the requirements of
Annex 14, Volume I, Table 5-2. As such, the PAPI units are not likely to be affected. However, the position of the
engines may mean that PAPI units sited closest to the runway edge could be subject to greater jet blast. This should be
monitored on a regular basis to ensure that the setting angles are not distorted and the lenses are kept clean.

GROUND SERVICING OF AEROPLANES

Aeroplane de-icing/anti-icing facilities
4.146
The increased mass, wingspan and surface area of NLAs will require some reconsideration of the
adequacy of the de-icing/anti-icing facilities to accommodate them.
4.147

Particular attention will be needed to:

a)

adequate space on the pad to ensure a clear paved area of no less than 3.8 m to facilitate the
movement of de-icing/anti-icing vehicles (see Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.15.5);

b) sufficient clearance between the pad and the adjacent manoeuvring areas taking the dimensions
of the NLA into consideration;
c)

surface markings to ensure wing tip clearance of obstructions and other aircraft, especially if
another NLA is also to be accommodated on the pad;

d) the load bearing capacity of the existing structure;

e)

the requirement for greater quantities of de-icing/anti-icing agents;

f)

containment of excess run-off of de-icing/anti-icing agents;

g) turning circle capabilities of NLAs;

h) jet blast implications, especially in static breakaway and turns, including the risk to smaller
aircraft nearby of possible degradation of agents; and

Circular 305-AN/177
i)
4.148
remote facility.

37

revision of pad management procedures in terms of the positioning and exiting of NLAs versus
smaller aircraft types.

Requirements may exist where de-icing operations are conducted on the stand as opposed to at a

___________________

Chapter 5
AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

AIR OPERATOR CERTIFICATION

5.1
Annex 14, Volume I, paragraph 3.1.9, recommends a runway width of 60 m for code F aeroplanes,
and paragraph 3.2.3 specifies a 75-m overall width for the runway and its shoulders. For code E aeroplanes, the
recommended runway width is 45 m, and the overall width of the runway and its shoulders is 60 m.
5.2
Compliance with Annex 8 Airworthiness of Aircraft, requires the manufacturer to demonstrate that
the aeroplane is controllable within the runway to be used. Annex 8, Part IIIB, Sub-part B (Flight), B.2.5 (Take-off),
requires an aeroplane to be capable of taking off assuming the critical engine to fail, the remaining engines being
operated within their take-off power or thrust limitations. Standard B.3.2.2 (Controllability on the ground (or water))
requires the aeroplane to be controllable on the ground (or on the water) during taxiing, take-off and landing under the
anticipated operating conditions. Standard B.3.2.3 requires the aeroplane to be controllable in the event of sudden
failure of the critical engine at any point in the take-off, when the aeroplane is handled in the manner associated with
the scheduling of take-off paths and accelerate-stop distances. It is understood that during the type certification process,
consideration is given to the following criteria separately and, where appropriate, in combination:
a)

maximum crosswind component;

b) runway surface (dry, wet, contaminated);

c)

failure conditions including sudden engine failure;

d) critical aeroplane loading (gross weight, centre of gravity); and

e)

autoland operations, when applicable.

The manufacturer will provide, in the flight manual, information on the minimum runway width and the critical
crosswind component under all anticipated operating conditions as defined in Annex 8, Part I Definitions.
5.3
During air operator certification, the State of the Operator will need to review the availability of the
facilities and services specified in Annex 14, Volume I, and may need to consider specific alternative measures,
operational procedures and operating restrictions referred to in Chapter 4 of this circular, to preserve a level of safety
acceptable to the State of the Operator in the event that the provisions of Annex 14, Volume I, cannot be fully complied
with. When establishing these alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions, States should
review the information in the flight manual regarding the minimum runway width and critical crosswind component
under all anticipated operating conditions.
5.4
Normal requirements concerning operators emergency evacuation demonstrations apply to NLAs.
However, because of the number of passengers carried by NLAs and the height of the upper-deck exits above the
ground, special precautions may be needed to minimize the risk of passenger injuries likely to occur during the conduct
of emergency evacuation demonstrations required for operator certification.

38

Circular 305-AN/177

39

5.5
Taxi cameras can assist the flight crew in preventing the wheels of the aeroplane from leaving the
full-strength pavement during normal ground manoeuvring. The taxi camera system may be required on an
aeroplane dispatched to an aerodrome with runways having a width less than that specified in Annex 14, Volume I,
and that are not provided with suitable taxiway fillets or a taxiway of the width specified in Annex 14 because the
aeroplane may need to carry out turns of 90 degrees or more, including a 180-degree turn after landing, and to taxi
into position for take-off.
5.6
Particular care may be needed while manoeuvring on runways and taxiways having a width less than
that specified in Annex 14, Volume I, to prevent the wheels of the aeroplane from leaving the pavement, while
avoiding the use of large amounts of thrust that could damage runway lights and signs and cause erosion of the runway
strip. Affected runways and taxiways should be closely inspected, as appropriate, for the presence of debris that may be
deposited during 180-degree turns on the runway after landing and while taxiing into position for take-off.

FLIGHT PROCEDURES DESIGN

Obstacle limitation surfaces
5.7
The significance of any existing or proposed object within the aerodrome boundary in the vicinity of
the aerodrome is assessed by the use of two separate sets of criteria defining airspace requirements. The first of these
comprises the obstacle limitation surfaces particular to a runway, considering its intended use, as specified in Annex 14.
The broad purpose of these surfaces is to define the volume of airspace that should ideally be kept free from obstacles
in order to minimize the dangers presented by obstacles to an aircraft, either during an entirely visual approach or
during the visual segment of an instrument approach. The specifications and dimensions of the various obstacle
limitation surfaces are contained in Chapter 4 of Annex 14, Volume I, and guidance on the functions of these surfaces
is given in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 6 Control of Obstacles. The second set of criteria
comprises the surfaces described in the Procedures for Air Navigation Services Aircraft Operations (PANS-OPS,
Doc 8168), Volume II Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedures. The PANS-OPS surfaces are
intended for use by procedure designers for the construction of instrument flight procedures and for specifying
minimum safe altitudes/heights for each segment of the procedure.
Obstacle free zone (OFZ)
5.8
Annex 14, Volume I, defines OFZ as: The airspace above the inner approach surface, inner
transitional surfaces, and balked landing surface and that portion of the strip bounded by these surfaces, which is not
penetrated by any fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and frangibly mounted one required for air navigation
purposes.
5.9
Runways require a space free of obstacles, termed the obstacle free zone (OFZ), to provide enough
airspace to safely execute take-offs, landings, balked landings and missed approaches. The shape of an OFZ is
determined by aircraft dimensions and performance and runway width. The OFZ covers the entire runway to the
surface and inclines upward from the surface over adjacent taxiways and other ground movement areas. Also accounted
for in the design of an OFZ is the spacing between the runway and taxiway, and the physical characteristics of taxiing
aircraft. Having a clearly defined OFZ allows air traffic planners to permit or prohibit certain types of aircraft and
procedures (e.g. the OFZ may restrict the use of simultaneous landings/take-offs and taxi operations). The design
philosophy on taxiways parallel to runways is to protect against the intrusion of a wing tip into a runway strip. Given
the tail height and wingspan of a given NLA, the OFZ of some aerodromes may be penetrated. The State concerned
may then elect to either restrict operations or to conduct an appropriate aeronautical study that will determine the
necessary alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions. However, it should be noted that
Annex 14, Volume I, does not provide for an aeronautical study regarding OFZ.

40

Circular 305-AN/177

5.10
The OFZ during approach, landing, take-off and taxi operations may need to be expanded, or the
operation of NLAs restricted, depending on the distance between taxiways and runways relative to the wingspan and
tail height of an NLA, the published missed approach procedures, the balked landing/go-around procedures and the
performance characteristics of the NLA concerned.
5.11
Annex 14, Volume I (Standard), paragraph 4.2.8, and Table 4-1 (including table footnote e), extend
the width of the inner approach surface and balked landing surface from 120 m for code E aircraft to 155 m for code F.
However, some existing code E aerodromes may experience problems in implementing the provisions of Annex 14,
Volume I, for code F aircraft. Solutions for these airports should be determined from an operational safety point of
view. Consequently, as an operational mitigation, the ICAO Obstacle Clearance Panel (OCP) undertook a balked
landing study, published in Circular 301 New Larger Aeroplanes Infringement of the Obstacle Free Zone:
Operational Measures and Aeronautical Study. The attention of States and operators is drawn to that circular, an
overview of which can be found in Appendix C.

Aircraft speed categorization

5.12
The PANS-OPS describes the aircraft speed categories that are used for OCA/H calculations and the
promulgation of aircraft category-related minima.
5.13
Amendment 12 to PANS-OPS, Volume II, introduces a new speed category, DL, into flight procedure
design calculations in support of the introduction of NLAs. This speed category recognizes aircraft with a wingspan of
80 m and a vertical distance between the flight path of the wheels and the glide path antennas to be 8 m, thereby
avoiding the need to apply excessive penalties and operational minima to category D aeroplanes.
5.14
Available software for the design of instrument approach procedures such as the PANS-OPS obstacle
assessment surfaces (OAS) and the PANS-OPS software (CD101) incorporates DL into its calculations.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
5.15
Because NLAs will have to be certified against the latest Annex 16 noise and emission Standards, it
is not anticipated that any environmental issues specifically attributed to NLAs will be identified. However, the
introduction of a significantly increased aircraft size may generate wide interest amongst environmental groups.
5.16
Though operations by expected NLA types will be few to start with, consideration should be given to
the projected growth and the local, longer-term environmental impact. The necessary overall environmental assessment
should also take into account the improved efficiency derived from the increased payload per NLA movement and the
better performance of NLAs compared to older models still in operation.
5.17
operators:

The following should be taken into account by the appropriate authorities and aerodrome and aircraft

a)

aircraft noise;

b) aircraft engine emissions;

c)

aircraft fuelling;

d) aircraft maintenance and operations;

Circular 305-AN/177
e)

aircraft de-icing; and

f)

aerodrome infrastructure.

41

Detailed guidance on the environmental aspects of these subjects is provided in the Airport Planning Manual
(Doc 9184), Part 2 Land Use and Environmental Control.

___________________

Chapter 6
AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ISSUES

WAKE TURBULENCE ISSUES

6.1
Wake vortices are present behind every aeroplane, but are particularly generated by larger transport
aeroplanes. They are heavily influenced by the specific aeroplane aerodynamics. Categorization of NLAs such as the
A380 in terms of wake turbulence, together with a fuller understanding of the impact of a such aeroplanes on following
traffic, is currently being reviewed by industry and regulators through a group of experts working under the joint
auspices of the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) and the
European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). The outcome will be reported when
completed.
6.2
The implications of the increased mass, an advanced wing design and any approach speed differences
(e.g. compared to code E aircraft) may require a review of current wake turbulence procedures.
6.3
Wake turbulence categories and non-radar wake turbulence longitudinal separation minima are
contained in the Procedures for Air Navigation Services Air Traffic Management (PANS-ATM, Doc 4444),
Chapter 4, Section 4.9 and Chapter 5, Section 5.8, respectively. Wake turbulence radar separation minima, details of
which can be found in Chapter 8 of Doc 4444, are in some cases as high as six nautical miles. Guidance material with a
description of wake vortices and their effect on aircraft is contained in the Air Traffic Services Planning Manual
(Doc 9426).

___________________

42

Chapter 7
AERONAUTICAL STUDIES

SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY

7.1
An aeronautical study is a study of an aeronautical problem to identify possible solutions and select a
solution that is acceptable for a given aeroplane at a given location without compromising safety. Such a study includes
a systematic identification and analysis of safety hazards and an assessment of risks and possible mitigation measures.
7.2
An aeronautical study is conducted to assess, for a given aeroplane at a given location, the impact of
deviations from some of the Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) specified in Annex 14, Volume I, to
estimate the effectiveness of each solution and to recommend alternative measures, operational procedures and
operating restrictions to compensate for the deviation and to ensure the safe operation of the aeroplane concerned5. For
the purposes of this circular, the generic requirement for an aeronautical study is to assess how aerodromes can
accommodate a specific NLA in a safe and efficient manner, including the development of alternative measures,
operational procedures and operating restrictions that may be required at aerodromes where Annex 14, Volume I,
code F provisions cannot be met.
7.3
Each aeronautical study is likely to be different and will be in a specific and defined context.
Therefore the applicability of the results of an earlier aeronautical study performed in a different context will require
due consideration and acceptance by the respective State, either through the performance of a dedicated aeronautical
study or an appropriate validation process6.
7.4
The following guidance should be considered as a general example that could be followed when
performing an aeronautical study (or a validation process), keeping in mind that the effort and budget required for its
performance should remain commensurate with its objectives and purpose. The guidance is intended to lead readers
through the various steps in the aeronautical study process, but allow them to form their own conclusions.

APPROVAL OF AN AERONAUTICAL STUDY

7.5
It is necessary, when establishing the scope of the aeronautical study, to identify the sources of those
requirements and hence the competent authority responsible for approving the aeronautical study. The authority may
apply various procedures for validation or acceptance of the items that are submitted. Though in most cases the final
aeronautical study approval process is based on the approval of the appropriate validation case, some interim review
may be needed. It is therefore essential to accurately define the objectives and processes to be followed and to
document them as appropriate in the study plan.

___________________
5.

In this context a number of taxiway deviation studies have been conducted, but few aeronautical studies.

6.

A State that validates an aeronautical study presented by one airport operator may decide that the conclusions of that aeronautical study
are applicable to other airports within its jurisdiction.

43

44

Circular 305-AN/177
DEFINING THE SCOPE OF THE
AERONAUTICAL STUDY

7.6
The first step consists of identifying the scope of the study, considering the relevant ICAO and other
guidance material and should include:
a)

the level of compliance with ICAO SARPs;

b) the identification of all other items to be included in the study;

c)

the identification of those areas of interest relevant to the items to be addressed;

d) the assumptions on which the aeronautical study will be based and a list of the specific
characteristics of an NLA (see Chapter 2 and Appendix A) that may have an impact on the issues
at stake for the different items;
e)

international specifications, national or local regulations, and any other requirements; and

f)

any additional criteria, and a definition of the method of assessment that is needed to clarify and
demonstrate conformance to particular requirements.

STUDY PLAN
7.7

The following steps may provide a framework for a uniform structured process:
a)

develop a background statement to the requirement;

b) specify roles, responsibilities and competence;

c)

identify the sources of the requirements;

d) specify the manner in which the study is to be conducted;

e)

clearly define the study objectives, together with any specific control and approval mechanisms;

f)

identify the process for fault identification, change management and issue resolution;

g) define the validation methodology, including the approval process;

h) specify measures to archive results and data; and
i)

specify the resources to be used and the scheduling plan.

As stated previously, this comprehensive structure should be considered only as a guideline and not as a mandatory
requirement.
7.8
To facilitate the aeronautical study, a State or organization may elect to draw on existing studies or
guidance material. In doing so, it will be necessary to:
a)

define particular local requirements and consider how these may impact the study plan and the
conclusions;

Circular 305-AN/177

45

b) consult only relevant sources of information;

c)

consult the authority responsible for the previous study and obtain appropriate details or
permissions;

d) evaluate the information; and

e)

develop and validate the study tasks using relevant information.

7.9
Appendix B provides a list of relevant studies and existing material as well as the websites where
other validated information can be found7. However, it should be emphasized that no two situations are likely to be
identical, and therefore considerable caution should be exercised when attempting to apply an existing study or solution
to a different location or situation.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

7.10
The result of the aeronautical study should demonstrate that the objectives outlined in 7.6 have been
fully met and should contain a recommendation for the acceptance or rejection of the study. The report structure may
consist of:
a)

an executive summary;

b) an introduction and overview;

c)

the sources of the requirements;

d) an overview of the aeronautical study plan;

e)

summary reports of the aeronautical study tasks;

f)

compliance with the requirements;

g) other outstanding information or issues; and

h) conclusions.

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (AIS)

7.11
States are reminded of their obligation to take the appropriate action with regard to the dissemination,
via the AIS, of information concerning alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions
implemented at a particular aerodrome and, in the context of this circular, to accommodate a specific NLA.
7.12
States are further reminded of the obligation imposed under Article 38 of the Convention by which
Contracting States are required to notify ICAO of any differences between their national regulations and practices and
the International Standards contained in Annex 14. (Paragraph 1.7 of this circular refers.)
___________________
7.

The list and websites are provided for the assistance of the reader and do not signify ICAO endorsement of any study, process or
conclusion.

46

Circular 305-AN/177
ICAO SPECIFICATIONS AND GUIDANCE MATERIAL

7.13
respect of:

Currently, Annex 14, Volume I, specifically provides for aeronautical studies to be conducted in
a)

taxiway minimum separation distances: paragraph 3.9.7 and notes thereto;

b) obstacle limitation requirements: paragraphs 4.2.4, 4.2.5, 4.2.11, 4.2.12, 4.2.20, 4.2.21, 4.2.27,
4.3.1, 4.4.2;
c)

visual aids for air navigation: footnote c to Table 5-2, and paragraphs 5.3.5.44, 5.3.5.45; and

d) visual aids for obstacles: paragraphs 6.1.1 d), 6.1.4 d), 6.1.10, 6.3.8.
7.14
Additional guidance material can be found in the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2
Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays. Depending on the items, domains, alternative measures, operational procedures
and operating restrictions to be addressed by the study, the following may also provide guidance:
a)

Doc 8126 Aeronautical Information Services Manual;

b) Doc 8168 Procedures for Air Navigation Services Aircraft Operations;

c)

Doc 9137 Airport Services Manual;

d) Doc 9157 Aerodrome Design Manual;

e)

Doc 9184 Airport Planning Manual;

f)

Doc 9365 Manual of All-Weather Operations;

g) Doc 9426 Air Traffic Services Planning Manual; and

h) Doc 9476 Manual of Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (SMGCS).
7.15
Other material or studies that have been developed or are under development outside of ICAO, could
serve as reference or background material, thus saving States time and effort in the performance of a particular
aeronautical study. A list of aeronautical studies associated with NLA operations can be found in Appendix B. This list
is provided for the assistance of the reader and does not signify ICAO endorsement of any study, process or conclusion.

___________________

Appendix A
CHARACTERISTCS OF NEW LARGER AEROPLANES

1.

DIMENSIONS AND OTHER DATA

Table A-1. ICAO aerodrome code letters and

corresponding aeroplane dimensions

Code F

Wingspan

65 m up to but
not including
80 m

Outer main
gear wheel
span

14 m up to but
not including
16 m

*
**

A380-800*

79.8 m

14.3 m

B747Advanced**

68.7 m

C5

67.9 m

12.7 m

11.4 m

An 124

Code E

A340-600

B747400ER*

B777300ER

73.3 m

52 m up to but
not including
65 m

63.4 m

64.9 m

64.8 m

8.0 m

9 m up to but
not including
14 m

12.6 m

12.6 m

12.9 m

Freighter version values are provided where appropriate.

B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.

Table A-2.

Aeroplane dimensions
Code F

Aeroplane dimensions

Code E

A380-800

B747Advanced*

C5

An 124

A340-600

B747400ER

B777300ER

70.4 m

72.2 m
73.7
m**

70.3 m

69.9 m

73.5 m

68.6 m

73.1 m

Overall length

72.7 m

74.2 m
75.7
m**

75.5 m

69.9 m

75.3 m

70.7 m

73.9 m

Fuselage width

7.1 m

6.5 m

7.1 m

7.3 m

5.6 m

6.5 m

6.2 m

Fuselage height at operating

empty weight (OEW)

10.9 m

10.2 m

9.3 m

10.2 m

8.5 m

10.2 m

8.7 m

Main-deck sill height***

5.4 m

5.4 m

2.7 m

2.8 m

5.7 m

5.4 m

5.5 m

Upper-deck sill height***

8.1 m

7.9 m

7.1 m

7.5 m

7.9 m

Tail height at OEW

24.1 m

20.1 m

19.9 m

21.0 m

17.4 m

19.6 m

18.7 m

Wingspan

79.8 m

68.7 m

67.9 m

73.3 m

63.4 m

64.9 m

64.8 m

Fuselage length

47

48

Circular 305-AN/177
Code F
Aeroplane dimensions

Code E

A380-800

B747Advanced*

C5

An 124

A340-600

B747400ER

B777300ER

63.6 m

64.9 m

Wingspan (jig)##

79.8 m

68.7 m

67.9 m

73.3 m

63.4 m

64.4 m

64.8 m

Wing tip vertical clearance at

maximum take-off weight (MTOW)

5.3 m

~5.1 m

3.2 m

3.7 m

6.0 m

5.1 m

7.2 m

Wing tip vertical clearance at OEW

6.1 m

~5.7 m

4.0 m

Unknown

6.2 m

5.7 m

7.5 m

Maximum wing tip height at

MTOW

7.5 m

~5.1 m

3.2 m

3.7 m

7.6 m

6.7 m

7.2 m

Maximum wing tip height at OEW

8.3 m

~5.7 m

4.0 m

Unknown

7.8 m

7.3 m

7.5 m

7.2 m
20
Max.19.8 m

8.7 m
18.4
25.8 m

8.2 m
Unknown
Unknown

8.3 m
Unknown
Unknown

5.7 m
20
15.7 m

8.7 m
18.4
25.8 m

5.9 m
21
14.6 m

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Pilot distance from nose landing

gear

2.1 m

2.3 m

5.0 m

2.4 m

4.3 m

2.3 m

3.6 m

Pilot distance from main landing

gear

31.8 m

28.4 m
29.9 m**

27.2 m

25.3 m

37.4 m

26.4 m

34.2 m

Wingspan (full fuel)#

Cockpit view at OEW:

Cockpit height
Cockpit cut-off angle
Obscured segment
Taxi camera

~
*
**
***
#
##

Symbol indicates approximate.

B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.
Freighter version values are provided where appropriate.
Highest door at OEW.
For aircraft with large winglets (significant wing and winglet deflection with full fuel).
For aircraft without winglets, reference is frequently made to jig span, i.e. the span as measured in the
manufacturing jig (straight wing without 1G droop).

Circular 305-AN/177
Table A-3.

49

Landing gear geometry

Code F

Landing gear geometry

A380-800

B747Advanced*

Maximum ramp weight (MRW)

562 t
602 t**

Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)

560 t
600 t**

Code E
C5

An 124

A340-600

B747400ER

B777300ER

423 t
437 t**

381 t

405 t

369 t

414 t

341 t

422 t
435 t**

379.6 t

398 t

368 t

413 t

340 t

296 t
333 t**

288.4 t

330 t

256 t

296 t
302 t**

251 t

Weight

Maximum landing weight (MLW)

386 t
427 t**

Landing gear dimensions

Wheel track

12.5 m

11.0 m

7.9 m

6.3 m

10.7 m

11.0 m

11.0 m

Outer main gear wheel span

14.3 m

12.7 m

11.4 m

8.0 m

12.6 m

12.6 m

12.9 m

Wheelbase

29.7 m

26.1 m
27.6 m**

22.2 m

22.9 m

33.1 m

24.1 m

30.6 m

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Main gear steering system***

Yes

Yes

ACN Flexible
FA

63
66**

63
65**

29

51

70

61

62

FB

69
73**

71
72**

33

60

75

69

69

FC

83
87**

88
90**

40

77

89

85

86

FD

111
116**

111
114**

56

107

119

108

117

RA

55
58**

61
62**

29

35

62

59

64

RB

68
72**

71
72**

34

48

72

69

82

RC

89
94**

83
85**

44

73

84

81

105

RD

110
117**

94
97**

55

100

98

92

127

ACN Rigid

*
B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.
** Freighter version values are provided where appropriate.
*** There are two types of main landing gear steering systems post steering with all wheels steered (747, C5 and
An 124) and aft-axle steering (aft two wheels out of six-wheel gear, e.g. A380-800 and B777). The effect of the main
gear steering system on turn centre location is shown in Section 4.3 of the Airplane Characteristics for Airport
Planning document on the website of the respective manufacturer (Appendix B).
Note. Discussions on the value of the alpha factor are ongoing. Aircraft footprints and ACN curves are available in
Section 7 of the Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning document on the website of the respective manufacturer
(Appendix B).

50

Circular 305-AN/177
Table A-4.

Minimum pavement width required for U-turns

(in ascending order)

Code

Aircraft

U-turn width
m (ft)

Wheelbase
m (ft)

Track (to outside tire edge)

m (ft)

747-400

46.3 (152)

24.1 (79)

12.6 (41.3)

MD11

49 (161)

24.7 (81.2)

12.6 (41.3)

747-Adv

49.7 (163)

26.1 (85.6)

12.6 (41.3)

747F-Adv

52.1 (171)

27.6 (90.6)

12.6 (41.3)

777-300

56.5 (185)

30.6 (100.4)

12.9 (42.3)

A340-600

56.7 (186)

33.2 (109)

12.6 (41.3)

A380-800

65.7 (216)

29.7 (97.5)

14.3 (47)

Assumes symmetric thrust and no braking.

Note that the U-turn width has little relation to the code letter.

Table A-5.
Code F

Engine data

Number of engines
Bypass ratio

Engine data
Code E

A380-800

B747- Advanced*

C5

An 124

A340-600

B747-400ER

B777-300ER

8.7

~9

8.0

~5.7

7.5

~5

~7

65-67 klb

41 klb

52 klb

56 klb

5663 klb

115 klb

Engine thrust

70 klb
77 klb**

Engine span (centre

line to centre line)

51.4 m

41.7 m

37.7 m

37.9 m

38.5 m

41.7 m

19.2 m

Engine vertical
clearance at MTOW

1.1 m (inner)
1.9 m (outer)

0.7 m
1.4 m

2.5 m
1.7 m

3.5 m
3.1 m

0.5 m
1.6 m

0.7 m
1.4 m

0.9 m

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Reverse system
~
*
**

Only inboard
thrust reversers

Symbol indicates approximate.

B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.
Freighter version values are provided where appropriate.

Note. Jet blast velocity contours are available in Section 6 of the Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning
document on the website of the respective manufacturer (Appendix B).

Circular 305-AN/177
Table A-6.

51

Maximum passenger- and fuel-carrying capacity

Code F

Layout and capacities

Code E

A380-800

B747- Advanced*

C5

An 124

A340-600

B747-400ER

B777-300ER

Three-class reference
layout

555

450

380

416

365

Maximum passengercarrying capacity

~800

~650

~475

~620

550

Wing fuel tank capacity

(litres)#

287 000

Similar to
B747-400ER

186 000

350 000

131 000

138 924

78 206

Tail empennage fuel tank

capacity (litres)#

23 000

Similar to
B747-400ER

8 300

12 490

Centre fuel tank capacity

(litres)#

Similar to
B747-400ER

56 000

64 973

103 077

310 000

Similar to
B747-400ER

186 000

350 000

194 878

228 538***
204 333**

181 283

Maximum fuel-carrying
capacity (litres)

~
Symbol indicates approximate.
*
B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.
** Freighter version values are provided where appropriate.
*** B747-400ER is standard with a one body fuel tank; an optional second body fuel tank will increase the fuel volume
by 12 151 litres.
#
Data shown are approximate.
Note. Emergency exit locations are available in Section 7 of the Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning
document on the website of the respective manufacturer (Appendix B).

Table A-7.

Landing incidence/attitude and final approach speed

at MLW and forward centre of gravity
Code F

Attitude approach data

Approach attitude at 3 glide slope

Approach speed
Start of visual segment
~
*

Code E

A380-800

B747Advanced*

C5

An 124

A340-600

B747400ER

B777300ER

~1

~3

Unknown

Unknown

3.5

3.0

~3

~145 kt

~157 kt

~135 kt

~124 kt

154 kt

157 kt

~150 kt

290 ft

338 ft

Symbol indicates approximate.

B747-Advanced is a proposed aircraft (not yet in service), and therefore the specifications are subject to change.

Note. B747-Advanced, B777-300ER and A380-800 data are estimated values.

52

Circular 305-AN/177
2.

TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION

Possible NLA design features

that may impact aerodrome elements
Over past decades, there has been steady progress in aviation technology, enhancing the accuracy and reliability of
aircraft operations. This technology, along with improvements in airport infrastructures and the improved operational
procedures of airports and aircraft have contributed to overall aviation safety. A review carried out by one member
State showed a decline in the fatal accident rate from 3.5 fatal accidents per million flights for first generation modern
aeroplanes (e.g. B707) to 1.6 for second generation aeroplanes (e.g. DC-10, A300) and to 0.5 for third generation
aeroplanes (e.g. B777, A340). Listed below are recent technology features already available on existing aircraft models
as well as those that may become available in the near future for possible integration into the NLA, such as the A380.
This is not an exhaustive list nor is it intended to define the required technology improvements for the NLA.
Technology features below are grouped under the relevant airfield elements.
Runway and shoulder width
Nose wheel steering augmentation system. Provides a reduced steering angle with increasing
ground speed. This may reduce the likelihood of nose-wheel skidding.
Two stage lift dumping. In the event of uneven gear touchdown at landing, the spoilers provide
partial lift dumping to ensure ground contact by all gear prior to full spoiler deployment. This
may ensure that anti-skid operations do not result in asymmetric braking problems.
Back-up nose wheel hydraulic power source.

Taxiway turn fillet

Taxi cameras (not mandatory for dispatch). Cameras are valuable in the pilot training phase but
are considered to be of little use in the field. Experience with the A340-600/B777-300 has shown
that pilot skills can be enhanced through the use of cameras (correct visual cues acquired), when
conducting runway U-turns and when using oversteering turning techniques on taxiway turns.

Taxiway and shoulder

Aerodrome taxi navigation guidance. A precision type guidance system based on differential
GPS or visual sensors can give tracking guidance to an accuracy of less than one metre from the
taxiway centre line. This can prevent inadvertent deviation such as in poor visibility.

OFZ/runway width and other

operations/airworthiness aspects
Track guidance. For go-arounds and especially in the case of balked landings, instead of a track
capture at go-around engagement, a computation can be performed based on the direction over
the last 15 seconds as already available on some aircraft. This may provide much more accurate
guidance and prevent some unsuitable tracks, coming, for example, from gusts or strong
crosswinds.

Circular 305-AN/177

53

Vertical display. This feature allows a dynamic situation assessment (aircraft position, safe
altitude, display of terrain and vertical flight path) which reduces the likelihood of controlled
flight into terrain. In the context of the Flight Safety Foundation (US) approach and landing
accident reduction activities, it was found that inadequate situational awareness was a factor in
51 per cent of approach and landing accidents analysed.

___________________

Appendix B
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

LIST OF REFERENCES AND AERONAUTICAL STUDIES

ASSOCIATED WITH THE OPERATION OF NLAs

Subject to the caution and guidance given elsewhere in this circular, the following references may assist authorities in
developing their own aeronautical studies. The inclusion of references to studies conducted outside of ICAO does not
imply ICAO endorsement. They are listed solely for the information of the reader. Any application to ongoing studies
remains a matter for decision by the appropriate authorities. Paragraph 3 contains an example of how to classify risks
and severity levels.
1.

Annex 14 Aerodromes, Volume I Aerodrome Design and Operations.

2.

Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 1 Runways.

3.

Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2 Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays.

4.

Notice to Aerodrome Licence Holders, 2/2003, CAA UK 5.

5.

Statistical Extreme Value Analysis of Taxiway Centre Line Deviations for 747 Aircraft at JFK and ANC Airports,
August 2003, Boeing.

6.

Statistical Analysis of Aircraft Deviations from Taxiway Centre Line, Taxiway Deviation Study at Amsterdam
Airport, Schiphol, 1995, Boeing Company Information and Support Services.

7.

Aircraft Deviation Analysis at Frankfurt Airport, June 2002, Frankfurt Airport.

8.

Runway Lateral Deviations during Landing, Study with Flight Recorder Systems On-board, CAA-France.

9.

Common Agreement Document (CAD)8 of the A380 Aerodrome Compatibility Group, December 2002,
CAA-France, CAA-UK, CAA-Netherlands, CAA-Germany, ACI, IATA.

10. Obstacle Free Zone, FAA Balked Landing Study, United States, FAA, 2003. ICAO Annex 14, Volume I.
11. Analysis of Runway Lateral Excursions from a common accident/incident database (source: ICAO, FAA, Airbus,
Boeing), June 2003, Airbus.
12. Update on the Taxiway Deviation Studies at JFK, July 2002, ACI-NA.

___________________
8.

The CAD shows a practical example of the application of the methodology in this circular to a specific NLA, the Airbus A380. It
develops alternative measures for the A380 which are supported by the CAAs of the sponsoring States.

54

Circular 305-AN/177

55

13. Test of Load Bearing Capacity of Shoulders, 2003, CAA-France and Airbus.
14. Reduced Separation Distances for Code F Aircraft at Amsterdam Airport, Schipol, 2001, Amsterdam Airport, Schipol.
15. A380 and Localizer Multipaths, June 2003, Paris Airport Authority.
16. Obstacle free zone position for A380 operations, October 2003, Paris Airport Authority.

2.

AEROPLANE CHARACTERISTICS DATABASES

Boeing website: www.boeing.com/airports

Airbus website: www.airbus.com/customer/technical.asp#

3.

EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION OF RISKS

Careful consideration should be given by the relevant authorities to the definition of the safety objectives for each level
of risk. The following table may be used to classify the probability and security levels based on the principle that there
should be an inverse relationship between the severity of the effect of a failure and the probability of its occurrence
(risk tolerability).
Effect on aircraft
and occupants

Normal

Nuisance

Slight reduction
in safety
margins

Significant
reduction in
safety margins

Large
reduction in
safety margins

Slight increase
in crew
workload

Significant
increase in
crew workload

Inconvenience
to occupants

Passenger
injuries

Physical
distress or
higher
workload such
that the flight
crew cannot
be relied upon
to perform
their tasks
accurately or
completely

Multiple
fatalities
Loss of the
aeroplane

Serious or fatal
injury to a
small number
of occupants
Numeric
probability
FAR
JAR-25
Classification of
severity level

10

101

102

103

104

<---------------- PROBABLE ---------------->

<----- FREQUENT------>

REASONABLY
PROBABLE

105

106

107

108

<----------- IMPROBABLE ----------->

REMOTE

EXTREMELY
REMOTE

MAJOR

HAZARDOUS

<-------------------- MINOR -------------------->

___________________

109

1010

EXTREMELY
IMPROBABLE

CATASTROPHIC

Appendix C
OBSTACLE FREE ZONE OVERVIEW OF A
BALKED LANDING SIMULATION STUDY OF NLAs

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1
A two-year study was conducted by the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to
investigate the balked landing scenario for new larger aeroplanes (NLAs) using B747-400 aircraft technology. The
FAA Balked Landing Study Program specifically focused on the risk analysis/probability of collision during a balked
landing by an NLA. The outcome of the study consisted of:
a)

iso-probability contours used to assess the impact of obstacles based on their distance from the
runway centre line at any specific point along the length of the runway;

b) data projecting excursions (lateral displacement from centre line) for NLAs based on a wide
range of flight profiles;
c)

how to address aerodrome elevation; and

d) other elements that may be identified as operationally pertinent to the risk analysis of existing
aerodromes.
1.2
This section contains a summary of the report from that study. It should be noted that the study
assumes that the aeroplane guidance system is in ground track hold mode with the engagement of go-around. This
becomes a special condition, which does not conflict with Annex 14.

2.

STUDY OUTLINE

2.1
Over 200 000 computer simulations were conducted using the FAA Airspace Simulation and
Analysis for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) (ASAT). ASAT was developed to investigate missed approach
procedures in the terminal airspace using highly accurate computer representations of the aircraft and the
airspace/aerodrome environment. A complete integrated aircraft configuration simulation model of the B747-400 was
obtained from the Boeing Airplane Systems Laboratory in support of the study. (The model is the engineering version
of the flight simulator data package, as provided to the simulator vendors, and satisfies all criteria for the qualification
of flight simulators specified in the Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight Simulators (Doc 9625).)
2.2
The study followed the outline for an aeronautical study prescribed in section 1.2.32 of the
Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, for assessing the probability of collision. The purpose of this study
was to assess the impact of the balked landing on the definition of the obstacle free zone (OFZ) for aircraft with a
wingspan up to 80 m, using collision risk methodology. In accord with the ICAO collision risk model (CRM), the value
of 1 10-7 defined the target level of safety (TLS) and was therefore the criterion used to define the risk of collision
between an aircraft on the approach and another aircraft, vehicle or object on the ground. Iso-probability contours of
10-7 were constructed from the simulation flight track data to serve as a basis for evaluating the OFZ definition. The
56

Circular 305-AN/177

57

iso-probability contours were constructed at various locations along the flight path of a balked landing beginning at
some range point before runway threshold (e.g. 4 200 m) and continuing along the length of the runway after threshold
(e.g. 200 m past threshold). A detailed report is available upon request.

3. SIMULATOR SESSION ON THE

NASA AMES B747-400 FLIGHT SIMULATOR
3.1
Flight simulator sessions were conducted at the NASA Ames Research Center in a full-motion
B747-400 simulator. Airline pilots were monitored as they performed balked landing procedures under controlled
experimental conditions. For these tests, the go-arounds were initiated by one of the following situations:
a)

simulated air traffic control command issued when the aircraft reached a specified altitude;

b) runway incursion by another aircraft at the holdbar;

c)

vehicle/pedestrian deviation; and

d) active arriving and departing traffic on the runway.

3.2
All landing scenarios used a strong crosswind component. By testing airline pilots under extreme
operational conditions, it was hoped that one could generalize the study results to balked landings outside the testing
environment. Pilot response time data was used as input to Monte Carlo simulations.
3.3
Examination of the NASA Ames simulator data suggested that the Monte Carlo computer simulation
should focus on autopilot controlled balked landings. Compared to manual control with the flight director, the
autopilot-controlled balked landings exhibited smaller lateral deviation from the runway centre line at all aerodrome
elevations considered in the simulator study, namely, at sea level, 760 m, 1 600 m and 2 240 m. The Monte Carlo
computer simulations conducted the balked landings at two aerodrome elevations, namely, at sea level (4 m) and at
1 980 m to correspond to the piloted simulator study. All approaches in the Monte Carlo simulation were conducted in
autoland mode utilizing the pilot response time distributions as determined from examination of the NASA Ames
B747-400 flight simulator data.

4. CONSTRUCTION OF
10-7 ISO-PROBABILITY CONTOURS
4.1
An analysis was made of the wind data and instrument landing systems at forty existing aerodromes
worldwide that were considered likely to host NLAs according to marketing forecasts by manufacturers. The analysis
assumed that ILS critical and sensitive areas were protected. The results of the analysis were used to define composite
models of the wind and instrument landing systems representative of the conditions found at the various aerodrome
locations. The composite models served as input to the computer simulations.
4.2
An examination was made of an immense amount of simulation-generated flight track data at various
perpendicular planes or tiles located at intervals along the flight path. Iso-probability contours were constructed at each
tile location using the lateral and vertical distributions centred on the extended runway centre line. These contours were
based on the location of the centre of gravity of the aircraft and were, at times, oval in shape. The iso-probability
contour at the threshold is shown in Figure C-1. The lateral component of the contour does not vary significantly with
aerodrome elevation due to the tracking capabilities of the autopilot system. The vertical component of the contour is
affected by the atmospheric density while executing the go-around manoeuvre (at higher altitudes the aircraft is flying
faster and producing less lifting force so it travels farther down the runway before beginning to climb).

Figure C-1.

-70

-60

-40

Ground plane

-50

-30

-20

-10

The iso-probability contour at runway threshold

-34

-24

-14

-4

26

36

46

56

66

10

20

30

40

FAA AFS-420

50

Metres before threshold: 0

Airport elevation is13 feet
Maximum X is 48.4 metres
Minimum X is 48.4 metres
Minimum Y is 7.4 metres
Origin is16 metres above ground

Probability under curve is 10 7

60

70

58
Circular 305-AN/177

Circular 305-AN/177

59

4.3
The lower curve in Figure C-1 is the lower half of the oval curve corrected for semispan and wheel
location of the aircraft. The value of semispan used was 40 m (i.e. a total span of 80 m) with the flight path of the
bottom of the wheel located 7.3 m below the horizontal plane of the centre of gravity point. The lower half of the curve
is that part of the curve below the median of the vertical distribution. Therefore, the probability of some part of the
aircraft being below the lower curve is less than 1 10-7. At some tile locations past runway threshold, the ground
plane crosses the lower curve. This indicates that some aircraft are expected to touch wheels on the runway. It does not
indicate that they have impacted the ground or crashed. The ends of the lower curve indicate the maximum distance
from the runway centre line, for a probability of 1 10-7 that one would expect to find an aircraft wing tip.

5.

FINDINGS

The simulation studies, for autoland approaches, found that the maximum distance from the runway centre line that one
would expect to find an aircraft wing tip is contained within 50 m on either side of the centre line. This result is
contained within the dimensions of the balked landing surface found in Table 4-1 of Annex 14, Volume I, where the
code number is 4 and the code letter is E. To ensure ILS signal integrity for the operation of NLAs using autoland, see
the Manual of All-Weather Operations (Doc 9365), section 5.2.13. These findings are part of an aeronautical study
conducted by the United States. A follow-on study involving the use of the aircraft flight director will be included in
Circular 301 New Larger Aeroplanes Infringement of the Obstacle Free Zone: Operational Measures and
Aeronautical Study. This study includes a validation with an adapted A340 research simulator and also includes the use
of an A340-600 engineering model to study the effects of fly-by-wire steering.

END