Plastically. Elastically.: Creep

CREEP:
When a material is subjected to a stress that is greater than to its yield

stress, the material deforms plastically. When the stress is below this level,
then in principle it should only deform elastically.
However, provided the temperature is relatively high, plastic deformation
can occur even when the stress is lower than the yield stress. This
deformation is time-dependent and is known as creep.
The rate of this deformation is a function of the material properties,
exposure time, exposure temperature and the applied structural load.
The creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a tensile
specimen maintained at a constant temperature, (according to ASTM E13970).
Page 1 of 7
THE CREEP CURVE:

During loading under a constant stress, the strain often varies as a function
of time in the manner
shown below:
Figure: Typical creep
curve showing three
stages of creep
Note: B curve is obtained
when the stress rather
than
the
load
is
maintained.
A typical creep curve
shows
three
distinct
stages with different creep
rates. After an initial rapid
elongation o, the creep rate decrease with time until reaching the steady
state.
1) Primary creep provides decreasing creep rate. It is a period of transient
creep in which the creep resistance of the material increases due to material
deformation.
2) Secondary creep gives the representing constant creep rate, which
results from a balance between the competing processes of strain
hardening and recovery. For this reason, secondary creep is usually
referred to as steady-state creeps. The average value of the creep rate
during this period is called the minimum creep rate.
3) Tertiary creep yields a rapid creep rate till failure. It occurs when there is
an effective reduction in cross-sectional area either because of necking or
internal void formation.
The third stage is often associated with metallurgical changes such as
coarsening of precipitate particles, recrystallization or diffusional changes in
the phase that are present.
Page 2 of 7
CREEP MECHANISMS: (Diffusion creep and Dislocation creep)

1. Diffusion Creep
Diffusion creep occurs by transport of material via diffusion of atoms
Like all diffusional processes, it is driven by a gradient of free energy
(chemical potential), created in this case by the applied stress.
For example, an applied tensile stress creates regions of high
hydrostatic tension at the extremities of each grain, along the loading
direction.
Diffusion occurs on the scale of the individual grains, diffusion
distances are shorter in fine-grained materials, which thus tend to be
more susceptible to creep.
There are two types of diffusion creep, depending on whether the
diffusion paths are predominantly through the grain boundaries, termed
Coble creep (favoured at lower temperatures) or through the grains
themselves, termed Nabarro-Herring creep (favoured at higher
temperatures).
1) Coble creep:
Coble creep, a form of diffusion creep, is a mechanism for deformation
of crystalline solids.
Coble creep occurs through the diffusion of atoms in a material along
the grain boundaries, which produces a net flow of material and a
sliding of the grain boundaries.
Page 3 of 7
2. Nabarro-Herring creep
Nabarro-Herring creep is a form of diffusion controlled creep. In
Nabarro-Herring creep, atoms diffuse through the lattice causing grains
to elongate along the stress axis;
Nabarro-Herring creep is strongly temperature dependent.
For lattice diffusion of atoms to occur in a material, neighboring lattice
sites or interstitial sites in the crystal structure must be free.
A given atom must also overcome the energy barrier to move from its
current site to the nearby vacant site.
Page 4 of 7
Q
D = D o exp - d
RT
The general form of the diffusion equation is

where D0
has a dependence on both the attempted jump frequency and the
number of nearest neighbor sites and the probability of the sites being
vacant.
Thus there is a double dependence upon temperature. At higher
temperatures the diffusivity increases due to the direct temperature
dependence of the equation,
2. Dislocation Creep
Page 5 of 7
Dislocation creep is a mechanism involving motion of dislocations. This

mechanism of creep tends to dominate at high stresses and relatively low
temperatures.
Dislocations can move by gliding in a slip plane, a process requiring little
thermal activation.
However, the rate-determining step for their motion is often a climb process,
which requires diffusion and is thus time-dependent and favoured by higher
temperatures. Obstacles in the slip plane, such as other dislocations,
precipitates or grain boundaries, can lead to such situations.
Page 6 of 7
Figure: Pile-up of dislocations at an obstacle.
Figure: Dislocation climb and slip past an obstacle.
Page 7 of 7

Plastically. Elastically.: Creep

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CREEP:

When a material is subjected to a stress that is greater than to its yield

THE CREEP CURVE:

CREEP MECHANISMS: (Diffusion creep and Dislocation creep)

The general form of the diffusion equation is

Dislocation creep is a mechanism involving motion of dislocations. This

Figure: Pile-up of dislocations at an obstacle.

Figure: Dislocation climb and slip past an obstacle.

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