The Coefficient of Broad-Crested Weir in Natural Channels: Abstract

International Journal of Science and Engineering Invention (IJSEI)
Volume 01 Issue 01 December 2015

Available Online at www.isij.in
The Coefficient of Broad-Crested Weir in Natural Channels

Ahmed Said, PhD, PE
Principal Engineering Consultant, Hydro Assess, Inc.
21859 State Road 54, Lutz, FL 33549, USA
Tel: 1(813) 312-0090, Fax: 1(813) 381-6792
Email: - admin@hydroassess.com
Abstract:-Weirs have been designed and used extensively in hydraulic structures to control the flow depth
and discharge. To estimate the discharge over the weir, a weir coefficient is required. The discharge
coefficient can be obtained experimentally as a function of the dimensionless total head of the approaching
flow or as a function of various parameters. However, a universally acceptable discharge coefficient does
not exist. Beside the man-made weirs that have been constructed by hydraulic engineers, some natural
channel characteristics and slopes can be simulated as broad-crested weirs that are clearly noticeable in
examining water surface profiles. The study area is Centralia watershed in Central Florida, which contains
several cascades of step like waterfalls that can be selected for transecting. Cross-section data from 5
transects and detailed hydraulic data was obtained using the Digital terrain model (DTM) and the Triangular
Irregular Network (TIN). The Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) stepbackwater technique was used to calculate water surface profiles for natural channels that are likely used for
storm water drainage. The results show that these channels have chains of steps that dissipate the momentum
of falling water in steep areas and maintain a steady rate of flow. The weir coefficients were determined by
comparing the steady state discharges to the equivalent weir discharges. The results indicate that the weir
coefficient can be expressed as a function of weir height and channel cross-section area. The relationship
between this function and the weir coefficient showed a high correlation with R2 = 0.991. The results of this
study can be used to estimate the discharge in similar reaches in any water surface profile.
Keywords: - HEC-RAS, Digital Terrain Model, Triangular Irregular Network, steady state discharge
INTRODUCTION: Natural channel characteristics affect flow type and velocity. These channels are usually long and
narrow and generally display the most dramatic effects of surface runoff. Studying the flow in these
channels is achievable using hydrodynamic models that calculate water profiles and elevations under a given
discharge. Depending on the slope and other shape and geometric characteristics, channel segments may act
as broad-crested weirs. In these locations, flow can change from subcritical to supercritical through critical
flow, where a single value relation between stage and discharge exists. Discharge through these channels is
usually measured using hydraulic control structures.
A common property of hydraulic control structures such as weirs, flumes, pipes, or culverts is that
they might cause the flow upstream of the structure to rise above the normal flow depth; this is called
backwater. An equation like Manning's equation cannot be used to evaluate flow in the region where the
backwater occurs or to evaluate flow properties of the hydraulic control structure. A hydraulic structure can
act as a sluice gate if its upstream side is submerged and acts as an orifice if its upstream and downstream
sides are submerged. However, in order for a structure to act as a weir or a spillway, its sides should be
submerged and the body of the structure should be underwater.However, a weir will not be called
submerged unless its tail water elevation is at least as high as its crest. The most common types of weirs are
the broad-crested weir, the sharp-crested weir and the ogee crest weir. In this report, the discharge
coefficient of broad-crested weirs will be discussed.
Corresponding Author- Ahmed Said, PhD, PE
Page 1

The main requirement for broad-crested weirs consideration is that they should have sufficient length
to allow parallel streamlines at least along a short distance above the crest. If these weirs exist, they can be
used to calculate discharge over their crests, which require the discharge coefficient to be known. The
discharge coefficient accounts for turbulent flow losses that lower the water surface flowing over crest.
The objectives of this study are to determine an acceptable value or method for the weir coefficient
and to determine the conditions where a channel segment is better to be modeled as a weir than a regular
channel. In other words, determine the conditions where the weir equation, which includes a weir
coefficient, is more convenient than Manning's equation in an open channel or hydrodynamic simulation.
In this study, cross-section data from 5 transects in Centralia watershed in Central Florida was
collected. The Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) was used to calculate
water surface profiles for natural channels that provide storm water drainage. Water surface profiles
produced by the HEC-RAS model were examined and channel segments that form weir-like characteristics
were determined. The first three transects were used to construct the relationship between the weir
coefficients as a function of the flow area and weir head. The other two transects were used to validate the
relationship.
STUDY AREA
The Centralia watershed is in the northwestern portion of Hernando County, Florida with an area of
71.2 km2 (25.7 mi2) that discharges into the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 1). Centralia watershed is considered
part of the Springs Coast watershed in the Comprehensive Watershed Management (CWM) program in the
Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). The watershed is predominantly flat although
it has relatively higher areas in the eastern part of the watershed sloping towards the west. The watershed
consists of freshwater marshes and swamps in the west and a mixture of low-density residential
developments and open/forested land throughout the rest of the watershed. Hydraulic features within the
Centralia watershed include unnamed waterbodies, culverts, drop inlets, road overflows, saddles and weirs.
Figure 1. Site Location

Page 2

BROAD-CRESTED WEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND EQUATIONS
The flow equation of any hydraulic structure depends on its boundary conditions (e.g., if the
structure is submerged upstream, downstream or both). Equations differ mainly due to different head losses
resulting from the boundary conditions. Each flow equation represents a relationship of discharge as a
function of the weir head (the elevation of the water surface above the weir). Water surface elevation above
the weir should be measured at a distance 4-5 times the weir head upstream of the weir. When river
segments act as natural weirs, they allow a certain flow of water to exit in the main stem depending on the
level of water in the river. Normally, river banks that separate the depressions do not have a sharp edge and
often there is not a vertical fall behind it, therefore, it is more convenient to consider them as broad-crested
weirs. Broad-crested weir flow occurs when the upstream head above the crest is between the limits of about
1/20 and 1/2 the crest length in the direction of flow. For example, a thick wall or a flat stop log can act like
a sharp-crested weir when the approach head is large enough that the flow springs from the upstream corner.
If aupstream head is small enough relative to the top profile length, the stop log can act like a broad-crested
weir (USBR, 1997).
Theoretical Weir Coefficient

Theoretically, considering a horizontal strip of width L and depth h below the free surface, discharge
can be expressed as:
(1)
Which by integration for a rectangular weir of constant depth H with free overfall, will be
(2)
Note however that the equation will be different for every different shaped weir. The importance of
this equation is that it determines the discharge by measuring only the head and the width of the weir which
is often a constant and without measuring the velocity. For natural weirs, this integration depends on the
flow area and channel bottom leveling above which the head is measured since the weir height is zero. In
1898, Unwin showed that the theoretical formula for discharge over a broad-crested weir should take the
following form that combines an empirical coefficient with the constant in the following equation (Horton,
1907):
(3)
Where L is the weir length, C is the weir coefficient and H is the head above the crest. There are two
approaches to determine the weir coefficient; constant weir coefficient and variable weir coefficient. It is
known, however, that C is not exactly a constant (Brater and King, 1976). The following are some details
about these approaches.
Page 3

Constant Weir Coefficient
Many experiments have been made to determine the weir coefficient. The first set of experiments
had been investigated by Francis by applying the continuity equation and substituting the mean velocity by
and the area as LH (rectangular sharp crested weir). He then added a coefficient to account for
reduction of height by the crest contraction (Arora, 2005). The equation then became:
(4)
Where m is the mass and g is gravity force. Francis considered the amounts
and
represented them by C, which he considered to be equal to 3.33 by experiments.
as constants and
(5)
The Cipoletti weir equation is similar as shown below for Q in ft3/sand head and length in feet units
(USBR, 1997).
(6)
A standard Cipoletti weir is trapezoidal in shape. The crest and sides of the weir plate are placed far
enough from the bottom and sides of the approach channel to produce full contraction. The sides incline
outwardly at a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical.
Variable Weir Coefficient
In this approach, the weir coefficient varies with weir geometry (i.e. crest width, slope of upstream
face, height of crest above the approach channel, etc.). It also varies with overflow depth and thus is usually
not constant for the range of discharges. Also, in order for the weir equation to be applicable for the full
range of discharges, the channel flow downstream of the weir must be supercritical or pass through critical
depth. If a weir equation is used, the choice of discharge coefficient must be documented with reference(s)
or calculations and supercritical flow downstream of the weir must be shown for the range of discharges.
For a single orifice, the orifice discharge can be determined using the standard orifice equation below.
Weir discharge can be determined from a standard weir equation (Sturm, 2001) as
(7)
where
(8)
C incorporates the effects on discharge of the approach velocity, head loss and contraction.
Page 4

A variable coefficient also has been suggested by Brater and King, 1976 for the general equation of the
broad-crested weir. If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent contraction and
if the slope of the crest is as great as the loss of head due to friction, flow will pass through critical depth at
the weir crest; this gives the C value of 3.087. For sharp corners on the broad-crested weir, a minimum C
value of 2.6 should be used.
HEC-RAS has the option to use Hagers Lateral Weir Equation for side weirs (Hager, 1987). The
equation is similar to the standard weir equation except the weir coefficient is a function of hydraulic and
physical properties
(9)
where
= Function of weir shape
For a zero height weir, hw = 0, y = 1,
= 3.4 Co and
(10)
METHODOLOGY
HEC-RAS
The US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System (HECRAS) model which was selected to compute water surface profiles,assumes a steady, gradually varied flow
scenario and is called the direct step method. The model resolves the basic one-dimensional energy equation
based on an iterative solution
The model requires as input cross-sections for each transect, including left and right bank locations,
roughness coefficients and contraction and expansion coefficients. A steady state condition of a hypothetical
flow of 0.28 m3/s (10 cfs) was assumed.
Page 5

Figure 2. Transects
RESULTS
In HEC-RAS, the results show water surface elevations throughout the entire analysis with the initial
conditions. Figures 3 and 4 show two transects for water surface profiles; other transects were developed in
a similar manner.
Figure 3. Water Surface Profile for Transect 1
Page 6

With a steady state discharge of 10 cfs, cross-sectional areas and the head calculated by HEC-RAS,
the weir coefficient (C) can be calculated as:
(11)
Table 1 was constructed initially by HEC-RAS with some additional calculations by MS Excel
which gave the weir coefficient:
(12)
Using optimization to determine the parameters for N, a and b and minimize the errors, the following
function is the best presentation for the relationship:
(13)
Page 7

Table 1. Weir Coefficients for Steady State Discharge of 10 cfs for transects 1, 2, and 3
X-Section
Flow Area
A
195
191
190
186
183
181
177
174
168
165
162
158
156
154
149
146
144
141
130
127
5.69
13.79
4.71
8.92
8.73
12.46
8.65
12.61
16.3
6.06
6.19
16.06
8.56
7.58
9.43
12.38
18.81
10.89
32.12
15.75
Top
Width
(T)
59.02
38.24
35.97
231.5
219.9
113.5
60.74
91.66
132.2
77.82
40.18
148.3
22.68
15.73
30.22
68.58
40.77
46.04
159.4
138.3
A/T
Q1
(C = 1)
A/H
T/H
C = Q/Q1
0.096
0.361
0.131
0.039
0.040
0.110
0.142
0.138
0.123
0.078
0.154
0.110
0.380
0.481
0.311
0.184
0.463
0.241
0.202
0.113
5.68
10.4
1.88
5.24
1.76
5.95
4.06
5.78
7.82
2.01
3.16
5.08
4.11
4.15
3.77
6.31
9.95
3.77
14.7
7.72
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0.21
0.42
0.14
0.08
0.04
0.14
0.22
0.21
0.23
0.11
0.26
0.11
0.23
0.32
0.16
0.26
0.28
0.12
0.21
0.24
27.1
32.83
33.64
111.5
218.25
89
39.32
60.05
70.87
55.09
23.81
160.6
37.22
25.27
58.94
47.62
67.18
90.75
152.95
65.63
281.1
91.05
256.9
2893
5499
810.6
27.61
43.65
57.46
70.75
15.45
148.3
9.86
5.24
18.89
26.38
14.56
38.37
75.9
57.6
1.76
0.96
5.31
1.91
5.68
1.68
2.46
1.73
1.28
4.98
3.17
1.97
2.44
2.41
2.65
1.58
1
2.65
0.68
1.3
Figure 5 shows the change in C versus the change in f. This function should be calculated and weir
coefficient can be determined using the relation:
(15)
Figure 5. Relationship between C and f
Page 8

VALIDATION
Other cross-section setswere processed along transects 4 and 5. The set consists of 63 cross-sections,
located as shown in Figure 6. Selected cross-sections from these transects are shown in Table 2. This table
includes results from HEC-RAS as well as additional calculation for the factor f, weir coefficient C and
discharge Q. The general characteristics of this cross-section group are:
1. Froude Number (Fr) is greater than 0.24 (generally, subcritical flow and supercritical flow is
distinguished by the Fr. If the Fr is larger than 1, the flow is supercritical; if the Fr is smaller than 1 it
is subcritical.). In other words the minimum
is 1.36 or the minimum
is 2.8 as shown in
Table 3.
2. The greatest C corresponds to the highest slope and highest Fr and the lowest C corresponds to
lowest slope and lowest Fr. The slope in Table 3 for each cross-section is the slope of the channel
downstream of the cross-section. This suggests that there is a relation between weir coefficient and
the slope just downstream of the cross-section, as shown in Figure 7, with R2 greater than 0.99.
7. Figure Relationship between Slope and Weir Coefficient

Page 9

Table 2. Weir Coefficients for Steady State Discharge of 10 cfs for transect 5
River
Sta
Slope
Vel
(ft/s)
Flow Area
(sq ft)
Top Width
(ft)
Fr #
62
58
57
55
54
48
47
46
42
41
32
30
27
26
21
19
6
2
0.027538
0.001234
0.037788
0.018393
0.022338
0.009886
0.028358
0.028617
0.007601
0.028351
0.036728
0.02866
0.02565
0.025625
0.021233
0.001855
0.03347
0.027656
1.85
0.65
1.78
1.43
2.61
1.01
1.82
1.94
1.15
1.9
1.41
1.7
2.04
2.08
1.23
0.73
1.39
1.9
5.42
15.31
5.62
6.99
3.83
9.9
5.5
5.15
8.67
5.25
7.09
5.89
4.91
4.81
8.12
13.67
7.22
5.27
50.91
66.58
70.81
71.08
18.03
106.52
54.02
46.11
62.82
48.09
123.59
64.64
37.74
35.68
115.15
68.04
120.66
47.57
1
0.24
1.11
0.8
1
0.58
1
1.02
0.55
1.02
1.04
0.99
1
1
0.82
0.29
1
1.01
0.11
0.23
0.08
0.1
0.21
0.09
0.1
0.11
0.14
0.11
0.06
0.09
0.13
0.13
0.07
0.2
0.06
0.11
4.87
1.93
5.35
4.30
4.77
3.59
5.00
5.03
3.18
4.97
5.14
4.98
4.87
4.93
4.46
2.18
5.09
4.96
5.38
1.38
6.04
4.60
5.25
3.64
5.56
5.60
3.26
5.52
5.76
5.53
5.38
5.47
4.83
1.72
5.68
5.50
10.00
10.14
9.68
10.35
9.10
10.47
9.49
9.42
10.74
9.68
10.46
9.65
9.53
9.15
10.29
10.49
10.07
9.55
3. The weir coefficient ranges between 1.4 and 6.

4. Based on the downstream slope this set can be divided into three groups:
a. Steep slope, averages 0.0292 and C average is 5.5
b. Mild slope averages 0.0198 and C average is 4.7
c. Low slope average 0.00874 and C average is 3.4
d. Very low slope average 0.00154 and C average is 1.5.
5. To determine if a cross-section or a reach can be modeled as a weir or a channel, first the slope needs
to be checked. It should be greater than the very low slope that is mentioned above. Using the
relation in Figure 7, the initial coefficient can be estimated.
6. The discharge is within 5% from the initial0.28 m3/s(10 cfs) as shown in
Figure 8.
7. The cross-sections in Table 3 that have Froude Number greater than 0.24 are giving discharges that
are close to the input discharge of 0.28 m3/s (10 cfs). The cross-sections that have Fr Number greater than
0.24, greater than 1.36 or
cfs).
greater than 2.8 in Table 4 also have discharge very close to0.28 m3/s(10
However, some cross-sections are better represented when modeled as weirs and other cross-sections
are better represented when modeled as a channel. The conditions for modeling as weirs cannot be always
met. For example, Table 3 shows the rest of the cross-sections in the same group with some characteristics
that for most of the cross-sections do not satisfy the above conditions. The ideal flow for weir modeling is
that it passes through critical depth near the break in slope.
Page 10

Channel profile can be checked to determine which way the cross-sections can be modeled. For a
reach to be modeled as a weir, one of the following conditions needs to be met:
1. A channel whose slope changes from any slope to a steeper slope. Example is a channel whose slope
changes from mild to steep. Another example is a pool or negative slope discharging into a mild or
steep channel where the invert of the channel acts as a weir. For instance, cross-section 32 in Figure
6 is a somewhat horizontal reach downstream from a waterfall descending over a steep channel bed.
This segment of the channel is used to store water, which is functioning exactly as a weir as it rises
to a depth above normal flow depth. This allows parallel streamlines at least along a short distance
above the crest, which appear to coincide with the channel bed at this cross-section. The crest height
at this cross-section is zero, which means that weir height above the crest is the channel water depth.
If the cross-section area and water depth are known then Equation 13 may be used to find the weir
coefficient.
2. A channel whose slope changes from negative or pool to mild. An example is cross section 21,
shown in Figure 6 and 9.
Figure 8. Discharge Difference from the Steady State 10 cfs
Figure 9. Example of a pool discharging into a mild channel

Page 11

Table 3. Weir Coefficients for Discharge of 0.28 m3/s (10 cfs) for transect 5
Station
Slope
Velocity
63
61
60
59
56
53
52
51
50
49
45
44
43
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
31
29
28
25
24
23
22
20
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
5
4
3
0
0.000045
0.000003
0.000005
0.000006
0.000003
0
0
0.000111
0.003125
0.000252
0.010898
0.009028
0.000015
0.000312
0.007698
0.000009
0.000002
0.000313
0.000031
0.000321
0.004523
0.000079
0.000006
0
0
0
0
0.00024
0.022796
0.000001
0
0
0
0
0.000001
0.000001
0
0
0
0
0.000002
0
0.000103
0
0.18
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.03
0.05
0.35
0.85
0.37
1.3
1.23
0.13
0.35
1.17
0.14
0.06
0.29
0.14
0.31
0.91
0.26
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.29
1.33
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.3
2660
55
132
118
109
96
301
214
29
12
27
8
8
75
28
9
74
169
34
70
32
11
38
100
1169
1638
1310
767
34
8
194
318
700
487
472
207
325
956
618
717
801
152
623
33
284
133
177
179
156
75
122
95
54
70
86
61
61
129
109
61
85
208
178
185
155
77
83
135
365
425
478
311
146
101
225
289
402
412
341
200
477
513
377
393
323
174
218
71
V/D
Fr#
0
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0
0.01
0.08
0.36
0.11
0.64
0.59
0.03
0.12
0.55
0.03
0.01
0.12
0.04
0.12
0.42
0.07
0.02
0
0
0
0
0.11
0.86
0.01
0
0
0
0
0.01
0.01
0
0
0
0
0.01
0
0.08
9.35
0.41
0.75
0.66
0.7
1.23
2.46
2.24
0.54
0.17
0.32
0.13
0.13
0.58
0.26
0.14
0.87
0.81
0.19
0.38
0.21
0.14
0.46
0.74
3.62
4.55
3.02
2.47
0.24
0.07
0.89
1.28
3.06
1.97
1.93
1.74
0.96
2.59
1.98
2.2
3.81
0.87
3.72
0.46
0.018
0.666
0.304
0.342
0.352
0.313
0.117
0.151
0.906
2.435
1.136
3.525
3.407
0.482
1.198
3.215
0.419
0.253
1.184
0.585
1.189
2.734
0.804
0.365
0.043
0.032
0.042
0.064
1.089
4.468
0.224
0.143
0.063
0.093
0.096
0.169
0.157
0.055
0.080
0.070
0.054
0.264
0.063
0.879
-1.22
-0.33
-0.82
-0.77
-0.76
-0.81
-1.08
-1.03
0.00
2.10
0.32
3.59
3.43
-0.58
0.40
3.16
-0.67
-0.89
0.38
-0.44
0.39
2.51
-0.14
-0.74
-1.18
-1.20
-1.18
-1.15
0.25
4.88
-0.93
-1.04
-1.15
-1.11
-1.11
-1.01
-1.03
-1.16
-1.13
-1.14
-1.17
-0.88
-1.15
-0.04
-9880
-11.5
-94.7
-74.1
-69.3
-82.7
-509
-330
0.02
10.27
4.89
10.33
9.77
-33.1
5.80
10.11
-45.8
-135
5.63
-19
5.81
10.14
-3.59
-63.8
-2973
-4931
-2965
-1389
4.31
9.12
-176
-437
-2484
-1267
-1013
-463
-459
-2491
-1188
-1465
-2799
-124.
-1807
-0.81
Page 12

There are other conditions that need to be modeled as a channel. As shown in Table 3 if, by using
this method, the weir coefficient or the discharge is negative, the reach will be modeled as a channel. In
general, the reaches that have either very low velocities (less than 0.65 fps) or Fr numbers less than 0.24
should be modeled as a channel. Some conditions from transect 5 can be summarized as follows:
1. A steep channel discharging into a mild channel or pool or the opposite.
2. A channel on a mild slope discharging into a pool. This situation often exists upstream of a bridge or
culvert where, for instance, the headwater elevation required for flow through a culvert results in a
pool upstream of the culvert that can influence water surface elevations for some distance upstream.
These conditions can be modeled as a channel and gradually varied water surface profile calculations
need to be made.
CONCLUSIONS
Modeling a stream is usually carried out using Mannings equation considering the stream as a
channel. However, a natural swale, overland flow during natural storm events or ephemeral streams can be
modeled either as a channel or as a series of channel reaches and weirs if they satisfy the weir conditions. If
a natural stream is simulated as a channel, the step-backwater method or Mannings equation can be used.
However, Mannings equation was developed for conditions of uniform flow in which the water-surface
profile and energy gradient are parallel to the streambed and the area, hydraulic radius and depth remain
constant throughout the reach and can be used only for lack of a better solution (Rantz, 1982). In addition,
Mannings equation incorporates an n value to parameterize channel roughness, which has proven
problematic in that even trained observers produce estimates of channel roughness that can differ by 10 to
15% (Ladd et al, 2003). Therefore, under some conditions the uniform flow assumption in deriving
Mannings equation is not appropriate, and gradually varied water surface profile calculations (e.g., the stepbackwater method) must be made.
There are five transects presented in this study. A linear relationship between weir coefficient and a
function containing the area and water depth is developed. The result from the presented transects shows
that a channel cross-section can be modeled as a weir wherever the weir conditions have been satisfied. The
main condition is that there should be an increase in the channel slope between the upstream and
downstream such that the channel invert that can be considered a weir crest (e.g., from pool to mild or steep
or steeper). Channels that have a chain of steps for dissipating the momentum of falling water in steep places
in order to maintain a steady rate of flow most likely will have some reaches that can be modeled as weirs.
Other conditions were shown for reaches that can be ideally modeled as channels.
REFERENCES
Arora, K.R., 2005. Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines, Standard Publishers Distributors,
Jan 1, 2005 - Fluid dynamics - 1128 pages
Brater, E. F. and H. W. King, 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
Hager, W. H., Lateral Outflow Over Side-Weirs, Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 113, No.
4, April, 1987.
Horton, R., 1907. Weir Experiments, Coefficients, and Formula, Washington
Government Printing Office.
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Ladd , Jonathan, Peter Yuricek , and James M. Hassett, 2003. Stream Flow Regression Equations as an
Alternative to Mannings Equation.
Kindsvater, C. E. and R. W. Carter. 1959. Discharge characteristics of rectangular thin-plate weirs.
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers. v. 24. Paper No. 3001.
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). 1986. Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds. Technical
Release No. 55. USDA. Washington D.C.
Rantz, S. E. (1982), Measurement and computation of streamflow: Volume 1. Measurement of stage and
discharge, U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Pap., p. 2175.
Sturm, T.W., 2001, Open Channel Hydraulics: McGraw-Hill, New York, 493 p.
Unwin, W. C., 1907. Treatise on Hydraulics, Adam and Charles Black, London.
United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR). Water Measurement Manual. 1978.
http://www.usbr.gov/wrrl/fmt/wmm/
U.S. Corps of Engineers (2008). HEC-RAS River Analysis System Hydraulic Reference Manual Version
4.0.
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International Journal of Science and Engineering Invention (IJSEI)

Volume 01 Issue 01 December 2015