Asphalt Technology

Integrated into

Road Engineering
for the ropics

Bridging science and practice

By
Associate Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendro SUBROTO, MSc., PhD.
 Asphalt Technology
Integrated into

Road Engineering
for the Tropics

Bridging science and practice

By
Associate Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendro SUBROTO, MSc., PhD.

2014 Hendro Subroto (SBRT57@GMAIL.COM)

ISBN/EAN: 978-90-9028574-0
Abbreviations:

AC Asphalt Concrete
DAC Dense Asphalt Concrete
PA Porous Asphalt
SMA Stone Mastic Asphalt
GAC Gravel Asphalt Concrete
SAC Stone Asphalt Concrete
OAC Open Asphalt Concrete
AC-Surf Asphalt Concrete Surface layer
AC-Bind Asphalt Concrete Binder layer
AC-Base Asphalt Concrete Base layer
AMP Asphalt Mixing Plant
PR Partial Recycling
PR-Asphalt Partial Recycling Asphalt
C-Fix Carbon Fixation
PMB Polymer Modified Bitumen
SBS Styrene Butadiene Styrene
EVA Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
CBR California Bearing Ratio
A/M-Ratio Asphaltene/Maltene-Ratio
BANDS Bitumen and Asphalt Nomographs Developed by Shell
SPDM Shell Pavement Design Method
BISAR Bitumen Stress Analysis in Roads
Stress
x, y, z Stresses in the 3 orthogonal directions
v Stress in vertical direction
r Stress in radial direction
Strain
x, y, z Strains in the 3 orthogonal directions
Shear
x, y, z Shears in the 3 orthogonal directions
Poisson ratio
Angle
(m/m) Mass on mass
(v/v) Volume on volume
[cm] Centimetre
[mm] Millimetre
[m] Micrometer
[C] Degree Celsius
[Kg] Kilogram
[N] Newton
[KN] Kilo Newton
[MPa] Mega Pascal
t Time
tc Traffic Class
min. aggr. Mineral Aggregate
Aggr. Aggregate
Pen. Penetration
Pm Marshall Stability
Fm Marshall Flow
Qm Marshall Quotient
Emod Modulus of Elasticity
Smod Stiffness Modulus
Svert, Shor Steps Dimension, Vertical Resp. Horizontal
4PB Four-Point Bending
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
Table of Contents:

Introduction 4

I. Asphalt Technology 5
I.1. Bitumen 5
I.1.1. Chemical Components 6
I.1.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Bitumen 8
I.2. Asphalt Mixtures 9
I.2.1. Structure 10
I.2.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Asphalt Mixtures 14
I.3. Asphalt Mixtures in Road Construction 16
I.3.1. Functions of Asphalt Mixtures in Road Construction 16
I.3.2. Examples of Asphalt Mixtures 19
I.4. Effects of Vibrations, High Stiffness and Shear on Asphalt Mixtures 20
I.4.1. Effects of Vibrations 21
I.4.2. Effects of High Stiffness (C-Fix, PMB, PR and Combi-Surf) 21
I.4.3. Effects of Shear 23

II. Asphalt Techno-Road Construction Design 24

II.1. Theoretical Approach 24
II.1.1. Construction Structure and Gradation of the Layers 24
II.1.2. Stresses and Strains and Mohrs Circle 26
II.1.3. Stepwise Downsizing of the Asphalt Layers Upwards 28
II.2. Data for Construction Calculation 29
II.2.1. Traffic 29
II.2.2. Subgrade 31
II.2.3. Applicable Materials for Base and Subbase Layers 32
II.3. Construction Calculation Using Software 33
II.3.1. BANDS 2.0 33
II.3.2. SPDM 3.0 36
II.3.3. BISAR 3.0 40
II.4. Drainage and Maintenance 42
II.4.1. Drainage 42
II.4.2. Maintenance (small and big repair/reconstruction) 43

III. Upgrading and Testing Asphalt Mixtures 45

III.1. Theoretical Approach 45
III.2. Examples - Upgrading Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) 46
III.2.1. MODUS 47
III.2.2. DESA 47
III.3. Testing Asphalt Mixtures 49
III.3.1. Marshall 49
III.3.2. Four-Point Bending (4PB) 50
III.3.3. Rolling Bottle 51
III.3.4. Deflection (FWD) 52

IV. Implementation in Tropical Road Engineering 54

IV.1. Implementation 54
IV.2. Quality Controlled Road Engineering 54
IV.3. Example of Calculation and Application 56

Literature 59
Introduction

Until a few decades ago, road engineering worldwide had mostly been carried
out based on the purely empirical method of experience. In the last decades,
however, some universities have been trying to improve the quality of road
construction by doing research in their labs. Some local government offices
dealing with road construction have also made some efforts to improve the
quality of roads under their maintenance responsibility by approaching the
construction more scientifically and by carrying out research.

In approaching road construction problems (deformation, ravelling, cracks,

potholes etc.) more scientifically, one has to include Asphalt Technology, which
gives more insight into the behaviour of mixtures produced with bitumen. An
integrated approach using Road Construction theories and Asphalt Technology
is necessary to better understand the problems and to minimise the problems
may occur as much as possible. Furthermore, it is very important to learn from
the results in practice, since some theories do not entirely match the real
situation on the field due to variations in circumstances.

Unlike most municipalities worldwide, the city of Utrecht (the Netherlands) has
been carrying out a lot of research regarding road construction and
implementing Asphalt Technology. The city has also been implementing its own
procedure in Road Engineering for the last decades. This procedure (Quality
Controlled Road Engineering) is based on a scientific approach to Asphalt
Technology in road construction and its implementation has revealed the
eventualities of incorrectness in the asphalt mixtures, preventing a lot of
mistakes and undesirable situations during its application and giving evidence of
deficiencies within the construction.

This book is partly based on the scientific Road Engineering theories (lectured
on at the Delft University of Technology), on the latest approaches to Road
Construction and Asphalt Technology, on the road problems observed in the
tropics, and mostly on the results monitored during more than 15 years in the
Netherlands. These factors are linked as much as possible to better understand
road construction problems, and at the same time emphasize the techniques
which are also applicable for the tropics. By using common explanations, and
summarising short texts and many figures, the author* has tried to make the
asphalt technology, as well as the road engineering easier to understand,
bridging science and practice. Complicated formulas are avoided as much as
possible, and only what is necessary is presented. This book is meant as a guide
for improving Road Engineering in the tropics, at university level as well as in
the field.
*See back cover

4
I. Asphalt Technology

Asphalt Technology deals with asphalt as material for road construction. As

mentioned earlier, this subject will be integrated within road construction as a
whole, since most changes herein also affect the strength of construction and,
consequently, its longevity.
When considering this technology, the items (bitumen sort, structure, behaviour
etc.) that determine the characteristics of the asphalt mixtures will be analysed.

Asphalt mixtures (usually) consist of the following components:

*Bitumen;
*Stone aggregate;
*Sand;
*Filler and
*Some additives that may be required.
Herein, bitumen is regarded as the most crucial component since it functions as
the glue enabling the other components to work together and therefore
determining the strength and longevity of the whole mixture.
The structure, the skeleton and the interactions between all of the components
inside are also very important and have to be considered both separately and as a
whole.

I.1. Bitumen

Within the asphalt mixture, the bitumen component functions as the glue,
fixing all the other components to each other so they are able to cooperate as a
whole. Bitumen is also the most expensive component in the mixtures and is on
what the price of asphalt mostly depends.

For road construction purposes, the most crucial characteristic of bitumen is its
penetration value. Penetration value refers to the value obtained from a bitumen
penetration test (Fig. 1). Here, a special needle with 100 gram of mass is put into
bitumen at 25 C and the deformation/indention measured after 5 seconds is
expressed in [0.1 mm], a factor of 10 is thus embedded in the registration.

Fig. 1: Penetration Test for Bitumen

5
So, a 70/100 bitumen will give an indention between 7-10 mm, a 40/60 bitumen
around 4-6 mm, etc. This means that a 70/100 bitumen is softer than 40/60. The
higher the value, the softer the bitumen. High values denote less resistance to
deformation and low values indicate higher stiffness, but also less flexibility and
less healing capacity. Usually, bitumen sorts harder than 40/60 are not used for
road construction since they are more crack sensitive.

For road construction purposes, bitumen sorts with penetration values of 70/100,
50/70 and 40/60 are usually used, depending on the situation and the local
temperature. In hot climates, bitumen sorts with lower penetration values are
recommended, as they possess higher resistance to deformation at certain
temperatures and so can prevent extreme deformations.

In the past decades, recycled asphalt mixed with new asphalt has been used
more and more. The older bitumen inside the recycled asphalt possesses a very
low penetration value of about 25-30, due to oxidation.

As mentioned, one of the positive characteristics of bitumen is healing. This

characteristic enables bitumen and asphalt mixtures to heal/recover from
relatively small damages caused by stress and strain. The higher the penetration
value, the higher the healing capacity of the bitumen and the asphalt mixtures
composed with it.

I.1.1. Chemical Components

Bitumen can be produced from oil all around the world,. As the residue of crude
oil, it is almost the last product of the refinery process. Due to its many places of
origin, not all bitumen is produced in the same way. Chemical differences occur.
However, when looking at the chemical components of bitumen, the most
important components for asphalt mixtures are the Asphaltenes and the
Maltenes, especially the ratio of them.

Fig. 2: Asphaltenes and Maltenes in Bitumen

6
Asphaltenes are black coloured and come in a powder form. They are the rigid
particles in the bitumen.
Maltenes are the viscous/liquid parts of bitumen, and when they are in contact
with air, they tend to evaporate, lessening their quantity, a phenomena known as
oxidation. Due to this, the ratio of Asphaltenes/Maltenes (A/M-Ratio) will
change, causing the bitumen to be more fragile and crack sensitive. A higher
A/M-Ratio value means a relatively higher content of the rigid particles and,
therefore, a higher crack sensitivity.
These effects can be seen using a penetration test (Fig. 1). On bitumen that was
originally 70/100, penetration values as low as 25-30 can be recorded after some
period of oxidation.

The followings are more detailed descriptions of both components:

(source: lloydminsterheavyoil.com)

Asphaltenes are complex hydrocarbons that have the following components:

Condensed aromatic hydrocarbons with side chains up to C30.
Hetero-aromatic compounds with sulfur present in benzothiophene rings and nitrogen in pyrrole and pyridine rings.
Bi- or polyfunctional molecules with nitrogen as amines, amides, and oxygen in groups such as: ketones, armides,
phenols, and carboxylic acids
The metals nickel and vanadium complexed with pyrrole nitrogen atoms in porphyrin ring structures.
Maltenes constitute the fraction of asphalt which is soluble in n-alkane solvent, such as pentane and heptane. Their chemical
characteristics are as follows:
Contain smaller molecular weight versions of asphaltenes called "resins."
Contain aromatic hydrocarbons with or without O, N and S (also called "first acidaffins").
Contain straight chained or cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons called oleifins (also called "second acidaffins").
Contain cyclic saturated hydrocarbons known as naphthenes (also called "saturates").
Contain straight or branch chain saturated hydrocarbons (also called "saturates").
Their molecules are also known as "naphthene-aromatics."

Due to the more crack sensitive characteristics of old bitumen, the asphalt
mixtures created with this bitumen inside will also show more crack sensitive
behaviour.
The older the asphalt mixture, the more cracks will be seen.

Fig. 3: Cracks in Old Asphalt Mixture

7
This natural effect is very important to consider when recycled asphalt will be
used in combination with new asphalt, resulting in the so-called Partial
Recycling Asphalt, or PR-Asphalt.
The old bitumen coming from PR-Asphalt with a higher Asphaltene/Maltene-
ratio is only thoroughly mixable with new bitumen above a certain temperature,
depending on the state of both sorts of bitumen. Under a certain temperature and
certainly at common air temperatures outside, however, both sorts of bitumen
will tend to segregate and so micro-cracks in the mixtures will occur. Also the
adhesive function of the bitumen as a glue and its healing characteristics will
diminish.

I.1.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Bitumen

The mechanical behaviour of asphalt mixtures is almost entirely determined by

the behaviour of bitumen, which is visco-elastic. This means that the behaviour
of bitumen is strongly dependent on temperature and on loading time.
High temperatures will decrease the viscosity, and subsequently the strength and
stiffness of the material (Fig. 4) to a certain level.

Fig. 4: Dependency of Bitumen on Temperature

Longer loading time will also affect the strength and stiffness of lower values
(Fig. 5). When stress () is applied and made constant, the strain () will first
jump up to a certain level due to the elastic part, and then will slowly grow to a
certain level due to the viscous part. When unloaded, the strain will jump
downwards due to the elastic behaviour, and then slowly decrease to a certain
level near zero due to the viscous behaviour.
When strain () is brought to a certain level and kept constant as load, the
stress () caused will first jump up to a certain level due to the elastic part and
then slowly decrease to a certain level due to the viscous part. By unloading,

8
the stress will jump downwards, even reaching negative numbers, before slowly
increasing to a certain level near zero.

Fig. 5: Dependency of Bitumen on Loading Time (source: 35)

Due to this, it is very important to take the air temperature of the roads
surroundings into account. So asphalt roads in the tropics must be designed with
more strength than they are in places with colder climates.
This very crucial factor of temperature was not taken into account when
outdated design methods like CBR (California Bearing Ratio) were used.

Also, in places where longer loading time is expected such as stop signs or
stoplights, bus stops, parking lots, crossings, etc., this aspect must be taken into
account at an early stage to minimise the development of damages.

I.2. Asphalt Mixtures

With the components:

*Bitumen: 70/100, 50/70, 40/60 etc.;
*Stone aggregate: on sieve 2 31.5 mm;
*Sand: on sieve 63 m 2 mm;
*Filler: < 63 m, and
*Some additives that may be required
several sorts of asphalt mixtures can be developed (Fig. 6).

9
 Fig. 6: Asphalt Mixtures

However, looking at these mixtures, there are actually 3 types of structures that
can be distinguished, each with their own characteristics.

I.2.1. Structure

The structure of almost every asphalt mixture used nowadays can be divided
into the following three (3) sorts, based on their skeleton (Fig. 7):
*Sand skeleton, continuously graded;
*Stone skeleton, discontinuously graded and
*Stone skeleton with mastic inside, discontinuously graded.

Fig. 7: Skeleton of Asphalt Mixtures

In asphalt mixtures with a sand skeleton as structure, the sand and other small
particles form the skeleton by touching and supporting each other. This is only
possible when the mixtures are continuously graded, which means that the
gradation does not show a certain gap between the particles forming the

10
skeleton. A typical sand skeleton mixture is Dense Asphalt Concrete (DAC)
which has the following approximate specifications (Table 1):

Table 1: Specifications of Typical Dense Asphalt Concrete (source: 11)

In stone skeleton asphalt mixtures, the stone aggregates form the skeleton by
touching each other and filling the spaces in between with air. These mixtures
are designed with a certain gap in the gradation and known as discontinuously
graded mixtures. The relatively high portion of voids enables better drainage of
the asphalt surface and the mixtures produce much less noise hindrance. A
typical sort of this kind of mixture is Porous Asphalt (PA) which, thanks to the
stone skeleton, is less sensitive to high temperatures like in the tropics (see
Table 2).

11
 Table 2: Specifications of Typical Porous Asphalt (source: 11)

In SMA, the skeleton is, like PA, formed by the stone aggregates. However, the
spaces between the aggregates are filled with mastic, a mixture of bitumen, sand
and filler. Like PA, these mixtures belong to the discontinuously graded
mixtures. However, due to the presence of mastic, the portion of voids is
relatively low. So in this kind of asphalt the glue function of the bitumen
functions more effectively than in PA and, due to the stone skeleton structure,
the mixture possesses a relatively high resistance to deformation (see Table 3).

12
 Table 3: Specifications of Typical Stone Mastic Asphalt (source: 11)

For tropical areas, asphalt mixtures based on stone skeletons are more suitable
because the structure of the stones which form the skeleton are less dependent
on temperature than mixtures where the structure is based on a sand skeleton.
DAC is more sensitive to hot tropical conditions and will show more and bigger
deformations than SMA and PA.
Therefore, DAC is actually less suitable for the tropics.

PA is, however, more sensitive to ravelling, a phenomenon also known as the

degradation of the mixtures caused by ongoing loss of stones (Fig. 8). This kind
of mixture possesses a relatively high proportion of air holes and the bitumen
does not work as well as glue. Especially in places with friction and shear forces
(wheel breaking, curves, crossings, stop places etc.), ravelling will occur very
rapidly and when it happens, it will create potholes after just weeks or months.

For city roads, where traffic causes more and more shear forces on asphalt than
on highways, this kind of asphalt is actually not preferable. Due to the relatively
high noise reduction capacity, however, some cities still use this kind of asphalt

13
mixture, knowing that the costs for repair and construction are high. These
decisions are usually based on local politics.

Fig. 8: Ravelling, an Ongoing Loss of Stones

SMA is actually between DAC and PA, and was invented by Germany some
decades ago. Its structure is made up of a stone skeleton with mastic (a mix of
bitumen, sand and filler) in between. Due to the stone skeleton, SMA possesses
a relatively high resistance against deformation and is also less dependent on
temperature. Therefore, it is very suitable for tropical areas.

The problem with this sort of mixture is the present lack of experience, based on
which optimization of the mixture is hardly done. Another disadvantage is that
bitumen drops off during transport and application works, resulting in less
homogeneity of the mixture and causing damage that can be seen at a very early
stage.
However, when using a proper composition that is properly mixed and applied,
SMA is very durable and very suitable for tropical areas.

I.2.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Asphalt Mixtures

As already mentioned, the mechanical behaviour of asphalt mixtures is almost

entirely determined by the behaviour of the bitumen used, which is visco-elastic.
This means that the behaviour of asphalt mixtures is also very dependent on the
temperature and loading time.

High temperatures will decrease the strength and stiffness of the mixture (Fig. 9)
and greater loading time will lower the strength and stiffness (Fig. 10.a). If a
certain stress () is brought to a certain level and kept constant, the strain ()
will increase due to the elastic part and then slowly increase to a certain level
due to the viscous part. When strain () is brought to a certain level and kept
constant as load, the stress () caused will jump up (elastic part), and then
slowly decrease to a certain level (viscous part).

14
 Fig. 9: Dependency of Asphalt Mixtures on Temperature

Fig. 10.a: Dependency of Asphalt Mixtures on Loading Time

The typical effects of both (temperature and loading time) on the permanent
strain of asphalt can be seen in Fig. 10.b.

Fig. 10.b: Typical Effects of Temperature and Loading Time on Asphalt Permanent Strain

When soft bitumen as 70/100 is used, it is expected that heavy traffic will easily
cause damages such as deformation, especially in tropical areas. Therefore,
harder bitumen as 40/60 or bitumen with modification is preferable.
When using bitumen with modification, one has to take into account the changes
in the characteristics of the bitumen. Modification by adding polymers usually
increases the stiffness, but it also makes the mixture more sensitive to cracks and
ravelling.

15
I.3. Asphalt Mixtures in Road Construction

Having learned that various sorts of asphalt mixtures can be created with various
kinds of structures and compositions, which consequently result in various
characteristics, several functions can be distinguished and allocated.

I.3.1. Functions of Asphalt Mixtures in Road Construction

The main function of the asphalt and the other layers (base and subbase) within
road construction is to spread the load gradually and thereby decrease the
stresses and strains generated on the subgrade.
Fig.11 shows the typical load distribution pattern for road construction and,
therefore, how the stiffness modulus (Smod) of each layer from the subgrade
upwards needs to increase gradually, with the highest at the top.

Fig. 11: Typical Load Distribution in Road Construction

To achieve this kind of load distribution pattern and to assure an optimal

interaction, the layers should have the following stiffness modulus (Smod):
*The asphalt layer: 2,000 - 10,000 (to 15,000 MPa. when modified);
*The base layer: 400 - 1,000 MPa.;
*The subbase layer: 80 - 200 MPa.;
*The subgrade and landfill: usually up to 100 MPa.
The term stiffness modulus (Smod) is used instead of modulus of elasticity
(Emod) since the behaviour of bitumen and asphalt mixtures is not elastic but
visco-elastic, as already explained.

In road construction, the upper course of the pavement consists of asphalt

concrete. Until some decades ago, only one sort of asphalt mixture with
relatively high thickness had been used in this course.
However, looking at the paths of the vertical and radial stresses caused by traffic
load within the road construction (Fig. 12.a), this upper course can actually be

16
optimised regarding the load distribution and divided into several layers with
distinguishable functions.

Fig. 12.a: Vertical and Radial Stresses in Asphalt Road Construction (source: 7+8)

The upper part of the upper course has to deal with relatively high radial stress
(shear forces) and vertical stresses. However, since the path of the radial stress
decreases more rapidly in a downward direction than the vertical one (Fig.12.a),
the lower part of this upper course can be assigned another function.
So mechanically but also economically, it is better for the upper course to be
divided into 3 parts with the following functions:

*The upper part with function A:

-Providing a comfortable and safe driving surface;
-Absorbing and spreading relatively high radial and vertical
stresses.

*Lowest part with function B:

-Providing physical support to the asphalt layers above;
-Absorbing and spreading relatively low radial and vertical stresses.

*Middle part with function AB:

-Providing physical support to the asphalt layer above;
-Attaching the mixture above and under;
-Absorbing and spreading the local radial and vertical stresses.

17
For asphalt mixtures, 3 sorts of asphalt layers with different compositions and
characteristics are necessary. These layers (Fig. 12.b) can be distinguished as
the:
*Surface layer (AC-Surf), containing asphalt mixtures with function A.;
*Binder layer (AC-Bind), containing asphalt mixtures with function AB;
*Base layer (AC-Base), containing asphalt mixtures with function B.

Since these layers purely consist of asphalt concrete, the upper course will now
be called the AC-layers.

Fig. 12.b: Cross-Section of a Road Construction

Considering the functions and the compositions, it is evident that the price of
producing the surface layer (AC-Surf) will be the highest, followed by the
binder layer (AC-Bind). The AC-Base can be composed and produced with
cheaper materials, e.g. mixed with Partly Recycled Asphalt (PR-Asphalt). A
maximum of 50% of PR-Asphalt is recommended to preserve enough healing
capacity. This means that the asphalt layers can be cheaper and more efficient.

In order to optimise the interaction between the asphalt layers consisting of

different mixtures, downsizing the gradation upwards with a maximum factor of
2 is necessary; see II.1.1.
In the case that more thickness is required due to heavy traffic, two AC-Base
layers can be applied on each other. The second AC-Base layer can be directly
applied after the compaction of the first. Warm on warm will also improve the
attachment.

18
I.3.2. Examples of Asphalt Mixtures

As already mentioned, various kinds of asphalt mixtures can be made. Almost

every country has its own type of mixture. Distinguished examples of some
asphalt mixtures are given below, with their variations in gradation and bitumen
percentages:

+For the AC-Surf layers, function A.:

*Dense Asphalt Concrete (DAC), see Table 1, continuously graded;
*Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA), see Table 3, discontinuously graded;
*Porous Asphalt (PA), see Table 2, discontinuously graded;

+For the AC-Bind and AC-Base layers, function AB. and B., (Table 4):
*Gravel Asphalt Concrete (GAC), function B., continuously graded;
*Stone Asphalt Concrete (SAC), function AB., continuously graded;
*Open Asphalt Concrete (OAC), function AB., continuously graded,

Table 4: Asphalt Mixtures for the AC-Bind & AC-Base Layers (source: 11)

In Table 5, one can also see several other international asphalt mixtures.

19
 Table 5: Other International Asphalt Mixtures (source: 7)

Due to the relatively high sensitivity to deformation, it is strongly recommended

NOT to use Open Asphalt Concrete (OAC) as an AC-Bind layer if intensive
heavy traffic is expected. In the past decades, however, this was done very often
in the Netherlands. During lab tests as well as in practice, OAC appeared to
continuously show deformation for a very long time, even years after application
works.
A substitution can be made by using Stone Asphalt Concrete (SAC), which has
much better resistance against deformation and appears to be able to properly
connect the A. and B. function.

I.4. Effects of Vibrations, High Stiffness and Shear on Asphalt Mixtures

Having learned about the several sorts of asphalt mixtures and their
characteristics, it is also necessary to consider the effects of vibrations, relatively
high stiffness and shear on asphalt mixtures.
It sounds wonderful in theory, but in practice its still a bit lacking. In the next
section, some of these effects that have been observed in real-world situations
will be mentioned, discussed and explained in the follow-up. For this, asphalt
technology will be applied.

20
I.4.1. Effects of Vibrations

Depending on the amplitudes and frequencies, vibrations may cause cracks in

any material. For asphalt mixtures with a stone skeleton for structure, the effects
will be greater than on mixtures based on sand skeletons, where the total contact
surface of the bitumen with the aggregates is much bigger.
As already mentioned, stone skeleton mixtures are based on a discontinue
gradation of the aggregates and particles. Consequently, the role of the bitumen
in the interaction, with the particles forming the skeleton, is not optimal (Fig.
13). This is especially needed for resistance against vibration, meaning that the
mixtures are more sensitive to cracks since tensile stresses can hardly be
absorbed.

Fig. 13: Fixation Only at Contact Points ()

For certain places where a relatively high amount of vibration is expected, it is

recommended not to use asphalt mixtures that are based on stone skeleton
structures due to their relatively higher sensitivity to (small) cracks which will
grow into bigger ones.
Therefore, the use of PA and certain types of SMA are not recommended for
places like bridges where the vibrations caused by traffic will last for an extra
period, depending on bridge characteristics like span-length, thickness etc.

Also, during application it is recommended to avoid vibratory compaction, as

this will prevent the generation of small cracks within the mixtures.

I.4.2. Effects of High Stiffness (C-Fix, PMB, PR and Combi-Surf)

It is a law of mechanics that material with high stiffness will attract more
stresses from its surroundings than material with low stiffness, so highly stiff
materials may absorb more stress than is calculated and planned. In practice,
cracks in an earlier stadium have been monitored in several situations like this.
Some items regarding high stiffness are discussed further on.
In all cases, one of the requirements for a successful application of mixtures
with high stiffness is to make sure that the subgrade, subbase and base materials
all have reasonable resistance to deformation, preventing stress concentration.

21
C-Fix
Asphalt mixtures composed using a hard binder called C-Fix (Carbon
Fixation) for bitumen have been tried for several years already. This hard
binder/bitumen is the ultimate hard residue of crude oil and has penetration
values of around 6 9. Due to these very low values, the mixtures possess a
very high stiffness and are very suitable for heavy traffic. In long periods of low
temperatures (like in Europe), however, the asphalt mixtures become vulnerable
to cracks and ravelling, as observed after just 1 year (Fig.14.a).

Fig. 14.a: Ravelling on C-Fix

In the tropics, on the contrary, C-Fix asphalt mixtures can be recommended for
application, especially for roads where heavy traffic is very intensive and at
stopping points, parking lots etc.
PMB (Polymer Modified Bitumen)
The modification of the bitumen with some sorts of polymer will also push the
stiffness up to relatively high levels. The most used modifications of bitumen in
road constructions are SBS (Styrene Butadiene Styrene) and EVA (Ethylene
Vinyl Acetate). However, in climate areas with low temperatures, cracks have
been seen at very early stages.
PR-Asphalt
The stiffness of the bitumen and asphalt mixture can also be elevated by mixing
it with Partial Recycled Asphalt, a type of asphalt where the bitumen has been
oxidised and possesses a low penetration value of around 25. Due to the increase
in the Asphaltene/Maltene-Ratio of the old bitumen, segregation of the new
bitumen will occur, resulting in ravelling, cracks and potholes.
Combi-Surf
Efforts have also been made to push up the stiffness of an asphalt mixture by
using Combi-Surf (PA injected with cement slurry). Cracks after just a few years
have been observed (Fig. 14.b).

Fig. 14.b: Cracks in Combi-Surf (PA injected with cement slurry)

22
It is evident that asphalt mixtures have been sought which have relatively high
stiffness, especially for roads in the tropics. However, the effects of ravelling
and crack sensitiveness must be considered when choosing the asphalt types
within the asphalt layers. Referring to the load distribution pattern in Fig. 11 and
to the functions (I.3.1.), the surface layer, or AC-Surf, must possess the highest
stiffness and the AC-base the lowest. Next to downsizing the gradation (II.1.1.),
however, the difference between the stiffness has also to be limited in order to
ensure the optimal cooperation and interactions between the asphalt layers.
Factor 2 must be considered as maximum. So, when the AC-Base has a Smod of
3,000 MPa, the AC-Bind should consequently possess a Smod between 3,000
and 6,000 MPa and the AC-Surf should have a maximum of 12,000 MPa.

I.4.3. Effects of Shear

The effects of shear on asphalt constructions are usually seen on places where
ravelling occurs. Due to the shear forces applied during wheel braking and
turning, the stones on the surface are experiencing sideways force. Depending
on the size of the aggregate gradation used on the surface layer (AC-Surface),
these forces will generate minor or severe damage.
This kind of damage is mostly seen on roads within the city area. Due to the
much higher driving speed, the highways experience this phenomenon on a
much smaller scale.

In theory, the bigger the gradation is used, the rougher the surface will be. On a
rough surface, shear can easily transfer its forces to the surface aggregate
unevenly (Fig. 15), creating concentration spots. The stones on these spots will
have to absorb the forces almost individually since the surface is rough, meaning
that it is not evenly filled in the horizontal direction.
This effect will become stronger when discontinuously graded mixtures are used
on the surface layer. Shear will grab the bigger stand-alone stones and pull them
loose from the mixture. When the skeleton structure is damaged, potholes will
rapidly occur.

Fig. 15: Shear Forces Applied on Surface Stone Aggregate

To minimise this effect, it is recommended NOT to use a gradation bigger than
11 mm for city area. The most ideal gradation size is around 5-8 mm. Therefore,
the application of PA and of some SMAs within the city area must be considered
very carefully.
For highways, a maximum gradation of 16 mm is recommended.

23
II. Asphalt Techno-Road Construction Design

II.1. Theoretical Approach

The theoretical approach to road construction is given in this section, with a

special focus on the construction structure, the gradation of the separate layers,
the stresses and strains that occur and the application of Mohrs Circle in asphalt
construction.

II.1.1. Construction Structure and Gradation of the Layers

Road constructions usually consist of several layers, where each layer has its
own function. This is done to optimise the load distribution from the surface to
the subgrade. Based on the theories from the mechanics and by taking the
material characteristics into consideration, the road can be constructed as
economically as possible.

From the road surface, the following layers can be distinguished (Fig. 16):
1. The Asphalt Concrete (AC) layers, consisting of
* AC-Surf: an asphalt concrete surface layer (also known as top layer or
wearing course);
* AC-Bind: an asphalt concrete intermediate layer that physically and
functionally connects the surface and the under layer;
* AC-Base: an asphalt concrete under layer, which might consist of 1 or 2
layer(s), depending on the traffic, the materials used and the
subgrade;
2. The (unbound/bound) base layer;
3. The unbound subbase layer; (in some situations, this layer is not necessary)
4. The subgrade or natural soil.

Fig. 16: Typical Cross-Section of a Road Construction

24
From the base layer up to the AC-Surf layer within the AC-layer, the gradation
of the layers has to be downsized. This is necessary to optimise the interaction
between all of these layers. Usually, it should be downsized from 40 mm at the
base to 5 - 8 mm at the AC-Surf layer. It is recommended to use the factor 2 as
the maximum ratio between the layers gradation. So, when it is 40 mm at the
base, the AC-Base should be at 20-25 mm, the AC-Bind at 10-15 mm and the
AC-Surf at 5-8 mm.

Along with providing more comfort in driving, asphalt pavement is usually

chosen due to the relatively lower initial construction cost and also a lower cost-
lifetime ratio during a period of time when compared with, for example,
concrete pavement.
Mechanically, the functions of the AC-layers are:
*To provide a comfortable and safe driving surface;
*To spread and transfer the axle-loads downwards as much as possible;
*To decrease the stresses and strains on the layers, especially on the
subgrade, and
*To minimise the effects of deformation in the subgrade.
It is the responsibility of the road engineer in charge to make sure that the
stresses and strains transferred are low and small enough, so as not to cause
relevant deformation or damage to the subgrade.

The base layer has the function of physically supporting the AC-layers and also
gradually decreasing the stresses and strains applied by axle-loads by
transferring them to the subbase.
Unbound materials such as fine gravel, stones etc. are mostly used; however,
when more bearing capacity is necessary partially bound materials can be
applied. Finely graded materials from demolished brick or concrete walls have
also been used and, when necessary, cement can be added.
Referring to the load distribution pattern in Fig. 11, the stiffness modulus of this
base layer should be around 400 - 1,000 MPa.

The subbase actually forms the basis on which the road is physically
constructed. It passes the load (which is already lowered by the layers above
it) to the subgrade. However, in some places where the subgrade has enough
bearing capacity (a Smod bigger than 100 MPa), due to sand, gravel, rocks etc.,
this layer is not necessary. The base layer can then be laid down directly on the
subgrade. This can also be the case for a light asphalt construction, used for
pedestrian or bicycle paths.

The subbase layer usually consists of sand, finely graded and crushed stones,
gravel, etc. It has to be unbound, enabling easier drainage and preventing the
accumulation of water around the road construction. Referring to the load

25
distribution in Fig.11, the stiffness modulus of this layer should be around 80 -
200 MPa. Although sand is usually used since it is cheap and available almost
anywhere, other granulates between 63 m 2 mm on sieve can also be used.
The bearing capacity expressed in the stiffness modulus of around 100 MPa or
higher is recommended.

The subgrade is the natural ground or soil on which the whole road construction
is laid down. The characteristics of this layer usually determine the alignment of
the road in case replacement of the soft soil is not economically possible. If
the stiffness modulus is less than 50 MPa., replacing it with a sand layer of
about 50 cm thickness is recommended.

Caution must be taken when clay or pet soil (remnants of vegetation) is found in
the subgrade. This kind of soil possesses a very low bearing capacity and will
show deformation for a very long period; some kinds will even show it over a
period of more than 30 years. When clay or pet soil is present in the
surface/upper region of the subgrade and has a relative thickness of 50 cm or
more, replacement with a sand layer that has a minimum of 50 cm is necessary.

II.1.2. Stresses and Strains and Mohrs Circle

When a wheel applies its load to the asphalt construction, various situations can
be considered regarding the stresses and strains that occur (Fig. 17). When
rolling, certain friction forces will also occur on the surface, causing shear
stresses within the construction.

Fig. 17: In Situ Stresses Under a Rolling Wheel (source: 7)

26
Depending on the axle load, the contact surface, the tire pressure, the layers
thicknesses and the characteristics of the materials (especially the E-mod and the
Poisson ratio ), the stresses and strains that will occur right under the wheel can
be calculated using the theory of elasticity. The local strains can then be derived
from the stresses according to the well-known Law of Hooke:

x = 1/E x - (y + z) x = strain in x-direction

x, y, z = stresses in the 3 orthogonal directions

E = Elasticity/Youngs modulus

= Poisson ratio.
(source: 7+8)

The variations of the vertical and radial stresses from under the wheel into the
depth of the construction is given in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18: Vertical and Radial Stresses in Asphalt Road Construction (source: 7+8)

The differences of the downward paths for the vertical (v) and the radial stress
(r) are remarkable. The radial stresses decrease much faster than the vertical
ones.
These stresses (v and r) can now be applied using Mohrs circle to determine
the shear stresses () and the sliding line, the tangent of both circles (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19: Mohrs Circle of Asphalt Concrete (source: 7+8)

27
This line denotes the resistance of the material against sliding. At the point
within the construction when the vertical stress (v) and the radial stress (r)
create a circle that crosses this line, sliding will occur.
When the radial stress downwards decreases more quickly than the vertical
stress (as seen in Fig. 18), sliding will occur.
In asphalt concrete, a yield value of shear stress (y) is present, denoting an
initial resistance against sliding. As seen in Fig. 19, this resistance increases
along the sliding line, as determined by tangent .
The sliding line can be described by the following formula:

= y + tg (source: 7+8)

When the combination of v en r creates a shear stress (y) that is bigger than
(y + tg ) at any point in the construction, then sliding will occur.
In asphalt concrete, the angle appears to be 25 or greater. At 25, the initial
resistance (y) is about 0.1 MPa. If the deformation speed is very low (= longer
loading time), y is also very low, as seen in Fig. 19 with a dash-dot-line.

As seen in Fig. 18, from the surface to about 100 mm in the depth of the region,
the radial stresses decrease much faster than the vertical ones.
In this region, there is a big risk of sliding. So attention must be paid when
choosing the sort of asphalt mixture to be applied in this region. Asphalt
mixtures like Open Asphalt Concrete (OAC) and Partial Recycled Asphalt (PR-
Asphalt) are not recommended to be used as an intermediate/AC-Bind layer.
OAC, as already mentioned, is very sensitive to deformation for a very long
period of time and PR-Asphalt is very sensitive to the generation of cracks due
to the presence of old/aged bitumen with a relatively high A/M-ratio.
PR Asphalt is also not recommended to be used as an AC-Surface layer. Based
on the theoretical approach already mentioned and on experience (done in the
Netherlands), cracks and ravelling will occur just few years after application
works due to oxidation generating new and heavier segregation.

II.1.3. Stepwise Downsizing of the Asphalt layers Upwards

For completeness, the paths of the vertical and radial strains are given in the
following Fig. 20.
The discontinuities of the paths (especially the vertical strains) are found at the
interface positions and denote the differences in material characteristics. This
fact also denotes that there is a big risk that the asphalt layers might get loose
from each other, preventing the layers from properly working together.

28
 Fig. 20: Vertical and Radial Strains in Asphalt Road Construction (source: 7+8)

This problem is resolvable by stepwise downsizing of the gradation of the

asphalt layers upwards, from the under layer to the surface layer. The optimum
is to use a factor of 2 as a maximum ratio. So, when a gradation of 22 mm is
used for the AC-Base layer, the gradation of the AC-Bind layer should not be
less than 11 mm (11-16 is preferable). When a gradation of 11 mm is used for
the AC-Bind layer, the AC-Surface layer should not have a gradation of less
than 6 mm (6-8 is preferable).
By doing this, the risk that the attachment of the asphalt layers to each other will
fail (causing less longevity), is significantly reduced.

II.2. Data for Construction Calculation

Data necessary for the calculation of a road construction must be based on the:
*Traffic, causing the mechanical loads from above;
*Subgrade, supporting the loads from underneath;
*Construction materials applicable for the asphalt, base and subbase
layers so that they will spread the traffic loads mechanically and minimise
damage to the subgrade and the materials themselves.

II.2.1. Traffic

Traffic applies mechanical loads to asphalt construction and, next to the amount
of weight (in Road Engineering this is usually expressed as Axle Load in KN),
the intensities of the vehicles, especially heavy ones, are very important.
The axle load can be calculated to a standard value representing a 80 KN load.
See Fig. 21 for the conversion factors of axle loads, according to research done
by Shell and published in SPDM.

29
 Fig. 21: Axle Load - Conversion Factors, According to Shell SPDM (source: 14)

As can be seen, the effects of an axle load of 140 KN can be calculated by using
the multiplication factor of 9.22 to equalise the effects of 80 KN.
Next to from the table, the conversion factor (ne) itself can also be found by the
formula:

ne = 2.4 x 10-8 x L4, where L is the Axle Load in KN. (source: 14)

This conversion factor refers to the damage to the asphalt construction caused by
the axle load. This means that the damage caused by an axle load of 100 KN is
around 10,000 times the damage caused by an axle load of 10 KN:

(100 KN / 10 KN)4 = 104 = 10,000)

30
A loaded truck/bus will cause about 10,000 times more severe damage than a
personal car.

As can be seen from the factors, the intensity of heavy traffic will be very
crucial for road construction. Heavy traffic will also cause high strains where the
maximums are dependent on temperature and load repetition/fatigue (Fig. 22).
Therefore, when calculating the road construction, at least some manual checks
of some strains on fatigue regarding heavy load are necessary to prevent
failure. For this, the formula of Miner can be used.

Fig. 22: Effects of Temperature and Load Repetition on Max. Vertical Strains

II.2.2. Subgrade

The subgrade also determines the suitable road construction since its
characteristics limit the possibilities and the strength of the construction.

Usually, the subgrade consists of the following sorts of soil, classified below
from the softest to the hardest:
*Peat soil (remnants of vegetation);
*Clay;
*Sand;
*Gravel;
*Rock
etc.

Especially when dealing with the first 2 sorts (peat soil and clay), it might be
necessary to replace the subgrade at a certain depth. It can be replaced by sand,
which is available in almost every country and relatively cheap.
For light traffic, a replacement could be avoided by injecting some stabilisers
that improve the strength and bearing capacity.
When the subgrade consists of sand, gravel or rock, no improvement is usually

31
necessary. However, checking the modulus of stiffness (Smod in MPa.) in a lab
to see whether it possesses values above 100 MPa is strongly recommended.

II.2.3. Applicable Materials for Base and Subbase Layers

The material used is mostly determined by the availability at the moment of

construction. Many countries have to import such material, making the costs
higher.

The following materials are usually applied:

*Sand: -For the subbase;
-Almost available everywhere and relatively cheap;
-Water permeable, preventing the accumulation of water in
and around the construction;
*Gravel: -For the base;
-Relatively high support capacity;
*Crushed stone: -For the base;
*Crushed aggregate: -For the base;
-For the subbase when crushed to sand fraction;
*Recycled granulates: -For the base;
-Produced from demolished brick & concrete
walls and cheaper than gravel.
(*For AC: filler, sand, stone aggregate, bitumen and some additives).

As already mentioned, the gradual downsizing of the gradation from the base
layer to the AC-layers is necessary to optimise the interaction of those layers. A
maximum factor of 2 can be used, dividing the gradation size upwards.

It is strongly recommended to pay attention to the state of compaction of the

materials used in road construction. Due to the dynamic load situation, the road
construction might rapidly fail due to deformations and cracks.
One of the easiest ways to control the state of compaction on site is using a
nuclear test apparatus (Fig. 23). The results can be seen almost directly, so extra
measurements can be inserted right during the construction.

Fig. 23: Nuclear Test Apparatus, Testing the Compaction on Site

32
When a relative amount of clay or peat soil is present at the upper region of the
subgrade, replacing it with e.g. 50 cm in thickness of sand layer may be
necessary. In all circumstances, it is better to check the stiffness of all materials
used for the base and subbase layers in the lab and it is highly recommended to
do the compaction anyway.

II.3. Construction Calculation Using Software

The calculation of asphalt road construction can be done with several methods,
from the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) using graphics, to the modern ones
using computer software.
In this book, SPDM (Shell Pavement Design Method) is chosen, which has been
applied internationally in several countries.

The SPDM calculation software consists of three (3) modules:

*The BANDS: enabling the calculation of the characteristics of the

bitumen and the asphalt mixtures that will be applied;
*The SPDM: giving estimation regarding the total thickness needed for
the specific road construction;
*The BISAR: calculating the stresses and strains at every point in the
construction after detailing the asphalt layers, putting their
characteristics as input and supplying the traffic characteristics.

In the following examples, the versions BANDS 2.0, SPDM 3.0 and BISAR 3.0
are used: (source: 15)

II.3.1. BANDS 2.0:

Calculating the Bitumen Stiffness (SBIT) with e.g. the following input
parameters (Fig. 24):
*Time of Loading;
*Bitumen Temperature;
*Softening Point:
*Penetration Value and
*Penetration Temperature,
resulting in:
+Bitumen stiffness and
+Penetration Index.
These parameters can be replaced by others, depending on what is already
known.

33
 Fig. 24: Calculating the Bitumen Stiffness (source: 15)

The Asphalt Mix Stiffness (SMIX) can be calculated using the following input
parameters (Fig. 25):
*Bitumen Stiffness;
*Volume Percentage Bitumen and
*Volume Percentage Aggregate,
resulting in:
+Percentage Voids and
+Mix Stiffness.

Fig. 25: Calculating the Asphalt Mix Stiffness (source: 15)

34
Calculating the Fatigue Life Asphalt Mix (NFAT) is based on the following
input parameters (Fig. 26):
*Volume Percentage Bitumen;
*Asphalt Mix Stiffness and
*Fatigue Strain,
resulting in:
+Fatigue Life.
Fatigue Strain can be replaced by Fatigue Life when the other is desired.

Fig. 26: Calculating the Fatigue Life Asphalt Mix (source: 15)

Calculating the Asphalt Mix Performance (COMB) uses the following input
parameters (Fig. 27):
*Loading Time;
*Temperature of Bitumen;
*Penetration Value;
*Penetration Temperature;
*Softening Point;
*Volume Percentage Bitumen;
*Volume Percentage Aggregate and
*Fatigue Strain,
resulting in:
+Penetration Index;
+Bitumen Stiffness;
+Asphalt Mix Stiffness and
+Fatigue Life.
Fatigue Strain can be replaced by Fatigue Life, depending on what is already
known.

35
 Fig. 27: Calculating the Asphalt Mix Performance (source: 15)

II.3.2. SPDM 3.0

With this module, calculations can be made regarding (Fig. 28):

*Thickness Design;
*Rutting and
*Overlay Design.

Fig. 28: Calculations with SPDM 3.0 (source: 15)

For Thickness Design, the following blocks of parameters are taken into
account:

36
*Climate (Fig. 29):

Fig. 29: Climate As Input (source: 15)

*Traffic and Design Life (Fig. 30):

Fig. 30: Traffic and Design Life As Inputs (source: 15)

*Base Layers and Subgrade Strain (Fig. 31):

Fig. 31: Base Layers and Subgrade Strain as Inputs (source: 15)

37
*Asphalt Mix Composition and Fatigue (Fig. 32):

Fig. 32: Asphalt Mix Composition and Fatigue as Inputs (source: 15)

*Asphalt Stiffness and Layer Thickness (Fig. 33):

Fig. 33: Asphalt Stiffness and Layer Thickness as Inputs (source: 15)

38
resulting in the following data (Fig. 34 and 35):

Fig. 34: Results of SPDM Calculation, Input Data (source: 15)

Fig. 35: Results of SPDM Calculation, Calculated Data (source: 15)

39
II.3.3. BISAR 3.0

After using SPDM, the BISAR module can be used as a tool to check the results.
There are 3 modes within this software module: Loads, Layers and Positions.

With the mode Load, a combination of stress, load and radius regarding the axle
loads can be applied as inputs, depending on what is already known (Fig. 36).

Fig. 36: The Load Mode of BISAR (source: 15)

In the Layers mode (Fig. 37), each layer within the construction must be filled in
with its characteristics, such as Thickness, Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons
Ratio, including the several sorts of asphalt (AC-Surface, -Binder & -Base)
which are designed to be applied as an Asphalt Concrete layer.
Due to this, it is possible to analyse the state of the stresses and strains within
the whole construction before the start of the construction work.

Fig. 37: The Layers Mode of BISAR (source: 15)

40
Within the Positions mode (Fig. 38), the coordinates of each position within the
construction at which the stress and strain will be calculated can be pointed out.

Fig. 38: The Positions Mode of BISAR (source: 15)

In the end, these modes will show an overview of stresses and strains across the
construction in a Block Report (Fig. 39).

Fig. 39: Overview of Stresses and Strains, Calculated by BISAR (source: 15)

41
More details are available in a Detailed Report (Fig. 40).

Fig. 40: Detailed Report of Stresses and Strains from BISAR (source: 15)
To avoid possible mistakes, made by the computer or due to wrong inputs, it is
strongly recommended to manually check the biggest strains from BISAR, using
the fatigue formula (e.g. Miner) for asphalt.

II.4. Drainage and Maintenance

In completing the design and construction of a road, the aspects of drainage and
maintenance will be considered. These aspects also determine the longevity of
the construction and will subsequently save a lot of work and money, as well as
hindrances caused by the surroundings.

II.4.1. Drainage

When designing a road construction, drainage is one of the most important

factors regarding the longevity of the total construction. Water must be given the
opportunity to drain as soon as possible, since it will damage the construction.

This can be done by creating a slope of about 2-3% (depending on the amount of
local rainfall per year), so water can run off the road. It is also necessary to
create shoulders that prevent the accumulation of water along the sides (Fig. 41).

In relation to groundwater, the base layer must in all circumstances be above the

42
level to prevent water from infiltrating into the construction after a period of
time.

Fig. 41: Drainage

When PA is used, the edges of this layer must be kept open, so that water
running inside the PA is able to drain away. This also means that regular
cleaning of the edges is necessary.

II.4.2. Maintenance (small and big repair/reconstruction)

Maintenance is mostly neglected, especially when the budget is very narrow.

However, carrying out regular maintenance will save a lot of work and money.
Most damages on asphalt can be easily repaired when done in time.
In the case of a stone skeleton, when an asphalt mixture is used as the surface
layer (AC-Surf), repairs of damage should be done as soon as possible, since the
mixture is dependent on the skeleton which is discontinuously graded. A small
pothole can rapidly grow to a bigger one within a relatively short period of time.
This is seen very often with PA.

Small Repair
In all sorts of asphalt mixtures, repair should be carried out (Fig. 42.a) by cutting
and taking away the edges of the damaged spots, up to around 10 cm. Just filling
with repair asphalt (several sorts are available) will only last for a very short
period. The damaged spots must be cleaned, dried and filled in with repair
asphalt. Hot repair asphalt is preferable to cold due to its better adhesive
capacity and usually longer longevity. Repair asphalt of the same sort (e.g. SMA
with SMA) and the same sieve grade or lower (avoid higher) is recommended.
After compaction, the edges of the damage hole at the surface must be sealed
with bitumen 70/100 or another sealing slurry to prevent the infiltration of water
and improve the interaction between the new repair asphalt with the existing
asphalt. Small cracks can also be repaired by sealing with bitumen 70/100.

Fig. 42.a: Maintenance, Cutting the Edges

43
Big Repair and Reconstruction
When the damage has already grown to a pothole, it is recommended to also
renew the AC-Bind layer. Usually, this intermediate layer has also been affected
and is showing some crack spots. When not removed, these crack spots will
generate cracks in the new AC-Surface layer within months.

When the damaged asphalt has been cut and removed, attention must be given to
the connecting borders with the existing asphalt since the repair is relatively
deep compared to the thickness of the new surface layer. In this case, the borders
must be cut and provided with a step S with the following dimensions:
*Svertical-1: thickness of the first layer (AC-Surf);
*Shorizontal-1: 5 to 7 x thickness of the layer to be applied (AC-Surf);
*Svertical-2: thickness of the second layer (AC-Bind).
So, when a new AC-Surface of 30 mm thickness on a new AC-Bind with 50 mm
thickness is applied, the step S at the connecting borders (Fig. 42.b) should have
the following dimensions: Svert-1= 3 cm; Shor-1= 15-20 cm and Svert-2= 5 cm.

Fig. 42.b: Step S at Connecting Borders

This step at the connecting border is also necessary for every connecting
border where the total thickness of the new asphalt layers is relatively high (=
more than 5 cm). This step will create an optimal interaction between the old
and the new asphalt mixtures, since their stiffness is not equal. Without this step,
the border will show a gap within some months, allowing water to come into the
asphalt construction and consequently destroying the whole construction. In
addition, it is recommended to seal the borders at the surface with bitumen
70/100, to both ensure that water infiltration is prevented and equalise the
surface for a better transfer of the stresses applied by the traffic wheels.

Take an example where a part of a road has to be partly renewed (a

reconstruction) and the total thickness of the new asphalt layers is 15 cm,
containing of 3 asphalt layers, respectively 30 mm AC-Surf on 50 mm AC-Bind
on 70 mm AC-Base. 2 steps should be created at the border with the following
dimensions: Svert-1 = 3 cm; Shor-1 = 15 - 20 cm; Svert-2 = 5 cm; Shor-2 = 30 cm and
Svert-3 = 7 cm.

44
III. Upgrading and Testing Asphalt Mixtures

In this chapter, some methods in upgrading asphalt mixtures are going to be

considered, followed by examples.
Some tests (and the apparatus) which are used very often on asphalt will also be
presented and discussed here.

III.1. Theoretical Approach

Since asphalt mixtures merely consist of aggregates and bitumen, one usually
follows the gradation-line or the bitumen-line when upgrading an asphalt
mixture.

*.Gradation-line:

With the gradation-line, the aggregate and sand fraction and their
percentages are optimised to achieve the purpose goal based on a certain
percentage of bitumen. The purpose goal is to find an optimum
composition for the percentages of each aggregate component. Using this
method, the mixture will be more compact and will possess higher
resistance to deformation.

In the past, this has led to the so-called volumetric design for SMA, where
optimisation of the volume of the mixture is taken into priority. Some
efforts have resulted in more compacted mixtures that have higher
stiffness and quality.

*Bitumen-line:

In the bitumen-line (Fig. 43), the bitumen is usually modified by putting

in some additives and by optimising the bitumen percentage. The bitumen
percentage is hereby varied to find the optimum area, based on a certain
composition regarding the aggregates. During the optimisation process,
however, some shifts in the aggregate percentages have to be made.
A decrease in the amount of bitumen will increase the stiffness of the
mixtures and therefore the resistance to deformation, but it will also
increase the sensitivity to cracks and ravelling. Similarly, an increase of
the bitumen percentage will push up the resistance to cracks and ravelling,
but it will also decrease the resistance to deformation.

45
 As several kinds of mixtures are very dependent on the percentage of
bitumen, and as bitumen is the most expensive component, this method
will also affect production costs.

Fig. 43: Bitumen-line

The results of upgrading SMA using this method have shown that it has the
advantage of improving the stiffness, the strength, the longevity and also the
cost by reducing the bitumen percentage to a certain optimum bandwidth.

III.2. Examples Upgrading Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)

Here, examples of upgrading asphalt mixture SMA are given, which is used as a
surface layer, although the theory is applicable to most other mixtures.

As already mentioned, there has been (and is still) a lack of regulation regarding
SMA. Each country uses its own SMA when available.
In 2000, the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands took the opportunity and the risk
of upgrading the Dutch SMA to MODUS and DESA asphalt. The upgrade was
done following the Bitumen-line, rather than the Gradation-line.
Unlike other mixtures, SMA theoretically has a very narrow optimum area
regarding the resistance to deformation on one side and the resistance to crack
on the other side. So, it is not easy to optimise. However, this sort of mixture has
proven to have a high grade of longevity and, as it very suitable for the tropics
due to its structure, it is worth trying.

46
III.2.1. MODUS

MODUS is derived from the Dutch SMA 0/8 from the year 2000. It is an
abbreviation for MODified Utrechts Sma, using 70/100 bitumen and designed
for the asphalt surface layer (AC-Surf) for city traffic.

Fig. 44: Development of MODUS in the Lab

By varying the bitumen percentages, shifting the gradation, putting in some

additives and removing some components, the following results were achieved:

Dutch SMA2000: MODUS: (%):

*Marshall-Stability (Pm in N): 4,350 5,500 +26
*Marshall-Flow (Fm in mm): 2.8 2.0 -28
*Marshall-Quotient (Qm in N/mm): 1,550 2,750 +77

During lab trials (Fig. 44), the Marshall-Flow was kept from decreasing further
than around 2.0 to maintain the flexibility and healing capacity of the mixture
and also to prevent the increase of crack sensitivity.

After the success of the first test lane in 2003, more and more roads within the
city of Utrecht were covered by MODUS as an AC-Surf layer (wearing course).
Up until now (more than 11 years), no maintenance has been necessary since
there were still no damages detected.

III.2.2. DESA

After MODUS, a second version called DESA was developed (Fig. 45). DESA
is also derived from Dutch SMA 0/8, an abbreviation for Double Enforcements
in Stone mastic Asphalt, which uses harder bitumen 40/60 and is designed for
heavy city traffic.

47
 Fig. 45: Development of DESA in the Lab

Bitumen-line was also used to upgrade the mixture, and after varying the
bitumen percentages, shifting the gradation, putting in some additive and
removing some components, the following results were achieved:

Dutch SMA2000: DESA: (%):

*Marshall-Stability (Pm in N): 4,350 6,000 +38
*Marshall-Flow (Fm in mm): 2.8 2.0 -28
*Marshall-Quotient (Qm in N/mm): 1,550 3,000 +94

During lab trials, the Marshall-Flow was also prevented from decreasing further
than around 2.0 to maintain the flexibility and healing capacity of the mixture
and also preventing the increase of crack sensitivity.

The first test lane in 2007 was also very successful and subsequently, more and
more roads within the city of Utrecht and outside even the highways belonging
to the central government are using DESA as an AC-Surf layer (wearing
course). Up until now (after 7 years), no maintenance has been necessary.

The use of MODUS and DESA in the Netherlands has been spreading since
2009. In other cities and on many highways belonging to the central
government, many roads are now covered by these mixtures, especially due to
their already proven and expected longevity and because of environmental
factors such as lower CO2 for production and a noise reduction of about 2
dB(A). (note: -3dB(A) means a halving).
More info can be found on Google by searching modus desa asphalt.

Although these asphalt mixtures are also suitable for the tropics due to their
structures, small adjustments might be necessary when using local materials
from tropical areas. The mixtures are patented in the Netherlands.

Meanwhile, a red coloured version of MODUS and DESA (Fig. 46) has also

48
been developed, designed for use as a bicycle lane with potential to be used for
heavy traffic.

Fig. 46: Red Version of MODUS and DESA

III.3. Testing Asphalt Mixtures

When testing the characteristics of asphalt mixtures, there are a lot of new
methods and apparatus available today. This, however, makes the comparison of
the results very confusing.
Some of the most known and still used tests are given below.

III.3.1. Marshall

In the past, the Marshall Test has been used in almost every country all around
the world. All the apparatuses (Fig. 47) have been standardised, from the sieve
and the mixing machine to how the result/registration must be analysed, so
comparison is much easier.

Fig. 47: Marshall Mixing Machine and Block Rings

To get rid of the water film which might be present around the particles, the
aggregates are raised to temperatures around 105-110 C. After cooling down
and sieving, weighing of each sieve portion can be done, as well as removing the
particles on sieve 31.5 mm.

49
At least four (4) Marshall blocks of each mixture must be created and tested.
Each block should contain about 1 Kg of aggregate, sand and filler in order to
create a block with height of around 62-65 mm.
The aggregate, sand, filler, the Marshall rings and the bitumen are then brought
to a mixing temperature of about 150-180 C, depending on the sort of bitumen
used. Mixing should be done by machine in a bowl (which has also already been
brought to temperature) and will last for 90 seconds. After putting the mixed
sample into the Marshall rings, compaction can be carried out by machine,
stamping 50 times twice, on both sides.

After cooling down, the Marshall blocks can be tested with the Marshall
pressing machine, resulting in registration of the Marshall Loads at the vertical
axis in KN and Marshall Flow at the horizontal axis in mm (Fig. 48). The
Marshall Loads denote the stability and the Marshall Flow denotes the
deformation.

Fig. 48: Marshall Blocks, Pressing Machine and Registration

Depending on the heights of the samples, correction factors have to be applied

on the Marshall Stability (Pm). The Marshall Quotient (Qm in N/mm) can then
be found by dividing the corrected Marshall Stability (Pm in N) by the Marshall
Flow (Fm in mm). If deviations of 15% or more at Pm or 20% or more at Fm
occur, the tests have to be repeated.
From the 4 samples, the final results can be validated by taking the average of
the calculated Pm, Fm and Qm.

III.3.2. Four-Point Bending (4PB)

To conform to the European Union regulations, the Marshall test was replaced
by the Four-Point Bending (4PB) test in 2008. The aim of this test (Fig. 49) is to
predict the fatigue lifetime of asphalt mixtures by measuring the fatigue
resistance, which corresponds with the number of load cycles to failure with the
strain level applied. The results of these kinds of fatigue tests are expressed in
terms of the number of cycles for the tensile strain level applied.

50
Along with this, the 4PB test also measures the stiffness modules of the asphalt
mixtures dynamically.

Fig. 49: Four-Point Bending (4PB) Test

A rectangular beam (305x45x50 mm) produced and cut from an asphalt concrete
plate is used, which is subjected to sinusoidal loading in either controlled strain
or controlled stress.

The results from this dynamic test apparatus have a relatively high accuracy, for
the fatigue resistance as well as for the stiffness.

III.3.3. Rolling Bottle

With the rolling bottle test (Fig. 50), it is possible to get some information in
advance regarding the adhesiveness of some sort of bitumen on some sorts of
stone aggregates, before deciding to produce Marshall blocks or asphalt beams
for the 4-Point-Bending test.

Several stone aggregates which have already been mixed with several sorts of
bitumen are put into the bottles and mixed with water. By rotating the bottles at
the same conditions (speed, temperature etc.) for some hours/days, the bitumen
will be segregated / peeled off from the stone aggregates. For several samples,
the time needed for this will reveal which combinations are better to use based
on the adhesiveness.

This test is actually a necessity for preventing ravelling, cracks and potholes in
advance.

51
 Fig. 50: Rolling Bottle Test

III.3.4. Deflection (FWD)

Deflection tests have been carried out for decades already. The aim of this test is
to predict the bearing capacity still present in an existing road construction. This
method is a non-destructive one and can be carried out very quickly.

Fig. 51: Deflection Measuring Method (FWD)

The measuring apparatus of this method (Fig. 51) is also known as a Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD), which uses readings from a series of geophones
to detect the very small deflections at the pavement surface.

52
A mass of 50350 Kg (the choice depends on the kind of pavement to be
investigated) is dropped at 40-400 mm height (also depending on the pavement)
on a steel plate with 300 mm diameter. The impact on the asphalt will cause the
biggest deflection at the centre, but also at its edges. By using 7 geophones to
also measure the deflection at the surroundings, each with a distance of 300 mm,
the curve of the deflections can be determined.

As can be seen in Fig. 52, the results of the measurements are also dependent on
the temperature. At lower temperatures, the deflections measured will be
smaller.
For accuracy, several measurements have to be taken.

Fig. 52: Typical Measuring Results at Various Temperatures

It is known from the mechanics that deflections are directly related to the
stiffness of the material.
Therefore, FWD is essential in estimating the in situ stiffness properties of the
pavement layers through analysis of the deflection data by back-calculation of
the layers stiffness modulus value.
Finally, based on these stiffness modules and the traffic prognosis, the rest
service life of the road can be estimated.

53
IV. Implementation in Tropical Road Engineering

The basic items of Asphalt Technology Integrated into Road Engineering have
been discussed in Chapters I III. This integration is also applicable to road
engineering in the tropics. In addition, Chapter IV will support the quality
improvement.

IV.1. Implementation

Based on decades of observations and involvements regarding road construction

in South and Central America, South and North Africa, Southeast Asia and
Oceania and the items as discussed in Chapters I III, it can be noticed that
many roads in the tropics:
*Are not provided with a base and/or subbase layer, causing irresponsible
load distribution patterns within the construction;
*Have asphalt mixtures which are composed of materials chosen
without involving the basic principles of physics/mechanics;
*Are calculated without integrating the crucial parameters as
temperature, loading time etc;
*Have asphalt layers that only consist of one layer, which is relatively
thin and has high stiffness (due to some modifications) and so
behaves like a plate of glass on small stones, creating stress spots;
*Are not gradually downsized, regarding the gradation;
*Use oversized gradation with a certain discontinuity;
*Experience a lack of control/supervision during application works etc.
All of these have apparently affected the longevity for many tropical roads,
which can be regarded as very low (1-3 years). This must and can be improved.

The crucial factor in the tropics is the temperature and this factor has been
made variable in the previous chapters. When choosing the bitumen type, the
theoretical approaches mentioned should also consider high temperatures and its
consequences to the strength, stiffness, longevity/lifespan etc. The suggested
software for calculating the construction deals with high temperatures and so is
more suitable for tropical areas than, for example, the CBR method. So,
Chapters I III can be used as guidance when constructing an asphalt road in
the tropics on a more scientific basis, which should prolong the lifespan.

IV.2. Quality Controlled Road Engineering

As already mentioned in the introduction, the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands
has been implementing its own procedure when applying asphalt. This

54
procedure (Quality Controlled Road Engineering) is based on the scientific
approach of Asphalt Technology into road construction and implementation has
revealed the eventualities of incorrectness in the asphalt mixtures, preventing a
lot of mistakes and undesirable situations during application and giving evidence
of deficiencies within the construction.
After designing and calculating the road construction, preliminary checks on the
subgrade, subbase and base layers are carried out. Preliminary checks on the
asphalt mixtures are also done before carrying out the application.
During the application, several items regarding the conditions on the spot are
considered and registered, which are necessary to back-analyse the road
constructed. All of these items are mentioned in the Checklist Asphalt Works
where some directives/guidelines are also given on the right side (Fig. 53).

Fig. 53: Checklist Directives/Guidelines for Asphalt Works

55
The Team Leader and the Field Supervisor of the project are responsible for the
correctness of the data filled in. With this kind of data, continuous improvement
of the quality of the road construction can be made. In case of failure, an
analysis can easily be made to trace the causes and to find an adequate solution.
As can be seen, the weather conditions are mentioned several times in the
checklist, especially regarding water, since water can never mix with oil, the
origin of bitumen. To minimise waters negative effect on the attachment
between bitumen and the other components, a dry condition during application
is necessary for a proper quality of the asphalt mixture.

This checklist with directives/guidelines is designed for the Dutch conditions;

however, it is applicable to all regions in the world.
Especially when regarding the high temperatures in tropical areas, one has to
realize that the hot asphalt mixtures just after application do not yet possess the
strength and stiffness as they are supposed to (see I.2.2). This warmth must be
eliminated, which can be done by the implementation of a certain period to cool
down, the cooling down period. Usually, a minimum period of 24 hours is
sufficient before opening the road to traffic.

IV.3. Example of Calculation and Application

An example of a road construction calculation for an imaginary tropical road
(Tropika Road) is presented in Fig. 54.a and 54.b.

Fig. 54.a: Example of Calculation, Tropika Road (source: 15)

56
 Fig. 54.b: Result of the Example of Calculation, Tropika Road (source: 15)

To ensure a proper result, it is recommended to pick up some of the maximal

strains calculated and manually check them on fatigue.
As can be seen, this calculation has resulted in:
*30 mm AC-Surf. on 55mm AC-Bind. on 75mm+80mm AC-Base;
*300 mm Base layer;
*500 mm Subbase layer.

Some examples of application of MODUS and DESA for AC-Surf, are shown in
Figs. 55-57.

Fig. 55: MODUS on a City Main Road, containing: 30 mm MODUS as AC-Surf. +

45 mm AC-Bind. (0/16) +
60 mm+80 mm AC-Base (0/22) +
250 mm Base layer (Mixed Aggr. 0/40) +
500 mm Subbase layer (Sand)

57
Fig. 56: DESA on a City Access Road, containing: 30 mm DESA as AC-Surf.+
40 mm AC-Bind. (0/16) +
65 mm AC-Base (0/22) +
250 mm Base layer (Mixed Aggr. 0/40) +
500 mm Subbase layer (Sand)

Fig. 57: DESA on Highways

58
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59
*The author was born in Semarang/Indonesia, immigrated to the Netherlands, attended Dutch High School, MSc. graduated
from The Delft University of Technology/Netherlands, Faculty of Civil Engineering with Road Construction as a
specialisation, and achieved a PhD in Mechanical Engineering at The University of Twente/Netherlands in 1991. Following
involvement in several road construction projects in several countries and fulfilling the position of Specialist in Road
Engineering at a consultant office of the city of Utrecht/Netherlands for more than 15 years, the author was appointed
Associate Professor in Civil Engineering by Unitech (The Technical University of Papua New Guinea). As inventor of the
patented MODUS & DESA asphalt, the author has internationally presented these mixtures in the INCE Congress in New
York, USA in 2012 and in the CFF Seminar in Erfurt, Germany in 2013, as well as in Indonesia and the Netherlands.

MODUS Asphalt DESA Asphalt