UNIT I

An AM transmitter is modulated by three sources of audio with m1=0.5,m2=0.7,m3=0.4. The

unmodulated carrier power is 50 kw. Calculate the modulated power output. (May 2013).
ma=m1^2+m2^2+m3^2
Pt=Pc(1+ma2 /2)
1. Compare narrow band FM and Wideband FM . (May 2013).
NARROW BAND WIDE BAND
1.Modulation index is small 1.Modulation index is large
2.Bt=2w 2.Bt =2f
3.FM wave composed of carrier and single large FM wave contain carrier and
pair of side frequencies infinite number of side frequencies

2. Define the modulation index of FM. (NOV 2013).

=f /fM
3. Find transmission power efficiency for a tone modulated signal when modulation index is 0.5.
(NOV 2013).
sidebands power m2 / 2 m2
Efficiency= = (0.5)2/(2+(0.5)2)=11.1%
total power 1 m2 / 2 2 m2
4. Draw the frequency spectrum of AM wave. (NOV 2012,MAY 2016).

5. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of FM. (NOV 2012).

FM system can provide better discrimination against noise and interference than AM . The problem
with FM is the potential for outside interference.
6. The carrier frequency of an FM BC transmission is 100 MHZ and maximum frequency
deviation is 75 KHZ. Find the bandwidth of the signal when the highest audio frequency
modulating the carrier is 15 khz.
Bandwidth=2(+fm)=2(75+15)=180khz
7. Mention the disadvantages of SSB transmission? (MAY 2016).
To receive SSB, the carrier has to be recreated in the receiver on exactly the right frequency. This
makes SSB transmissions tricky to tune in. SSB has the nick name of "Donald Duck" because this is
what it sounds like if the receiver tuning is not quite right. Also music is very difficult to tune in. This
is the main disadvantage of SSB.
8. Why is modulation necessary?
Ease of radiation, Multiplexing, To overcome hardware limitation, To reduce noise and interference,
Frequency Assignment
9. The carrier of a 100% modulated wave is suppressed Find the percentage of power saving
Power saving in DSBSC compared to AM is 66.6%
10. What is meant by heterodyning action?
A device that carries out the frequency translation of a modulated wave is called a mixer. Converting
AF signal to a fixed frequency called intermediate frequency is called heterodyning action IF for AM
is 455KHZ. IF for FM is 10 KHZ
11. Mention the advantages of SSB transmission. (MAY 2016).
It reduces bandwidth requirement, It eliminates high power carrier wave and hence power saving is
high compared with DSBSC,9 to 12 dB improvement in S/N, eliminates distortion due to selective
fading Reduction of carrier interference with other station Some privacy is automatically produced,
Reduction in operating cost.
12. Define selectivity and sensitivity of a radio receiver
Selectivity: It is defined as the ability to select a particular frequency from different frequency.
Sensitivity: It is defined as the ability of receiver to give maximum output even though i/p is very low
13. What is vestigial side band transmission of a signal?
In VSB one sideband is passed almost completely whereas just a trace or vestige of other side band is
retained The transmitted vestige of the unwanted sideband compensates for the amount removed from
the desired side band
Applied in television and high speed data transmission
14. A Tx supplies 8KW to the antenna when unmodulated. Determine the total power when
amplitude modulates to 30%.
Pt=Pc(1+ma2 /2) =8x103 (1+0.32/2)
15. Determine the modulation depth of FM system with a maximum frequency deviation of 75
KHz and the maximum modulating frequency of 10 KHz
=f /fM =75 x103 /10 x103 =7.5
16. What is pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
A more satisfactory approach to the efficient utilization of the allowed freq band is based on the use of
pre emphasis in the transmitter and de-emphasis in the receiver.
Pre emphasis is boosting or emphasizes the high freq components of the message signal prior to
modulation in transmitter. De-emphasis is compensation in the receiver section
17. Define FM threshold effect.
It is defined as the minimum carrier to noise ratio yielding an FM improvement which is not
significantly deteriorated from the value predicted by the usual signal to noise formula assuming
small noise.
18. What is single tone modulation
Frequency modulation with single modulating frequency f m and carrier frequency f c is called single
tone modulation
m(t)=Am cos 2fm t ; fI(t)=fc +kf AM cos 2fm t
19. What is the purpose of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis network?
Pre-emphasis It is used to increase the frequency deviation which in turn increases the noise
immunity. De-emphasis It is used to decrease the amplitude of noise side-bands and thereby the
effect of noise is reduced.
20. State Carson rule.
Carson rule states that the bandwidth required to transmit an angle modulated wave as twice the sum
of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating signal frequency. Mathematically carsons
rule is B=2(f +fm) Hz.
23. Why is VSB preferred for TV video transmission? (Nov2014).
In VSB one sideband is passed almost completely whereas just a trace or vestige of other side band is
retained The transmitted vestige of the unwanted sideband, compensates for the amount removed
from the desired side band, Transmission bandwidth B T=w+fv where w-message bandwidth fv width
of vestigial sideband, Power saving in VSB is75%, Applied in television and high speed data
transmission.
24. State the significance of modulation index.(May2014)
It is necessary to keep modulation index or depth within limits to reduce distortion and interference.
25. Obtain the relationship between phase and frequency modulation.(May2014)
A frequency modulated signal can be generated using a phase modulator first integrating m(t) and
using it as an input to a phase modulator. Similarly, a PM signal can be generated by first
differentiating m(t) and then using the resultant signal as the input to a FM modulator.
UNIT II

1.State sampling theorem.

If a finite energy signal g(t) contains no frequency component higher than W Hz, it is completely
determined by specifying its ordinates at a separation of points spaced 1/ 2W seconds apart. If a finite
energy signal g(t) contains no frequency component higher than W Hz, it is completely recovered
from its ordinates at a separation of points spaced 1/ 2W seconds apart.
2.What is the principle of delta modulation.
It is a type of digital modulation in which the step size is fixed and cannot be varied.
3.Why is FSK preferred over ASK? Give reasons.
FSK is more immune to noise than ASK
 4.What is meant by slope overload distortion? (May 2013).
When the message signal varies steeply, the quantized approximation cannot follow the message
signal and this result in slope-overload distortion. It can be reduced by increasing the step-size. To
minimize the distortion, we need to have Ts max | d(x(t)) / dt |
5.Define phase shift keying? (Nov 2012).
If the transmitted signal is sinusoid of fixed amplitude then it is called as Binary phase- shift keying.
It has one fixed phase when the data is at one level & when the data is at another level the phase is
different by 180 .
6.What is Aliasing or Fold over?(May 2012,May2016)
Aliasing occurs when the signal is sampled at a rate less than Nyguist rate (2W samples/ sec). It is
prevented by using Guard Bands and Pre-alias Filter.
7.What is Slope- Overload Distortion? ?(May 2012)
When the message signal varies steeply, the quantized approximation cannot follow the message
signal and this result in slope-overload distortion. It can be reduced by increasing the step-size. To
minimize the distortion, we need to have Ts max | d(x(t)) / dt |
What are the elements of digital communication system? (Nov 2010).

Information source and

input transducer Source Encoder Channel encoder Digital modulator

Output signal
Channel

Source decoder Channel Decoder Digital demodulator

Output
transducer

State sampling theorem. (Nov 2012).

If a finite energy signal g(t) contains no frequency component higher than W Hz, it is completely
determined by specifying its ordinates at a separation of points spaced 1/ 2W seconds apart. If a finite
energy signal g(t) contains no frequency component higher than W Hz, it is completely recovered
from its ordinates at a separation of points spaced 1/ 2W seconds apart.
8.What do you mean by Aperture Effect?
It is nothing but amplitude distortion occurring at PAM due to the sinc function. It is overcome by
using a Equalizer whose transfer function is | H(f)| = T 1 sinc(fT)
9.What is Quantization Noise?
The difference between the output analog sample and the discrete output quantized signal gives rise to
an error called Quantization Noise. They are Slope overload distortion and Granular Noise.
10.Classify Quantizers.
Uniform Quantizer Representation levels are uniformly spaced
Non-Uniform Quantizer Representation levels are non-uniformly spaced
11.What is the Nyquist sampling rate?
Nyquist sampling rate states that, the minimum sampling rate is equal to twice the highest audio input
frequency.
12.Define dynamic range.
Dynamic range is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude.
Mathematically, dynamic range is DR= Vmax/ Vmin
13.Define coding efficiency.
Coding efficiency is the ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic
range to the actual number of PCM bits used. Mathematically,
Coding efficiency= Minimum number of bits (including sign bit) X 100
Actual number of bits(including sign bit)
14.Define companding.
Companding is the process of compressing, then expanding. With companded systems, the higher
amplitude analog signals are compressed prior to transmission, then expanded at the receiver.
15.Define bit rate.
In digital modulation, the rate of change at the input to the modulator is called the bit rate (fb) and has
the unit of bits per second (bps).
16.Define QAM.
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a form of digital modulation where the digital information is
contained in both the amplitude and phase of the transmitted carrier.
17.What is PPM?
It is the process in which the position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated time of occurrence is
varied in accordance with message signals.
18.What is PWM?
It is the process in which the samples of message signal are used to vary the duration of individual
pulses in the carrier.
19.Mention the advantages of digital communication over analog communication.
It gives ruggedness to transmission noise and interference, efficient regeneration of coded signal
along transmission path, Possible to have a uniform format for different kinds of baseband signal.
20.What is the significance of DPCM?
In DPCM instead of quantizing the individual sample values, the difference between the successive
samples is quantized. As the difference between sample values {M(k) M(k-1)} will be smaller than
the sample value themselves fewer levels will be required to quantize the difference than that required
to quantize M(k) and correspondingly fewer bits will be needed to encode the levels.
State the difference between DPCM and DM.

Parameter DPCM DM
Number of Bits Bit can be more than one but It can use 4,8 or 16 bits per
less than PCM sample.
Levels,Step size Fixed numbers of levels are Step size is fixed and cannot
used . be varied.
Bandwidth of transmission Bandwidth required is less Lower Bandwidth is
channel than PCM. required.
21.What are the limitations of delta modulation?
The major limitations of delta modulation are Slope overload error, Granular noise
22.Why bit reduction is needed while coding of the speech signal?
Bit reduction is needed while coding because the channel bandwidth required for a standard PCM is
64kbps.But in certain applications the channel bandwidth is at premium, then the speech signal must
be coded at low bit rates without affecting the quality of reproduction.
26.Compare MPSK and MFSK modulation techniques with respect to their probability of
error and bandwidth. (May2014, May2016)
Sl.No. Parameter MPSK MFSK
1. Bit error rate(BET) BER increses as M BER decreses as
increases. M increases.
2. Voice signal reproduction Lossless reproduction at Not suited for
lower modulation order. lower modulation
order.
27.Why is VSB preferred for TV video transmission.(Nov 2014)
Vestigial Side Band modulation is used for the following reasons:
(i)Video signals exhibits large bandwidth and significant low frequency content which
suggests the use of VSB to conserve bandwidth.
(ii) The circuitry of the demodulation in the receiver should be simple and cheap .VSB
uses simple envelop detection.
28.Draw the block diagram of an Adaptive modulator. (Nov 2014)

Audio Input Comparator Sampling ADM O/P

Audio Input Quantization

Level Adjuster
29.What is shape factor? (Apr 2015)
Shape factor refers to a value that is affected by an object's shape but is independent of its
dimensions.
30.Write any four primary applications of FDM. (Apr 2015)
The most natural example of frequency-division multiplexing is radio and television broadcasting, in
which multiple radio signals at different frequencies pass through the air at the same time. Another
example is cable television, in which many television channels are carried simultaneously on a single
cable. FDM is also used by telephone systems to transmit multiple telephone calls through high
capacity trunklines, communications satellites to transmit multiple channels of data on uplink and
downlink radio beams, and broadband DSL modems to transmit large amounts of computer data
through twisted pair telephone lines, among many other use)
UNIT III

1.What is BSC? (Nov 2013).

BSC has two binary input and two output symbols. The error in receiving a 1 symbol when a 0
symbol is transmitted is the same as the error in receiving a 0 symbol when a 1 symbol is
transmitted.
2.What is the rule for AMI code? (Nov 2013).
The polarity of the signal is changed for every alternate 1s.
3.Define quantization error? (May 2013).
The difference between the continuous analog wave form, and the stair-stepped digital representation
is quantization error.
4.State the significance of source coding? (May 2013, May 2016).
The source coding theorem shows that (in the limit, as the length of a stream of independent and
identically-distributed random variable (i.e.) data tends to infinity) it is impossible to compress the
data such that the code rate (average number of bits per symbol) is less than the Shannon entropy of
the source, without it being virtually certain that information will be lost.
5.What is information rate?(Nov 2011)
It is defined as the number of symbols emitted by the source per second.
6.For a 12 bit string of 101100010010, determine the number of hamming bits required.
(Nov 2012).
(15, 12)- 3 parity bits, 12 message bits
7.Compare block and convolution codes. (Nov 2012).
Block Codes Convolutional Codes

Code the block of k message bits. Code each message bit individually.

Needs buffer to store message Does not need the buffer since the bits are
block. arriving in serial fashion.
8.An event has six possible outcomes with probabilities {1/2, 1/4,1/8,1/16,1/32,1/32}. Find the
entropy of the system. (Nov 2010).
6
H Pk . log 2 Pk
k 1
= (-3.32[1/2.log10(1/2)+1/4.log10(1/4)+1/8.log10(1/8)+1/16.log10(1/16)
+1/32.log10(1/32)+1/32.log10(1/32)])
H=1.936 bits/symbol
9.Find the hamming distance between the following code words
C1={ 1 0 0 0 1 1 1} and C2= { 0 0 0 1 0 1 1}.(Nov 2010).
Hamming distance d(c1,c2) is the no of locations in which the elements of 2 code vectors differ.
Hamming weight w(c) no of non zero elements in the code vector.
Hamming distance=3
10.Define entropy.(May 2012)
It is a measure of the average information content per source symbol.
11.What is information rate?(Nov 2011)
It is defined as the number of symbols emitted by the source per second.
12.List out the advantages and disadvantages of error control coding.
Advantages: Reduces the required transmitted power, Reduces the size of antennas, Reduces the
hardware cost.
Disadvantages: Increases the transmission bandwidth, Increases the complexity of decoder.
Give the types of error control codes and block codes.
Error control codes are Block codes, Convolutional codes. The types of block codes are linear block
codes and cyclic codes.
13.What is parity check matrix?
Parity check matrix H(n-k)xn is formed using the expression
H=[I(n-k)|PT(n-k)x k] and is used in decoding operation to generate syndrome.
14.State closure property.
Closure property states that the sum of any 2 code words is another code word in the code.
15.What is Hamming code?
Hamming codes are the important class of block codes.Hamming codes have the minimum distance
d min = 3.Hamming codes satisfy the condition t ( ( d min-1)).Hamming codes are single error
correcting code.
16.Define syndrome.
Syndrome contains information about the error pattern e and may therefore be used for error
detection . S is a 1 x (n-k) vector and is used to decode the vector C from the received vector r
S = r H T where r = C + e .
17.Give the properties of syndrome.
The syndrome depends only on the error pattern and not on the transmitted code word, All error
patterns that differ by a code word have the same syndrome. S = e H T
18.What is parity check matrix?
Parity check matrix H(n-k)xn is formed using the expression
H=[I(n-k)|PT(n-k)x k] and is used in decoding operation to generate syndrome.
19.Define: Cyclic codes
Cyclic codes is a sub-class of linear block codes .It poses a well defined mathematical structure and
which provides efficient decoding.
20.State cyclic property and linearity property.
Cyclic property states that any cyclic shift of a codeword in the code is also a codeword. Linearity
property states that the sum of any 2 code words in the code is also a code.
21.List
21.List the other cyclic codes?
(i)Cyclic redundancy codes(crc) (ii)Bose- chaudhuri- hocquenghem(bch) codes (iii)Reed-solomon (rs)
codes.
22.What
22.What is the need for convolutional coding?
Convolutional coding may be the preferred method in applications where the message bits come in
serially rather in large blocks in which case the use of buffer may be undesirable.
23.Define
23.Define constraint length?
The constraint length of a convolutional codes expressed in message bits is defined as the no of shifts
over which a single message bit can influence the encoder output for a m stage shift register .the
constraint length k=m+1.
25.A.source transmits messages Q1 to Q5 having probabilities 1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16,1/16 respectively.
Calculate the average information of the source?(May2014)
Given the probabilities .Find the entropy using the below formula
6
H Pk. log 2 Pk
k 1
= -( [1/2log10(1/2)+1/4log10(1/4)+1/8log(1/8)+1/16log(1/16)+1/16log(1/16)])
= -(-1/2-1/2-3/8-4/16-4/16)
=1.875bits/symbol.
26.Why is huffmann coding called as minimum redundancy coding?(May 2014)
Huffman coding finds the optimal way to take advantage of varying character frequencies in a
particular file. On average, using Huffman coding on standard files can shrink them anywhere from
10% to 30% depending to the character distribution. Hence the number of bits to represent any
character is reduced thus the huffmann coding is called minimum redundancy coding.

27.List the properties of hamming distance.(Nov 2014)

If f and f are Hamming distance of d apart, there needs to be d single-bit errors to convert
f to f.
Error detecting/correcting properties of a code depend on the codes Hamming distance.
To detect d errors, need code with Hamming distance d+1.
Need d+1 single-bit errors to change a valid f to a valid f.
If receiver sees invalid f, it knows an error occurred.
28.An analog signal is bandlimited to BHz, sampled at the Nyquist rate, and the samples are
quantized into 4 levels. The quantization levels Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4 are assumed to be independent
and occur with probabilities P1=P4=1/8 and P2=P3=3/8. Find the information rate of source.
(Nov 2014)
Given the probabilities P1=1/8,P2=3/8,P3=3/8,P4=1/8.
4
H Pk. log 2 Pk
k 1
=(- [1/8.log10(1/8)+3/8.log10(3/8)+1/8.log10(1/8)+3/8.log10(3/8)])
H=1.81125bits/symbol.
29.What are the types of characters used in data communication codes?(May 2015)
The most widely known data communications code so far (a.k.a. character representation) in use
today is ASCII. In one or another version, it is used by nearly all personal computers,
terminals, printers, and other communication equipment. It represents 128 characters with seven-
bit binary numbersthat is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s (bits). In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always
1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on. There are many other encodings, which
represent each character by a byte (usually referred as code pages), integer code point (Unicode) or a
byte sequence (UTF-8)
UNIT IV

1.Define multiple access.(Nov 2013).

When a resource is accessed by multiple users, it is multiple access.
2.What is the principle of SDMA ? (Nov 2013).
The same frequency can be reused multiple times and signals on the same frequency does not
interfere with one another.
3.Mention the advantages of SDMA technique. (May 2013).
The same frequency can be reused multiple times and signals on the same frequency does not
interfere with one another.
4.For a total transmit power Pt of 1000 w, determine the energy per bit (Rb) for a transmission
rate of 50 Mbps? (May 2013).
Eb = Ps/Rb, Ps is the power of the noiseless signal and Rb is the bit rate.
5.What is FDMA? (Nov 2012).
Signals from different channels are frequency division multiplexed, frequency modulated and then
transmitted simultaneously.
6.Mention the significance of CDMA techniques. (Nov 2012).
Each user employs a unique spread spectrum signaling code. It provides communication privacy
between users with different spreading signals.
7.What is multiplexing?(May 2012)
It is a process of simultaneously transmitting two or more individual signals over a single
communication channel.
8.What are the advantages of SDMA? ?(May 2012)
The same frequency can be reused multiple times and signals on the same frequency does not
interfere with one another.

Briefly explain the multiple access techniques used in satellite link.(May 2011)
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA channel-access scheme is based on the frequency-division multiplexing(FDM) scheme, which
provides different frequency bands to different data-streams
Time division multiple access (TDMA)
TDMA channel access scheme is based on the time-division multiplexing (TDM) scheme, which
provides different time-slots to different data-streams (in the TDMA case to different transmitters) in a
cyclically repetitive frame structure
Code division multiple access (CDMA)/Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA)
CDMA scheme is based on spread spectrum, meaning that a wider radio spectrum in Hertz is used
than the data rate of each of the transferred bit streams, and several message signals are transferred
simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing different spreading codes.
Space division multiple access (SDMA)
SDMA transmits different information in different physical areas.
9.Mention the applications of multiple access techniques in wired communication.(May 2011)
It shares many users at same time 2. share a finite amount of radio spectrum 3. high performance 4.
duplexing generally required 5. It works in frequency domain 6. It also works in time domain
10.Draw the block diagram of a typical FDMA system.(NOV 2011)

FDM FM TRANSMITT FDMA

MODULAT ER
OR
11.What is multiple access?
Multiple access is a technique whereby variable number of users can access a common resource for
purpose of communications.
12. Define TDMA.
Several users share the same frequency channel by dividing channel into different time slots. Multiple
users share same RF channel.
13.Define time slot.
Each user is allocated the full spectral occupancy of the channel, but only for a short duration of the
time.
14.How many channels are simultaneously supported in TDMA?
Bt 2 Bguard
N
Bc
Bt ---total system bandwidth
Bguard ---guard bandwidth
Bc ----bandwidth per channel
15.How many channels are simultaneously supported in FDMA?
m( Bt 2 Bguard )
N
Bc
Bt ---total system bandwidth
m---no of slots per channel
Bguard ---guard bandwidth
Bc ----bandwidth per channel
16.Mention the advantages of CDMA system. (Nov 2010).
Each user employs a unique spread spectrum signaling code. It provides communication privacy
between users with different spreading signals.
One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the phone is at least twice
as far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas where GSM cannot cover.
Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity that it can accommodate more
users per MHz of bandwidth.

17.What do you mean by narrow band system?

Channel system: generally total spectrum is divided into a number of relatively narrow radio channels
(e.g. FDMA). If all the channels are being used, call blocking occurs. Unused bandwidth in each
channel cannot be used by other users.Transmission experiences non selective fading. This means that
when fading occurs, whole of the information (i.e. the whole channel) is affected.
18.What do you mean by wide band system?
The main feature of wide band systems is that either complete spectrum is available (e.g. CDMA,
TDMA) or a considerable portion of it is used by each user (e.g. TDMA+FDMA).The advantage of
wideband systems is that the transmission bandwidth always exceeds the coherence bandwidth for
which the signal experiences only selective fading. That is, only a small fraction of the frequencies
composing the signal is affected by fading. Signal can be distorted and therefore equalization is
needed but unlikely a total signal fade occurs.
19.What is the difference between Multiple Access & Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the process of transmitting several messages simultaneously on the same circuit or
channel. On the other hand Multiple Access is techniques that have been developed in the satellite
industry which allow satellite spectrum and power to be shared efficiently among multiple users. In
multiple accesses More than one simple signal can thus be transmitted as part of a single complex
signal and separated out at the receiving end.
20.What are the features of TDMA?
In TDMA a single carrier frequency with a wide bandwidth is shared among multiple users. Each user
is assigned non-overlapping time slot. Number of time slots per frame depends on (1) available
bandwidth, (2) modulation techniques etc. Transmission for TDMA users is not continuous, but
occurs in bursts, resulting in low battery consumption. The subscriber transmitter may be turned off
during non-transmission periods. Hand off process is simpler for a subscriber, since it can listen to
other base stations during non-transmit times.
21.What is meant by spread spectrum?
Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the frequency of the transmitted
signal is deliberately varied. This results in a much greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its
frequency were not varied.
22.What are the applications of spread spectrum?
Cell phones, Global Positioning System and Wireless LANs. It is used in military communications
systems. It allows the transmitter to transmit a message to a receiver without the message being
detected by a receiver for which it is not intended. It decreases the transmitted power spectral density
so that it lies well below the thermal noise level of any unfriendly receiver. It turns out not to be
possible to conceal the transmission.
23.What is DS spread spectrum?
Spread spectrum increases the bandwidth of the signal compared to narrow band by spreading the
signal. DSSS spreads the signal by adding redundant bits to the signal prior to transmission which
spreads the signal across 22 Mhz.
24.Define FH spread spectrum.
Most spread-spectrum signals use a digital scheme called frequency hopping. The transmitter
frequency changes abruptly, many times each second. Between "hops," the transmitter frequency is
stable. The length of time that the transmitter remains on a given frequency between "hops" is known
as the dwell time.
25.What are the popular coding sequences of CDMA systems ?(Nov 2014)
Popular code sequences used in spread-spectrum transmission are
(i)Maximum Length sequences (ii) Walsh Hadamard sequences (iii) Gold codes (iv)Kasami codes.
26.Give out the merits of TDMA system. (Nov 2014)
TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication.
TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data, and SMS as well as bandwidth
intensive application such as multimedia and video conferencing.
Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no
interference from simultaneous transmissions.
TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only portion of the time
during conversations.
TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital

27. What is near far problem in CDMA.(June 2014,Nov 2011,May 2016)

 If received signals from mobile units do not have equal power at the base station, in such a situation
the strongest received signal from a mobile user captures the demodulation process at the base station
to the detriment of other users.
28.What is SDMA? (June 2014)
By using narrow beam antennas area on the earth covered by satellite can be divided into smaller
segments. Earth station in each segment may actually use the same frequency but because of very
narrow beamwidths of antennas, there is no interference between adjacent segments. This is spatial
division multiple access.
UNIT V
Define apogee, perigee and geocenter. (May 2013).
Apogee is the point farthest from the earth. Perigee is the point of closest approach to the earth. The
center of gravity of the earth is called geocenter.
1.Why is single mode propagation impossible with graded index fibers. (May 2013).
In graded index fiber the refractive index is maximum at the core axis and goes decreasing gradually
towards the wall of the core.
2.What is a satellites foot print? (Nov 2013)
The footprint of a communications satellite is the ground area that its transponders offer coverage, and
determines the satellite dish diameter required to receive each transponder's signal.
3.What are the types of optical fiber mode structure?(Nov 2012)
Monomode SIF, Multimode SIF, Multimode graded index fiber.
4.What is a geosynchronous orbit?(May 2012)
A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit appears to be stationary with respect to earth. The orbit is
circular and its angle of inclination is zero.
5.State Snells law. ? (May 2012)
n1.Sini=n2. Sinr
6.Write down the uplink and downlink frequencies used in satellite communication?
C Band-6Ghz/4Ghz; Ku band-14/12 Ghz
7.Mention the types of sources and detectors used in optical fiber communication system.
LED, ILD, PIN diode, APD
8.State Keplers second & third law. (May 2016)
Keplers first law states that the satellite will follow an elliptical path in its orbit around the primary
body. An ellipse has two focal points as F1 and F2.
Keplers second law states that for equal time intervals the satellite sweeps out equal areas in the
orbital plane, focused at the bay center.
Third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance between the two bodies.
9.What are apogee and perigee?
Apogee is the point farthest from the earth. Perigee is the point of closest approach to the earth.
10.What are the classifications of satellites? (May2016)
Satellites are generally classified as a low earth orbit (LEO), Medium earth orbit (MEO),or
Geosynchronous earth orbit(GEO) .
11.What is ascending node?
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane from south to north. The point where a polar or
inclined orbit crosses the equatorial plane traveling from north to south is called ascending node.
12.What is meant by the term numerical aperture of an fiber?
Numerical aperture is used as figure merit for the fiber .It is given as N A =n12 n22 /no, where no is
refractive index of medium through which light is launched. n1 is refractive index of fiber core
glass.n2 is refractive index of fiber cladding.
13.Distinguish between graded index and step index multimode fiber?
In step index fiber the refractive index of the fiber core remains same throughout its bulk. There is
sudden transition of refractive index at the interface of core and cladding .Because of the constant
refractive index of the core material the light rays travel straight and reflected from the walls of the
core. Hence the light path is zig zag straight segments.
In graded index fiber the refractive index is maximum at the core axis and goes decreasing gradually
towards the wall of the core. The acceptance cone of the graded index fiber is more than the step
index fibers.
14.What is acceptance cone half angle for an optical fiber with core and cladding refractive index
of n1=1.48 and n2=1.46 respectively.
 The acceptance cone angle is given by Qo=sin-1 [sqrt(n12 n22 /no ] (no=1) =14
15.State Keplers third law.
The third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance between the primary and the satellite.
16.Define posigrade orbit and retrograde orbit
If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as earths rotation and at an angular velocity greater
than that of earth, the orbit is called a prograde (or) posigrade orbit. If the satellite is orbiting in the
opposite direction as the earths rotation or in the same direction with an angular velocity less than
that of earth, the orbit is called a retrograde orbit.
17.Define Geo synchronous satellite.
Geo synchronous or geo stationary satellites are those that orbit in a circular pattern with an angular
velocity equal to that of Erath. Geosynchronous satellites have an orbital time of approximately 24
hours, the same as earth; thus geosynchronous satellites appear to be stationary as they remain in a
fixed position in respect to a given point on earth.
18.Define angle of inclination.
The angle of inclination is the angle between the earths equatorial plane and the orbital plane of a
satellite measured counterclockwise at the point in the orbit where it crosses the equatorial plane
traveling from south to north.
19.Define Descending node.
The point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the equatorial plane traveling from south to north.
This point is called descending node.
20.Define Azimuth angle.
Azimuth is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the southern or northern
most point of the horizon.
21.What are the primary advantages of optical fiber System?(Apr 2015, May 2014)
Greater information capacity, Immunity to crosstalk, Immunity to static interference, Environmental
immunity , Safety & Security
22.Define angle of elevation.(Apr 2015)
Angle of elevation is the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of an electromagnetic
wave radiated from an earth station antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and the horizontal
plane.
23.What is SCADA? (Nov 2014)
SCADA is the acronym for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.SCADA is a computer-based
system for gathering and analyzing real-time data to monitor and control equipment that deals with
critical and time-sensitive materials or events.
24.Classify the communication satellites along with their band of frequency allocation.(May 2014)
Most of the communication satellites operate in microwave frequency band. There are some satellites
which operate in UHF and VHF range, for example one more military application satellites operate in
200-400 MHz UHF frequency range. The other amateur radio OSCAR satellites operate in VHF/UHF
range.The most popular frequency bands available on satellite are L band, S band, C band, X band,
Ku band, k band and Ka bands. C band Satellite will usually will have 5.925 to 6.425 GHz frequency
range in the uplink and 3.7 to 4.2 GHz frequency range in the downlink. Ku band satellite will have
14 to 14.5 GHz range in the Uplink and 11.7 to 12.2 GHz frequency range in the downlink.