5.

Locally compact spaces

Definition. A locally compact space is a Hausdorff topological space with the
property
(lc) Every point has a compact neighborhood.
One key feature of locally compact spaces is contained in the following;
Lemma 5.1. Let X be a locally compact space, let K be a compact set in X,
and let D be an open subset, with K D. Then there exists an open set E with:
(i) E compact;
(ii) K E E D.
Proof. Let us start with the following
Particular case: Assume K is a singleton K = {x}.
Start off by choosing a compact neighborhood N of x. Using the results from section
4, when equipped with the induced topology, the set N is normal. In particular, if
we consider the closed sets A = {x} and B = N r D (which are also closed in the
induced topology), it follows that there exist sets U, V N , such that
U {x}, V B, U V = ;
U and V are open in the induced topology on N .
The second property means that there exist open sets U0 , V0 X, such that U =
N U0 and V = N V0 . Let E = Int(U ). By construction E is open, and E 3 x.
Also, since E U N , it follows that
E N = N.

(1)

In particular this gives the compactness of E. Finally, since we obviously have

E V0 U V0 = N U0 V0 = U V = ,
we get E X r V0 , so using the fact that X r V0 is closed, we also get the
inclusion E X r V0 . Finally, combining this with (1) and with the inclusion
N r D V V0 , we will get
E N [X r V0 ] N [X r (N r D)] = N D D,
and we are done.
Having proven the particular case, we proceed now with the general case. For
every x K we use the particular case to find an open set E(x), with E(x) compact,
S
and such that x E(x) E(x) D. Since we clearly have K xK E(x), by
compactness, there exist x1 , . . . , xn K, such that K E(x1 ) E(xn ). Notice
that if we take E = E(x1 ) E(xn ), then we clearly have
K E E E(x1 ) E(xn ) D,
and we are done.

One of the most useful result in the analysis on locally compact spaces is the
following.
25

26

CHAPTER I: TOPOLOGY PRELIMINARIES

Theorem 5.1 (Urysohns Lemma for locally compact spaces). Let X be a

locally compact space, and let K, F X be two disjoint sets, with K compact,
 and
 =1
F closed.
Then
there
exists
a
continuous
function
f
:
X

[0,
1]
such
that
f
K

and f F = 0.
Proof. Apply Lemma 5.1 for the pair K X rF and find an open set E, with
E compact, such that K E E X r F . Apply again Lemma 5.1 for the pair
K E and find another open set G with G compact, such that K G G E.
Let us work for the moment in the space E (equipped with the induced topology). This is a compact Hausdorff space, hence it is normal. In particular, using
Urysohn
 Lemma (see
 section 1) there exists a continuous function g; E [0, 1] such
that g K = 0 and g ErG = 0. Let us now define the function f : X [0, 1] by

g(x) if x E
f (x) =
0
if x X r E



Notice that f E = g E , so f E is continuous. If we take the open set A = X r G,

then it is also clear
 that f A = 0. So now we have two open sets E and A, with
AE = X, and f A and f E both continuous. Then it is clear that f is continuous.


The other two properties f K = 1 and f F = 0 are obvious.

We now discuss an important notion which makes the linkage between locally
compact spaces and compact spaces
Definition. Let X be a locally compact space. By a compactification of X one
means a pair (, T ) consisting of a compact Hausdorff space T , and of a continuous
map : X T , with the following properties
(i) (X) is a dense open subset of T ;
(ii) when we equip (X) with the induced topology, the map : X (X)
is a homeomorphism.
Notice that, when X is already compact, any compactification (, T ) of X is necessarily made up of a compact space T , and a homeomorphism : X T .
Examples 5.1. A. Take [, ] = R {, }, with the usual topology,
in which a set D [, ] is open if D = D0 D1 D2 , where D0 is open in R
and
 


D1 , D2 (a, ] : a R [, a) : a R .
Then [, ] is a compactification of R
B. (Alexandrov compactification) Suppose X is a locally compact space, which
is not compact. We form a disjoint union with a singleton X = X t {}, and
we equip the space X with the topology in which a subset D X is declared to
be open, if either D is an open subset of X, or there exists some compact subset
K X, such that D = (X rK)t{}. Define the inclsuion map : X , X . Then
(, X ) is a compactification of X, which is called the Alexandrov compactification.
The fact that (X) is open in X , and : X (X) is a homeomorphism, is clear.
The density of (X) in X is also clear, since every open set D X , with D 3 ,
is of the form (X r K) t {}, for some compact set K X, and then we have
D (X) = (X r K), which is non-empty, because X is not compact.

5. Locally compact spaces

27

Remark that, if X is already compact, we can still define the topological space
X = X t {}, but this time the singleton set {} will be also be open (equivalently is an isolated point in X ). Although (X) will still be open in X , it
will not be dense in X .
Remark 5.1. Let K be some compact Hausdorff space, and let p K be some
point with the property that the set X = K r {p} is non-compact. Of course, since
X is open, it follows that X is a locally compact space, when equipped with the
induced topology. If we denote by X the Alexandrov compactification of X, then
the map : X K, defined by

x if x X
(x) =
p if x =
is a homeomorphism. Indeed (see Corollary 4.1), since X is compact, and is
obviously bijective, all we need to prove is the fact that is continuous. Start with
some open set D K, and let us show that 1 (D) is open in X . If D 63 p, then
D is open in X, so 1 (D) = D is open in X . If D 3 p, then
1 (D) = [D r {p}] {} = [X r (K r D)] {},
Of course, since K is compact and D K is open, it follows that K r D is closed,
hence compact in K. Since K r D X, it follows that K r D is also compact in
X, so the above equality shows that f 1 (D) is indeed open in X .
One should regard the Alexandrov compactification as a minimal one. More
precisely, one has the following.
Proposition 5.1. Suppose X is a locally compact space which is non-compact.
Let (, T ) be a compactification of X, and let X = X t {} be the Alexandrov
compactification. Then there exists a unique continuous map : T X , such
that ()(x) = x, x X. Moreover, the map has the property that (y) = ,
y T r (X).
Proof. The uniqueness part is pretty obvious, since (X) is dense in T . For
the existence, we use the map : X T to identify X with an open dense subset
of T , and we define : T X by

x
if x X
(x) =
if x T r X
so that all we have to prove is the fact that is continuous. Start with some open
set D in X , and let us prove that 1 is open in T . There are two cases.
Case I : D X.
This case is trivial, 1 (D) = D, and D is open in X, hence also open in T .
Case II : D 6 X.
In this case D 3 , so there exists some compact set K in X, such that D =
X r K = (X r K) {}. We then have
1 (D) = 1 (X r K) 1 ({}) = (X r K) (T r X) = T r K.
Since K is compact in X, it will be compact in T as well. In particular, K is closed
in T , hence the set 1 (D) = T r K is indeed open in T .

It turns out that there exists another compactification which is described below,
which can be regarded as the largest.

28

CHAPTER I: TOPOLOGY PRELIMINARIES

Theorem 5.2 (Stone-Cech).

Let X be a locally compact space. Consider the
set
F = {f : X [0, 1] : f continuous },
and consider the product space
T =

[0, 1],

f F

equipped with the product topology, and define the map : X T by

(x) = f (x) f F , x X.
Equip the closure (X) with the topology induced from T . Then the pair (, (X))
is a compactification of X.
Proof. For every f F , let us denote by f : T [0, 1] the coordinate map.
Remark that : X T is continuous. This is immediate from the definition of
the product topology, since the continuity of is equivalent to the continuity of
all compositions f , f F . The fact that these compositions are continuous is
however trivial, since we have f = f , f F .
Denote for simplicity (X) by B. By Tihonovs Theorem, the space T is compact (and obviously Hausdorff), so the set B is compact as well, being a closed
subset of T . By construction, (X) is dense in B, and is continuous.
At this point, it is interesting to point out the following property
Claim 1: For every f F , there exists a unique continuous map f : B
[0, 1], such that f = f .
The uniqueness is trivial, since
(X) is dense in B. The existence is also trivial,



because we can take f = f B .
We can show now that is injective. If x, y X are such that x 6= y, then
using Urysohn Lemma we can find f F , such that f (x) 6= f (y). The function f
given by Claim 1, clearly satisfies




f (x) = f (x) 6= f (y) = f (y) ,
which forces (x) 6= (y).
In order to show that (X) is open in B, we need some preparations. For every
compact subset K X, we define



FK = f : X [0, 1] : f continuous, f 
=0 .
XrK

On key observation is the following.

Claim 2: If K X is compact, and if f FK , then the
 continuous function
f : B [0, 1], given by Claim 1, has the property fBr(K) = 0.
We start with some B r (K), and we use Urysohn Lemma
to find some

continuous function : B [0, 1] such that () = 1 and (K) = 0. Consider

the function = f. Notice that ( )K = 0, which combined with the fact

that f 
= 0, gives
XrK

= ( ) (f ) = ( ) f = 0,
so using Claim 1 (the uniqueness part), we have = 0. In particular, since () =
1, this forces f() = 0, thus proving the Claim.

5. Locally compact spaces

29

We define now the collection

[

Fc =

FK .

KX
K compact

Define the set

S=

f1 {0} .

f Fc

By the definition of the product topology, it follows that S is closed in T . The fact
that (X) is open in B, is then a consequence of the following fact.
Claim 3: One has the equality (X) = B r S.
Start first with some point x X, and let us show that (x) 6 S. Choose some
compact, such that D 3 x, and apply Urysohn Lemma
open set D X, with D

to find some continuous map f : X [0, 1] such that f (x) = 1 and f XrD = 0.


It is clear that f FD Fc , but f (x) = f (x) = 1 6= 0, which means that


(x) 6 f1 {0} , hence (x) 6 S. Conversely, let us start with some point =
(f )f F B r S, and let us prove that (X). Since 6 S, there exists some
f Fc , such that f () > 0. Since f Fc , there exists some
 compact subset
K X, such that f XrK = 0. Using Claim 2, we know that fBr(K) = 0. Since
f() = f () 6= 0, this forces (K) (X).
To finish the proof of the Theorem, all we need to prove now is the fact that
: X (X) is a homeomorphism, which amounts to proving that, whenever
D X is open, it follows that (D) is open in B. Fix an open subset D X. In
order to show that (D) is open in B, we need to show that (D) is a neighborhood
for each of its points. Fix some point (D), i.e. = (x), for some x D.
Choose some compact subset K D, such that x Int(K), and apply Urysohn
Lemma to find a function f FK , with f (x) = 1. Consider the continuous
function

f : B [0, 1] given by Claim 1, and apply Claim 2 to conclude that fBr(K) = 0.
In particular the open set


N = f1 (1/2, ) B
is contained in (K) (D). Since f() = f (x) = 1, we clearly have x N .

Definition. The compactification (, (X)), constructed in the above Theorem, is called the Stone-Cech compactification of X. The space (X) will be denoted
by X . Using the map , we shall identify from now on X with a dense open subset
of X . Remark that if X is compact, then X = X.
Comment. The Stone-Cech compactification is inherently Zorn Lemma type
construction. For example, if X is a locally compact space, then every ultrafilter
on X gives rise to a point in X , constructed as follows. If : X X denotes the
inclusion map, then for every ultrafilter U on X, we consider the ultrafilter U on
X , and by compactness this ultrafilter converges to some (unique) point in X .
This way one gets a correspondence


limX : U P(X) : U ultrafilter on X X .
The next two exercises discuss the features of this map.
Exercise 1. Let X be a locally compact space.

30

CHAPTER I: TOPOLOGY PRELIMINARIES

A. Prove that, for an ultrafilter U on X, the condition limX U X is equivalent to the condition that U contains a compact subset of X.
B. Prove that, for two ultrafilters U1 , U2 , the condition limX (U1 ) 6= limX (U2 )
is equivalent to the existence of two sets A1 U1 and A2 U2 , that
are separated by a continuous function, that is, for which there exists
a continuous function f : X R, and numbers 1 < 2 , such that
f (A1 ) (, 1 ] and f (A2 ) [2 , ).
C. Prove that the correspondence limX is surjective.
Exercise 2. Suppose a set X is equipped with the discrete topology. Prove that
the correspondence limX is bijective.
The Stone-Cech compactification is functorial, in the following sense.
Proposition 5.2. If X and Y are locally compact spaces, and if : X Y

is a continuous
 map, then there exists a unique continuous map : X Y ,

such that X = .
Proof. We use the notations from Theorem 5.2. Define
F = {f : X [0, 1] : f continuous } and G = {g : Y [0, 1] : g continuous },
the product spaces
TX =

Y
f F

[0, 1] and TY =

[0, 1],

gG

as well as the maps X : X TX and Y : Y TY , defined by

X (x) = f (x) f F , x X;


Y (y) = g(y) gG , y Y.
With these notations, we have X = X (X) TX and Y = Y (Y ) TY . Using
the fact that we have a correspondence G 3 g 7 g F , we define the map
: TX 3 (f )f F 7 (g )gG TY .
Remark that is continuous. This fact is pretty obvious, because when we compose
with corrdinate projections g : TY [0, 1], g G, we have g = g where
g : TX [0, 1] is the coordinate projection, which is automatically continuous.
Remark that if we start with some point x X, then






(2)
X (x) = (g )(x) gG = Y (x) ,
which means that we have the equality X = Y . Remark first that, since Y
is closed, it follows that 1 (Y ) is
closed in TX . Second, using (2), we clearly have
the inclusion X (X) 1 Y (Y ) 1 (Y ), so using the fact that 1 (Y ) is
closed, we get the inclusion
X = X (X) 1 (Y ).

In other words, we get now a continuous map = X : X Y , which
clearly

satisfies X = Y , which using our conventions means that X = . The
uniqueness is obvious, by the density of X in X .


5. Locally compact spaces

31

Remark 5.2. Suppose X is a locally compact space which is not compact,

and Y is a compact Hausdorff space. By the above result, combined with the
identification Y ' Y , we see that any continuous map : X Y has a unique
extension to a continuous map : X Y . In particular, if one takes (, T ) to
be a compactification of X, then : X T extends to a unique continuous map
: X T . This explains why the Stone-Cech compactification is sometimes
referred to as the largest compactification. In particular, if we take (, X ) to be
the Alexandrov compactification, we have a continuous map : X X , which
is given by (x) = , x X r X.
Exercise 3. Let X be a locally compact space, let X denote its Stone-Cech
compactification, and let (, T ) be an arbitrary compactification of X. Denote by
: X T the map described in the above remark. Prove that for a topological
space Y and a map f : T Y , the following are equivalent
(i) f is continuous;
(ii) the composition f : X Y is continuous.
This explains how the topology of T can be reconstructed using the map . More
precisely, the topology of T is the strong topology defined by (see Lemma 3.2)
Exercise 4. The Alexandrov compactification is not functorial. In other words,
given locally compact spaces X and Y , and a continuous map f : X Y , in general
there does not exist a continuous map f : X Y , with f X = f . Give an
example of such a situation.
Hint: Consider X = Y = N, equipped with the discrete topology, and define f : N N by

1
if n is odd
f (n) =
2
if n is even

It turns out that one can define a certain type of continuous maps, with respect
to which the Alexandrov compactification is functorial.
Definition. Let X, Y be locally compact spaces, and let : X Y be a
continuous map. We say that is proper, if it satisfies the condition
K Y , compact 1 (K) compact in X.
Exercise 5 (Functoriality of Alexandrov compactification). Let X and Y be
a locally compact spaces, which are non-compact, and let X and Y denote their
respective Alexandrov compactifications. For a continuous map : X Y , prove
that the following are equivalent:
(i) is proper;

(ii) the map : X Y defined by X = and () = is
continuous.
The following is an interesting property of proper maps, which will be exploited
later, is the following.
Proposition 5.3. Let X, Y be locally compact spaces, let : X Y be a
proper continuous map, and let T X be a closed subset. Then the set (T ) is
closed in X.
Proof. Start with some point y (T ). This means that
(3)

D (T ) 6= , for every open set D Y , with D 3 y.

32

CHAPTER I: TOPOLOGY PRELIMINARIES

Denote by V the collection of all compact neighborhoods of y. In other words,

V V, if and only if V Y is compact, and y Int(V ). For each V V we define
the set V = 1 (V ) T . Since is proper, all sets V , V V, are compact. Notice
also that, for every finite number of sets V1 , . . . , Vn V, if we form the intersection
V = V1 Vn , then V V, and V Vj , j = 1, . . . , n. Remark now that, by
(3), we have V 6= , V V. Indeed, if we start with some V V and we choose
some point x T , such that (x) V , then x V . Use now the finite intersection
T
T
property, to get the fact that V V V 6= . Pick now a point x V V V . This
means that x T , and
(4)

(x) V, V V.

But now we are done, because this forces (x) = y. Indeed, if (x) 6= y, using the
Hausdorff property, one could find some V V with (x) 6 V , thus contradicting
(4).

Comment. When one deals with various compactifications of a non-compact
locally compact space, the following extension problem is often discussed.
Question: Let (, T ) be a compactification of a locally compact space X, let Y
be some topological Hausdorff space, and let : X Y be a continuous
map. When does there exist a continuous map : T Y , such that
= ?
Of course, such a map (if it exists) is unique. Obviously, by density the existence
of will force (T ) = (X), so we see that a necessary condition is the fact that
(X) is compact. In the case of the Stone-Cech compactification, this comdition is
also sufficient, by Remark 5.1.
For the Alexandrov compactification, the answer is given by the following.
Proposition 5.4. Let X be a non-compact locally compact space, let Y be a
topological Hausdorff space, and let : X Y be a continuous map. The following
are equivalent.

(i) There exists a continuous map : X Y with X = .
(ii) There exists some point p Y such that
() for every neighborhood V of p, there exists some compact subset KV
X with (X r KV ) V .
Moreover, the map in (i) is unique, the point p mentioned in (ii) is also unique,
and p = ().
Proof. (ii) (i). Assume is as in (ii), and let us prove (i). Take p = ().
Start with some neighborhood V of p. Since is continuous at , the set 1 (V )
is a neighborhood of in X . In particular there exists some compact set K X,
such that 1 (V ) (X r K) {}. We then obviously have (x) = (x) V ,
x X r K.
(i) (ii). Assume p Y satisfies condition (). Define the map : X Y
by

(x) if x X
(x) =
p
if x =

and let us show that is continuous. Since X = , and is continuous, all we
need to show is the fact that is continuous at . Let V be some neighborhood
of p = (), and let us show that 1 (V ) is a neighborhood of in X . Take D

5. Locally compact spaces

33

an open set in Y with p D V , and use condition () to choose some compact

set K in X, such that (X r K) D, i.e. 1 (D) X r K. We then have
X r 1 (D) K. Since is continuous, the set 1 (D) is open in X, so the set
L = X r 1 (D) is a closed subset of K. In particular, L is compact. It is then
obvious that the set
1 (D) = {} 1 (D) = {} (X r L)
is an open set in X , and so 1 (V ) 1 (D) is indeed a neighborhood of in
X .

Definition. With the notations from the above result, a map : X Y that
satisfies condition (i), is said to have limit p at infinity. With this terminology, we
see that a map has limit at infinity, if and only if it can be extended by continuity
to a map defined on the Alexandrov compactification.
Exercise 6. Let X be a non-compact locally compact space, let Y be a topological Hausdorff space, and let : X Y be a continuous map. Prove that the
following are equivalent.
(i) has limit at infinity.
(ii) There exists
some point p Y such that (X) {p} is compact, and the

map Xr1 ({p}) : X r 1 ({p}) Y is proper.
(iii) The set (X) is compact, and if one denotes by : X Y the
unique
continuous extension of to the Stone-Cech compactification, then

X rX is constant, i.e. there exists some p Y , such that (x) = p,
x X r X.
Moreover, the points p mentioned in (ii) and (iii) are unique, and they coincide
with the limit in (i).
Comment. Let X be a non-compact locally compact space, and let (, T ) be a
compactification of X. Think, for simplicity, X as an open subset in T . Of course,
since X is dense in T , it follows that for every point p T there exists some net
(x ) in X, which converges to p. Conversely, it is natural to pose the following
Question: Given a net (x ) in X, when does (x ) converge to a point
in T ?
(To make this question interesting, we exclude the case when (x ) converges
to some point in X.) For the Alexandrov compactification, the answer is pretty
simple, since is the only new point, and by construction we see that the
condition lim x = (in X ) is equivalent to the condition
for every compact set K X, there exists some K , such that x
X r K,  K .
For the Stone-Cech compactification, the answer is given in the following.
Exercise 7. Let X be a non-compact locally compact space, and let (x )
be a net in X. Prove that the following are equivalent:
(i) the net (x ) is convergent to some point p X ;
(ii) for every continuous function f : X [0, 1], the net (f (x )) is convergent to some number in [0, 1].
Moreover, for every continuous function f : X [0, 1], one has the equality
lim f (x ) = f (p), where f : X [0, 1] is the continuous extension of f .