US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K.

Patel

Natubhai V. Patel College of Pure & Applied Sciences

S. Y. B.Sc. Semester-4
Industrial chemistry/ IC (Vocational)
USO4CICV01/US04CICH02: Chemical Plant Utilities
UNIT 6

Introduction
A steam generator or a boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which water is converted
into steam by burning of fuel in presence of air at desired temperature, pressure and at
desired mass flow rate.
According to American society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.), a steam generator
or a boiler is defined as "a combination of apparatus for producing, finishing or recovering
heat together with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made available to the fluid
being heated and vaporized.
Boiler or a steam generator is example of heat exchanger. (Heat exchangers are
defined as a mechanical device for exchanging heat between hot fluid and cold fluid with
maximum rate, with minimum investment and with minimum running cost).
Principle: In case of boiler, any type of fuel burn in presence of air and form flue gases
which are at very high temperature (hot fluid). The feed water at atmospheric pressure and
temperature enters the system from other side (cold fluid). Because of exchange of heat
between hot and cold fluid, the cold fluid (water) temperature raises and it form steam. The
flue gases (hot fluid) temperature decreases and at lower temperature hot fluid is thrown into
the atmosphere via stack/chimney.
The function of boiler is to facilitate the generation of steam by providing the
necessary heat transfer surfaces, space for storage of water and steam, furnace for burning
the fuel and necessary equipments for control of safe operation The large variety of
available boilers have cylindrical drum or shell and tubes except for the once through boilers
in which drum is not used.
Function of a boiler
The steam generated is employed for the following purposes
Used in steam turbines to develop electrical energy
Used to run steam engines
In the textile industries, sugar mills or in chemical industries as a cogeneration plant
Heating the buildings in cold weather
Producing hot water for hot water supply
IBR and non-IBR boilers
Boilers generating steam at working pressure below 10 bar and having water storage
capacity less than 22.75 litres are called non-lBR boilers (Indian Boiler Regulations).
Boilers outside these limits are covered by the IBR and have to observe certain
specified conditions before being operated.
Classification of Boilers
The different ways to classify the boilers are as follows
1. According to location of boiler shell axis
Horizontal
vertical
Inclined boilers.
When the axis of the boiler shell is horizontal the boiler is called horizontal boiler. If the
axis is vertical, the boiler is called vertical boiler and if the axis of the boiler is inclined it is
known as inclined boiler.
Examples
Horizontal boiler: Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
Vertical boiler: Cochran boiler, vertical boiler etc.
2. According to the flow medium inside the tubes
Fire tube
Water tube boilers.

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

The boiler in which hot flue gases are inside the tubes and water is surrounding the
tubes is called fire tube boiler. When water is inside the tubes and the hot gases are outside,
the boiler is called water tube boiler.
Examples
Fire tube boilers: Lancashire, locomotive. Cochran and Cornish boiler
Water tube boiler: Simple vertical boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
3. According to Boiler Pressure
According to pressure of the steam raised the boilers are classified as follows
Low pressure (3.5 - 10 bar)
Medium pressure (10-25 bar)
High pressure boilers(> 25 bar)
Examples
Low pressure: Cochran and Cornish boiler
Medium pressure: Lancashire and Locomotive boiler
High pressure: Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
4. According to the draft used
Natural draft
Artificial draft boilers
Boilers need supply of air for combustion of fuel. If the circulation of air is provided with
the help of a chimney, the boiler is known as natural draft boiler. When either a forced draft
fan or an induced draft fan or both are used to provide the flow of air the boiler is called
artificial draft boiler.
Examples
Natural draft boiler: Simple vertical boiler, Lancashire boiler.
Artificial draft boiler: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Locomotive boiler.
5. According to Method of water circulation
Natural circulation
Forced circulation
If the circulation of water takes place due to difference in density caused by
temperature of water, the boiler is called natural circulation boiler. When the circulation is
done with the help of a pump the boiler is known as forced circulation boiler.
Examples
Natural circulation: Babcock & Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler
Forced circulation: Velox boiler, Lamont boiler, Loffler boiler
6. According to Furnace position
Internally fired
Externally fired boilers
When the furnace of the boiler is inside its drum or shell, the boiler is called internally
fired boiler. If the furnace is outside the drum the boiler is called externally fire boiler.
Examples
Internally fired boiler: Simple vertical boiler Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler
Externally fired boiler: Babcock and Wilcox boiler
7. According to type of fuel used
Solid
Liquid
Gaseous
Electrical
Nuclear energy fuel boilers
The boiler in which heat energy is obtained by the combustion of solid fuel like coal or
lignite is known as solid fuel boiler. A boiler using liquid or gaseous fuel for burning is known as
liquid or gaseous fuel boiler. Boilers in which electrical or nuclear energy is used for
generation of heat are respectively called as electrical energy headed boilers and nuclear
energy heated boiler.
8. According to number of Tubes
Single-tube
Multi-tube boiler

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

A boiler having only one fire tube or water tube is called a single, tube boiler. The
boiler having two or more, fire or water tubes is called multi tube boiler.
Examples
Single tube boiler: Cornish boiler, Vertical boiler.
Multi-tube boiler: Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
9. According to Boiler Mobility
Stationary
Portable
Marine boilers
When the boiler is fixed at one location and cannot be transported easily it is known
as stationary boiler. If the boiler can be moved from one location to another it is known as
stationary boiler. If the boiler can be moved from one location to another it is known as a
portable boiler. The boilers which can work on the surface of water are called marine boilers.
Examples
Stationary: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, vertical boiler
Portable: Locomotove boiler.
Marine: Marine boilers
Factors affecting the selection of a boiler
One has to send the technical details to the manufacturer to purchase a boiler.
The technical details that are used to give information about a particular boiler include
the following things
Size of drum (Diameter and length)
Rate of steam generation(kg/hr)
Heating surface (Square meters)
Working pressure (bar)
No. of tubes / drum
Type of boiler
Manufacturer of boiler
Initial cost
Quality of steam
Repair and inspection facility
Detailed specifications of each boiler can be obtained from manufacturer's
catalogue.
Comparison between water-tube and fire tube boilers

Water Tube boiler Fire Tube boiler

Water is inside the tube and flue gases Flue gases inside the tube and water
surrounded to it. surrounded to it.
Operating pressure is up to 170-180 bar Operating pressure is up to 25 bar (low
(high pressure boilers). and medium pressure boilers).
Steam generation rate is very high (more Less steam generation rate.
than 3000 kg/hr)
Suitable for power plants. Suitable for small industries.
Chance of explosion is more due to high Chance of explosion is less due to low
steam pressure. steam pressure.
Provide steam in power plants to develop Provide steam in chemical and
electrical energy. pharmaceutical industries.
Small chance of scale formation due to More chance of scale formation
flue gases are in shell
Example: Bobcock and Wilcox boiler Example: Vertical boiler, locomotive
boiler, Lancashire boiler.
Simple Vertical Boiler
Classification of boiler
Vertical, natural circulation, natural draft, single turbular, stationary, medium pressure,
solid fuel fired, fired tube boiler with internally located furnace.

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

Construction and working:

Figure: Simple Vertical boiler

Figure depicts a typical water tube boiler of early period. It has a cylindrical fire box
surrounded by a cylindrical water shell connected by one inclined cross tube for improved
water circulation. It is provided with standard safety control and inspection mountings.
Boiler drum is filled with water, the flue gas from the furnace rise in the tube. The
exchange of heat takes place between water and flue gases. The water temperature raises
and it converts into steam. The flue gases temperature drops and low temperature flue gases
enters into environment via chimney. Due to provision of cross tube, the total heat transfer
area increases and more amount of steam is available with the same amount of flue gases.
They can built for small capacity and occupy small space. The boiler is fitted with all the
mountings as per IBR.
Cochran Boiler
Classification of boiler
Vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, multi tubular, low pressure, solid fuel
fired fire tube boiler with internally located furnace.
Construction and working of boiler

Figure: Cochran Boiler:

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

Figure depicts a Cochran boiler. It is a modified form of simple vertical boiler. It has a
hemispherical crown to given maximum space for steam and very high strength to withstand
high steam pressure.
Generated flue gas from the furnace pass through large number of smaller diameter
tubes located horizontally in the boiler drum. The large heat transfer area is available for
exchange of heat between water and flue gases. The water is converted into steam from the
steam space it is supplied to the plant where the steam is required. Low temperature flue
gases enter the environment via chimney. All the necessary mountings as per IBR is attached
with above boiler.
The advantages of this boiler are its low chimney height, portability, high beaming rate
and burning of clay kind of solid as well as liquid fuel. But it has poor efficiency for smaller
unit, high head space, difficult to inspect and uneconomical in operation.
Locomotive boiler
Classification of boiler
Horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, artificial draft, multi-tubular, medium pressure,
mobile, solid fuel fired, fired tube boiler with furnace located in tubes.
Construction and working

Figure: Locomotive boiler

It is multi-tubular boiler used in railway engines. It is a mobile boiler and steam
generation rate is higher.
The boiler consists of large number of smaller diameter tubes located in a cylindrical
shell along with a rectangular fire box at one end and a smoke box at the other end. Fuel
burn on the inclined grate and flue gases enter into the tubes because of fire bridge arch.
The flue gases pass through number of tubes. Water is surrounded to the tubes. There
is an exchange of heat between water and flue gases. The water convert into steam and
the flue gases at lower temperature enter into chimney. The steam enters the super heater
and the superheated steam is supplied to the steam engine via steam stop valve. The draft
created in above case is of artificial type.
The chimney of this boiler is very short. As such enough draft cannot be created by
chimney. The draft is obtained by passing the steam exhausted from the engine through a
blast-pipe located in the smoke box. The steam passing through the nozzle above the blast
pipe creates enough suction to draw in the air through the tubes. A circular door is provided
at the end of smoke box for inspection and cleaning.
The rate of steam generation accelerated due to vibrations caused by the
movement of the boiler. The boiler has a very low efficiency and cannot carry high overloads
without suffering heavy damage due to overheating.
Babcock and wilcox boiler
Classification of boiler
Horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, multitubular, high pressure,
stationary, solid fuel fired, water tube boiler with furnace located externally.

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

Construction and working

Figure depicts Bobcock and Wilcox boiler. This is high pressure boiler used in power
plants. It consists horizontal boiler drum connected by uptake header and down take header
which in turn are connected by number of inclined tubes of water. The flue gases are
exchange the heat with the water. The position of baffles cause the gas to move in zigzag
way and more heat transfer is possible. A counter flow heating is used. The draft is regulated
by dempers. The water enters the tube through down take header. Due to inclined tubes,
the entire tube is not filled with the water. Due to exchange of heat, the steam is separated
from the water and through uptake header, it enter the steam space inside the boiler drum.
Anti priming pipe is provided to ensure that only the dry saturated steam enter the super
heater via steam stop valve.
It can be built for any width and height because of sectional construction, good
circulation, rapid steaming,, safe and free from explosion, fast response to overloads, ease of
repair, maintenance and cleaning. It is costlier and fluctuation in water level.

Figure: Babcock and Wilcox boiler

Lancashire Boiler
Classification of boiler
Horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, two-tubular, medium pressure,
stationary, fire tube boiler with furnace located internally.
Construction and working
Figure shows the constructional details of Lancashire boiler along with different boiler
mountings, brick work, path of flue gases, furnace etc. Fuel is burnt on the grate and the flue
gases can flow from one furnace end to other end of tubes (i.e. from front side to back side
of furnace). This is first pass of flue gas through the boiler tubes. The water is surrounded to the
tube. The heat between the water in the boiler drum and the flue gases inside the tube. So
the steam is formed. Flue gases available at the backside of the furnace can be diverted in
the downward direction due to presence of brick work. (Brick is a very poor conductor of
heat energy and can works as insulating material for a given system). So the flue gases can
flow from the bottom part of the boiler drum and exchange the heat with water. This is
second pass of flue gases outside the tube. So the flue gases are available at front side. From
front, because of brick work, they are divided into two side flues and once again flow
backward from the sides of boiler drum and finally are expelled out to stack chimney through
main flue. Dampers are provided at the end of side flues to regulate the flow of flue gases.

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

Figure: Lancashire boiller

The disadvantages of the boiler include more floor space, leakage problems through
brick-settings, more steaming time, sluggish water circulation, limitation of high pressure of
steam and limited space for grate area of furnace.
The advantage of Lancashire boiler are large steam space, load fluctuations can easily
be met, easy to clean and inspect, reliable, easy to operate and maintain.
Steam boiler mountains
In accordance with the Indian boiler regulations the following mountings should be
fitted to boilers.
Safety valves: The function of the valve is to blow off the steam when the pressure of the
steam in the boiler exceeds the working pressure
Water level Indicator: Its function is to indicate level of water, its upper and open in steam
space and lower and opens to water space
Pressure gauge: It is for indicating the pressure of steam in a boiler
Steam stop valve: It stops or allows the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe.
Feed check valve: It allows or stops the supply of water to the boiler
Blow off cock: It is for removal of sediment periodically collected at the bottom of the
boiler
Man hole: It is provided in opening from which a man can enter in a boiler for cleaning
Fusible plug: Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace of a boiler when the water level
in the boiler fails to an unsafe extent thereby preventing the explosion which may takes
place furnace plate
Boiler accessories
Economizers
Air pre-heaters
Super heaters
Feed pump
Injectors
Economizers
Using economizer some of the heat recovered and sent back to the boilers in the
feed water if an economizer is placed between the boiler and chimany.
The waste fire gases flow outside the economizer tubes and heat is transferred to the
fuel water which flows upward inside the tubes. The external surfaces of the tubes are kept
free from soft by scrapers which travels slowly and continuously up and down the tubes.
Advantages
Fuel economy
Long life of the boiler

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

Air pre-heaters
Air pre-heaters is installed between the economizer and the chimany and it abstracts
heat from the five gases and transfers to air a portion of the heat that otherwise could pass
up the chimany to waste.
Super heaters
Steam consumption is reduced with the use of superheated super heater heats the
steam produced also production in condensation losses takes place.
Feed pumps
It is used to pump the water from storage to boiler.
Injectors
It is also used to pump the water with for to the boiler.
Conditions of steam
Steam may occur in any of the following conditions
Saturated steam which may be either dry or wet
Super heated steam
Supersaturated steam
Saturated steam
Saturated steam is any steam which cannot, have heat abstracted from it or be
compressed at constant temp, without partially condensing. Saturated steam is a vapour at
the temp, corresponding to the boiling point of the liquid at the imposed pressure.
Dry saturated steam and wet steam
If saturated steam does not contain any water, it is known as dry saturated steam. It
contains just sufficient heat energy to maintain ail of the water in a gaseous state, if saturated
steam contains liquid particles, it is known as wet steam. It does not contain sufficient heat
energy to maintain all water in gaseous states.
(a) Dryness fraction of steam (x)
The proportion of water particles in the steam varies in case of wet steam. Therefore it
is necessary to define the quality of the wet steam.
The dryness fraction of steam (x) is the ratio of mass of actual dry-saturated steam to
the known quantities of total mass of wet steam.
Dryness fraction (x) = Mass of dry saturated steam in given steam
Total mass of given wet steam
ms
x
ms mw

Where ms = mass of dry saturated steam in given mass of wet steam

mw = mass of suspended water particles in the given mass of wet steam
Dryness friction is a dimensionless term. The value of dryness fraction varies between
zero and one i.e. 0 < x < 1.
x = 0 for saturated liquid and x = 1 for dry saturated steam.
(b) Wetness fraction
It is defined as ratio of the mass of suspended water particles in the given mass of wet
steam to the total mass of given wet steam.
mw
Wetness fraction
mw ms
mw ms ms

mw ms

mw ms ms

mw ms mw ms

ms
1
mw ms

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

1 x

Wetness fraction 1 x

(c) Priming : The wetness fraction expressed in percentage is known as priming.

Priming = 100 X (1 - x)
Dry saturated steam
The steam available at its saturation temperature corresponding to the given
pressure and contain no moisture particles in suspended form is known as dry saturated
steam.
The dryness fraction of dry saturated steam is one (x = 1).
Superheated steam
If the temp, of the steam is greater than that of the boiling point corresponding to the
pressure of steam generation, the steam is known as superheated steam. The temp, of the
steam may be increased above the saturation temp, by adding heat to steam, after all the
water has been vaporized or after the steam has been separated from contact with water.
Supersaturated steam
Supersaturated steam at a particular saturation pressure has temp, loss and density
greater than the corresponding values given in steam tables.
Steam tables
The values tabulated in the steam tables are determined accurately by experiments.
These values from the basis for many calculations concerned with steam engineering. These
tables are to be used because vapours do not obey general gas law. The values given in the
tables are for one kg of dry saturated steam but these values can also be employed for wet
steam calculations.
Sensible heat
It is donated by the latter Lt in steam tables. It is the mantite of heat in kJ required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 C to the saturation temperature at which
water begins to boil at the given pressure P.
Latent heat of vaporization
It is denoted by the letter L in steam tables. It is the quantity of heat required to
convert 1 kg of water at saturation temperature for a given pressure to one kg of dry
saturated steam at the pressure P.
Enthalpy of steam
The first law of thermodynamics for the non-flow process is represented by
q = u + pdv
For initial state 1 to the final state 2.
q = (u2 u1) + P (v2 v1)
= (u2 + Pv2) - (u1 + Pv1)
= h2 h 1
= h
= change in specific enthalpy
Supplied heat = change in specific enthalpy
for non-flow process at constant pressure processes.
Enthalpy of liquid (hf)
The water is available at 0C (state 1). By supply of heat the temperature of water
raise and each up to state 2.
Enthalpy of liquid (hf) = Cp Water (tf - 0) at given P; (kJ/kg)
where, Cp water = Specific heat of water
= 4.187 kJ/kg K
tf = temperature of water (C)
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam (hg)
It may be defined as the amount of heat required for 1 kg of water at 0C to convert
into l kg of dry saturated steam at given pressure. It is denoted by hg.
hg = hf + hfg

US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

kJ/kg at given pressure

Enthalpy of wet steam

Wet steam contains some moisture particles in suspended form along with steam.
Enthalpy of wet steam (h) = hf + x hfg at given p (kJ/kg)

Enthalpy of superheated steam (hsup)

It is defined as the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at its freezing
point temperature to steam at its superheated temperature (tsup) for given pressure.
:. Enthalpy of superheated = hf + hfg + cps (tsup - tsat)
steam (hsup)
hsup = hg +CPsteam (tsup- tsat) at given p; kJ/kg

CP steam = Specific heat of superheated steam

= any value between 2 to 2.2 kJ/kg K
tsup = Superheated temperature of steam (0C)
tsat = Saturation temperature at given pressure (0C)

Degree of superheat
The temperature difference between the superheat steam temperature (tsup) and the
saturated steam (tsat) at given pressure is known as degree of superheat.
Degree of superheat = (tsup - tsat)
Specific volume of steam
The specific volume is the volume occupied by the unit mass of a substance. It is
expressed in m3/kg. The volume of water and steam increases with the increase in
temperature.
Specific volume of saturated water (a)
It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of water at the saturation temperature at
a given pressure.
Specific volume of dry saturated steam (g)
The volume occupied by 1 kg of dry saturated steam at a given pressure known as
specific volume of dry saturated steam.
Specific volume of wet steam
Consider 1 kg of wet steam with dryness fraction x. This steam contains
x kg j of dry steam and
(1 - x) kg of water molecules in suspension
Specific volume of = Volume of dry steam at given pressure
wet steam + Volume of water molecules in suspension
v = xvg + (1-x)vf
Generally, (1 - x)vf is very low and is often neglected

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US04CICV01/ US04CICH02 Unit -6 Dr. N. K. Patel

v = xvg m3/kg .... (4.10)

The equation may be used to calculate the dryness fraction of steam.
Specific Volume of superheated steam :
It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of superheated steam at a given pressure and
superheated temperature, and is denoted as vsup.
The superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas, therefore its specific volume is
determined approximated applying Charle's law.
vg v sup

Ts T sup

v sup
v sup vg
Tsat

Wehre, vg = Specific volume of dry saturated steam of pressure p, m3/kg

T1 = Saturation temperature at pressure p, K

Tsup = Superheated temperature, K

vsup = Specific volume of superheated steam at pressure p, m3/kg

If given volume of steam, v is less than the specific volume of steam vg at given
pressure, then given steam is wet.
If v is equal to vg at given pressure, the given steam is dry and saturated.
If v is greater than vg at given pressure, the given steam is superheated steam.
Internal energy of steam
The enthalpy or the total heat energy of dry saturated steam at a given pressure will be
equal to the sum of the sensible heat, latent heat and external work of evaporation. But the
heat energy of external work of evaporation is not present in the steam as it has been spent
in doing external work. The actual energy possesses in the steam comprises if only the sensible
heal and latent heat. This actual energy stored in the steam is called internal energy. It is
obtained by subtracting the external work of evaporation form the enthalpy and is denoted
by .
Definition
Internal energy of dry steam:
ug = hg pvg kJ/kg
Internal energy of wet steam:
u = hf xhfg pxvg kJ/kg
Internal energy of superheated steam:
usup = hsup pvsup kJ/kg
Internal latent heat
It is algebric difference between the enthalpy of evaporation at given pressure and work
of evaporation.
Internal latent heat = hfg pv
Where, hfg = enthalpy of evaporation at given pressure, kJ/kg
P = pressure of steam, Pg
V = specific volume of steam
(dry, wet or superheated m3/kg)

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