Thermodynamic II

Brief History of Boiler:

Boilers were built as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria but were used only as toys. Not
until the 17th century was serious consideration given to the potential of steam power for practical
work. The first boiler with a safety valve was designed by Denis Papin of France in 1679; boilers were
made and used in England by the turn of the 18th century. Early boilers were made of wrought iron; as
the advantages of high pressure and temperature were realized, manufacturers turned to steel. Modern
boilers are made of alloy steel to withstand high pressures and extremely high temperatures.

BOILERS:
A boiler is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not
necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating
applications including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking
and sanitation.

Steam is being used in thermal power plant, textile industries and for domestic uses during winter to
heat the room.

Working Principal:
Boiler, also called Steam Generator, apparatus designed to convert a liquid to vapour. In a
conventional steam power plant, a boiler consists of a furnace in which fuel is burned, surfaces to
transmit heat from the combustion products to the water, and a space where steam can form and
collect. A conventional boiler has a furnace that burns a fossil fuel or, in some installations, waste fuels.
A nuclear reactor can also serve as a source of heat for generating steam under pressure.

Types of boilers:
 Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined boilers
 Fire tube and water tube
 Externally fired and internally fired
 Forced circulation and natural circulation
 High pressure and low pressure
 Stationary and portable(moving)
 Single tube and Multi-Tube

1. According to their Axis (Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined):

 If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal.
 If the axis is vertical, it is called vertical boiler.

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Thermodynamic II
 If the axis is inclined, it is known as inclined boiler.
2. Fire Tube and Water Tube:
 In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds
the tubes.
 Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them. Examples: Babcock
and Wilcox boiler.

3. Externally Fired and Internally Fired:

 The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the
shell.
 Examples: Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
The furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Examples: Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.
4. Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation:
 In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced
pump.
In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural
convention currents produced by the application of heat.
5. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers:
 The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high
pressure boilers. Examples: Babcock and' Wilcox boilers.
 The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure
boilers.
 Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.

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Thermodynamic II
6. Stationary and Portable:
 Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power
plants, for plant process steam etc. (i.e. on Land)
 Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for
temporary use at sites (i.e. Marine, Locomotive & Large Ships).
7. Single Tube and Multi-Tube Boilers:
 The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending
upon whether the fire tube is one or more than one.
Fuels Used in the Boilers:
Solid Fuels Wood, Coal, Briquettes, Pet Coaks, Rice Huts
Liquid Fuels LDO, Furnace Oil
Gaseous Fuels LPG, LNG, PNG

Configuration of Boiler:
1. Shell
Shell of the boiler is made of one or more steel plates bent into cylindrical and are riveted or welded
together. It is the cylindrical portion of the body.
2. Furnace
It is the chamber just below the shell where combustion takes place. It is also called fire-box.

3. Grate
It is the platform in the furnace on which fuel is burnt. It is made of cast iron bars so arranged that
air can easily pass through them on to the fuel for combustion.

4. Water Space and Steam Space

The volume of the shell that is occupied by the water is called water space. The entire shell
excluding the water and tube is called the steam space.
5. Mountings
Mountings are external features that are included in them without which a boiler cannot work
properly like stop valve, safety valve, water level gauge, fusible plug, blow off cock, pressure gauges,
water level indicators etc.

6. Accessories
They are the items which are included in boilers to increase the efficiency of a boiler. They are super
heaters, economizers, feed pumps etc.

7. Refractory

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These are fire bricks or plastic clay used for lining the combustion chamber. This is done so that the
walls of the shell are not damaged.

Basic Parts of Boiler:

Burner
The burner initiates the combustion reaction within the boiler. Thermostats send messages to the
burner electronically when the system needs to produce heat. Fuel is pumped by a filter mechanism to
the boiler from an outside source -- often an adjacent fuel tank. A nozzle on the burner turns this fuel
into a fine spray and ignites it, creating the reaction in the combustion chamber.

Combustion Chamber
The fuel is burned in the boiler's combustion chamber, which is usually made of cast iron. Temperatures
in the combustion chamber can rise to several hundred degrees, usually in a very short time. The heat
generated in the combustion chamber is transferred to the system's heat exchanger

Heat Exchanger
In a hydronic boiler system, water is filtered around the combustion chamber through a series of flue
passages. The pressurized, boiling water is then pumped through pipes to baseboard heaters or
radiators, which give off the heat energy produced in the boiler.

Classifications of Boilers

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Thermodynamic II
Different ways to classify the boilers are as follows:

1. According to the Location of Boiler Shell Axis

 Horizontal Boiler (Shell is in Horizontal Position)
 Vertical Boiler (Shell is in Vertical Position)
 Inclined Boiler (Shell is in Inclined Position)

2. According to the Flow Medium Inside the Tube

 Fire Tube Boiler (Fire is Used as a Medium)
 Water Tube Boiler (Water is used as a Medium)

3. According to the Boiler Pressure

 Low pressure (3.5-10 bar)
 Medium Pressure (10-25 bar)
 High Pressure (>25 bars)

4. According to Draft Used

 Natural Draft
 Artificial Draft

Boilers use supply of air for the combustion of fuel.

If the air is provided with the Chimney, boiler is Natural Draft
If the air is provided with the induced fan, boiler is Artificial Draft

5. According to Method of Water Circulation

 Natural Circulation
 Forced Circulation
If the circulation causes due to difference in density, boiler is Naturally Circulated
If the circulation is done with the pump, boiler is Forced Circulated

6. According to Furnace Position

 Internally Fired Boiler (Furnace is inside the shell)

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Thermodynamic II
 Externally Fired Boiler (Furnace is outside the shell)

7. According to type of Fuel Used

 Liquid
 Gaseous
 Solid
 Electrical

Process of Steam Generation:

Water and steam are typically used as heat carriers in heating systems. Steam, the gas phase of water,
results from adding sufficient heat to water to cause it to evaporate. This boiler process consists of three
main steps:
1. The first step is the adding of heat to the water that raises the temperature up to the boiling
point of water, also called preheating.
2. The second step is the continuing addition of heat to change the phase from water to steam,
the actual evaporation.
3. The third step is the heating of steam beyond the boiling temperature of water, known as
superheating.
The first step and the third steps are the part where heat addition causes a temperature rise but no
phase change, and the second step is the part where the heat addition only causes a phase change. In
Figure 6, the left section represents the preheating, the middle section the evaporation, and the third
section the superheating. When all the water has been evaporated, the steam is called dry saturated
steam. If steam is heated beyond its saturation point, the temperature begins to rise again and the
steam becomes superheated steam. Superheated steam is defined by its zero moisture content: It
contains no water at all, only 100% steam

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Difference between Water tube Boiler and Fire Tube Boilers:
S. No. Water Tube Boilers Fire Tube Boilers

1. The water circulates inside the tubes which are The hot gases from the furnace pass through the
surrounded by hot gases from the furnace. tubes which are surrounded by water.

2. It generates steam at a higher pressure up to 165 bar. It can generate steam only up to 25 bar.

The rate of generation of steam is high, i.e. up to 450 tons

per hour. The rate of generation of steam is low, i.e. up to 9
3. tons per hour.
For a given power, the floor area required for the
generation of steam is less, i.e. about 5 m2 per ton per The floor area required is more, i.e. about 8 m2 per
hour of steam generation. ton per hour of steam generation.
4.
Overall efficiency with economizer is up to 90%.
Its overall efficiency is only 75%.
It can be transported and erected easily as its various
5. parts can be separated.
The transportation and erection is difficult.
6. It is preferred for widely fluctuating loads.
It can also cope reasonably with sudden increase in
load but for a shorter period.
7. The direction of water circulation is well defined.
The water does not circulate in a definite direction.

8. The operating cost is high.

The operating cost is less.
The bursting chances are more.
The bursting chances are less.
9.
The bursting does not produce any destruction to the
The bursting produces greater risk to the damage of
10. whole boiler.
the property.

11. It is used for large power plants.

It is not suitable for large plants.

Boiler Efficiency:
Boiler efficiency is a combined result of efficiencies of different components of a boiler. A boiler has
many sub systems whose efficiency affects the overall boiler efficiency. Couple of efficiencies which
finally decide the boiler efficiency are-

1) Combustion efficiency 2) Thermal efficiency

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1) Combustion efficiency:
The combustion efficiency of a boiler is the indication of burner’s ability to burn fuel.
The two parameters which determine the burner efficiency are unburnt fuel quantities in exhaust and
excess oxygen levels in the exhaust. As the amount of excess air is increased, the quantity of unburnt
fuel in the exhaust decreases. This results in lowering the unburnt fuel losses but elevating the enthalpy
losses. Hence, it is quite important to maintain a balance between enthalpy losses and un burnt losses.
Combustion efficiency also varies with the fuel being burnt. Combustion efficiency is higher for liquid
and gaseous fuels than for solid fuels.

2) Thermal efficiency:
The thermal efficiency of a boiler specifies the effectiveness of the heat exchanger of
the boiler which actually transfers the heat energy from fireside to water side. Thermal
efficiency is badly affected by scale formation/soot formation on the boiler tubes.

Direct and Indirect Boiler Efficiency:

Direct Boiler Efficiency:
This method calculates boiler efficiency by using the basic efficiency formula;
η = (Energy output)/(Energy input) X 100
In order to calculate boiler efficiency by this method, we divide the total energy output of a boiler by
total energy input given to the boiler, multiplied by hundred.

Calculation of direct efficiency;

E = [Q (H-h)/q*GCV]*100
Where,
Q= Quantity of steam generated (kg/hr)
H= Enthalpy of steam (Kcal/kg)
h= Enthalpy of water (kcal/kg)
GCV= Gross calorific value of the fuel

Indirect Efficiency:
The indirect efficiency of a boiler is calculated by finding out the individual losses taking place in a boiler
and then subtracting the sum from 100%. This method involves finding out the magnitudes of all the
measurable losses taking place in a boiler by separate measurements. All these losses are added and
subtracted from 100% to find out the final efficiency. Blow down valve is kept closed during the
procedure. This method should be implemented as per the norms provided in BS845 standards. The
losses calculated include stack losses, radiation losses, blowdown losses etc.

Evaporation:

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Thermodynamic II
During the evaporation the enthalpy rises drastically. If we evaporate the water at atmospheric
pressure from saturated liquid to saturated vapour, the enthalpy rise needed is 2260 kJ/kg, from 430
kJ/kg (sat. water) to 2690 kJ/kg (sat. steam). When the water has reached the dry saturated steam
condition, the steam contains a large amount of latent heat, corresponding to the heat that was led to
the process under constant pressure and temperature. So despite pressure and temperature is the same
for the liquid and the vapour, the amount of heat is much higher in vapour compared to the liquid.

Superheating:
If the steam is heated beyond the dry saturated Phase change
180
steam condition, the temperature begins to rise
again and the properties of the steam start to 160
resemble those of a perfect gas. Steam with higher
140
The Basics of Steam Generation - 7 temperature
than that of saturated steam is called superheated 120

steam. It contains no moisture and cannot 100

condense until its temperature has been lowered to
80
that of saturated steam at the same pressure.
Superheating the steam is particularly useful for 60
eliminating condensation in steam lines, decreasing 40
the moisture in the turbine exhaust and increasing
the efficiency (i.e. Carnot efficiency) of the power 20

plant. 0 500 1000 1500 2000

2500 3000
Net enthalpy of water [kJ/kg water]

Boiler Rating:
Boiler rating is the heating capacity of steam boiler. It is expressed in BTU per hour (btu/h), horsepower
or pounds of steam per hour.

Horsepower:
The oldest method of rating boilers. It is still used to rate the small boilers.
One horse power is defined as:
“The ability to evaporate 34.5 lb of water into steam at 212°F and above.”

Conversion of Units:
Large boiler capacity is generally given by lbs of steam per hour under specified steam conditions.

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1. To convert the boiler horsepower into lb of steam, multiply horsepower with 34.5 (hp×34.5)
Example 100 hp × 34.5 = 3450 lbs of steam per hour
2. To convert lbs of steam into horsepower, divide it by 34.5
Example 8625 lbs of steam ÷ 34.5 = 250 hp boiler
3. To convert BTU into hp, divide BTU by 33472
Example 8368000 btu ÷ 33472 = 250 hp boiler
33472 BTU = 1 HP
Maximum continuous rating is the hourly evaporation that can be maintained for 24 hours.
When a boiler operates at its maximum rated capacity, it is referred to as Maximum Load.
If load varies hour to hour, it is referred as Varying load.

Application of Boiler:
 Hot water boilers can be used for heating and hot water supply (such as bathing hot
water). Can be used in schools, hotels, urban heating systems, office buildings,
accommodation areas, farms, planting greenhouses.
 Steam boilers can be used for heating, cooling, cleaning, humidification, etc. in
production processes, and can also be used for power generation. Steam boilers can be
used in food processing industry, feed industry, textile industry, paper industry, building
materials, metal smelting, heating engineering, etc.
 Steam boilers are used where steam and hot steam is needed. Hence, steam boilers are
used as generators to produce electricity in the energy business. Besides many different
application areas in the industry for example in heating systems or
for cement production, steam boilers are used in agriculture as well for soil steaming.
 Cochran boiler finds its application in cranes, excavators and in small factories for general
contract work where temporary supply of steam is required.
 Babcock and Wilcox boiler finds its application in sugar mills and textile industries for
power generations and processing works.

Boiler Ratings:

Ratings may be expressed in the following units:

BTU: British Thermal Units: that quantity of heat

required to raise one (1) lb. of water one
(1) degree on the Fahrenheit scale.
BHP: Boiler Horsepower. One BHP is the evaporation
of 34.5 lbs. of 212° F water per hour into

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dry saturated steam at the same temperature.
33,475 BTU/hr.
MBH: 1,000 BTU/hr.
PPH: Pounds of steam per hour.
Gross Rating: The full output of a boiler actually available to the
heating or process system at the
outlet nozzle.
Net Ratings: The net connected design load that can be
supplied with heat by a boiler of given output,
allowing for normal system piping losses and
pickup from a cold start. Since steam system
piping losses may be expected to be larger than
for water systems, and steam boilers require
greater heat input from a cold start than water
boilers before heat flows to the system, steam
net ratings for automatic freed boilers are slightly
lower in relation to gross output than water net
ratings.
MBH Net Water: Gross Output - Water (MBH) / 1.15

MBH Net Steam: Gross Output - Steam (MBH) / X.

Where X is between 1.288 and 1.333 depending
on the boiler gross output.
Square Feet Net Steam: Steam Net MBH/0.24 MBH/sq.ft

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