Mill Test Certificates

Chemical
{ Samples are taken from the molten metal
{ Chemical analysis is performed
{ reported on a mill test certificate for an individual
heat or batch of steel
{ Heat is usually 50 to 300 tons of steel
Physical
{ Samples from finished product (as required by a
specific steel standard)
{ tensile yield (Fy), tensile strength (Fult), and tensile
elongation tests are done
{ Reported on mill test certificate
 Classification and Standards for Steels

Classifications:
{ classification system are generally based on
composition
{ most common is SAE-AISI system; other is UNS
First two digits identify primary alloy type (e.g. 10 for
carbon, 13 for manganese)
last two digits for carbon content
Standards are generally based on
performance
{ e.g. ASTM, AMS, ASME,
 Steel Products in Civil Engineering

Plate Steel (for welded beams)

Shapes (wide flange, I-beams, channels, tees)
Fasteners
Reinforcing for Concrete
{ Reinforcing steel (rebar)
{ Prestressing tendon
{ Postensioning tendon and bar
Sheet steel (cladding, light steel framing,
decks, roofs
 Typical general categories of structural steel

Fy Fu
Type Description
(MPa) (MPa)
common grade, C and Mn are main
Carbon Steel strengthening elements 245-300 380-450

Higher carbon which increases strength but

reduces ductility, toughness, and weldability;
High Strength
less common e.g. electrical transmission 350-400 480-550
carbon steel
towers where connections are bolted and
members are small
High strength low low carbon, strength comes from other alloys
such as vanadium and columbium 300-480 450-550
alloy steel
Atmospheric Weathering steel low carbon steel with
corrosion resistant alloying elements giving some corrosion 350 (typ) 480 (typ)
steel resistance
High strength Heat treated for high strength, generally
quenched and weldable (if special procedures used) and good 550-700 700-950
tempered steel toughness
 Structural Steel Grades in Canada
CSA G40.21 specifies grades of steel with
letter and number:
{ e.g. Grade 300W is a designation for steel with fy =
300 MPa (see standard for exceptions) where the
letter designation means one of the following:

Code Description
Type W weldable
Most common
Type WT weldable, notch tough
Type R atmospheric corrosion-resistant
Type A atmospheric corrosion-resistant, weldable
Type AT atmospheric corrosion-resistant, weldable, notch tough

Type Q Quench and tempered low alloy steel plate

Type QT Quench and tempered low alloy, notch tough, steel plate
(Canadian G.41)
 Structural Shapes

Hot steel
passed through
series of rollers
to make
various shapes

From Mamlouk and Zaniewski

Beijing Olympic Stadium Birds Nest designed by Herzog and DeMeuron, and Arup
uses high strength low alloy plate steel (110 mm thick; Chinese grade Q460)
 Structural Steel for Bridges

CSA S6 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code:

{ Structural Steel: CAN/CSA-G40.21
Normal: (Type W??)
Weathering Steel: Type A atmospheric corrosion-resistant steel
Fracture Critical: Type AT, WT or QT
{ Cast Steel: ASTM 27M or ASTM 148M or ASTM A486M
{ Stainless Steel ASTM A167
{ Bolts: ASTM A325M, A490M
{ Cables
Bright wire: ASTM A510
Galvanized wire: ASTM A641
Bridge strand: ASTM A586
Wire Rope: ASTM 603
{ High Strength Bars: CSA G279
Other Approximate Properties of
Structural Steel

Elastic Modulus 200,000 MPa

Poissons Ratio 0.30

Density 7850 kg/m3

Coefficient of Thermal appox 11.7 x 10-6 /C

Expansion (varies greatly for different
steel types)
 Weathering Steel

Develops a dense tightly adhered coat of rust that

inhibits further corrosion (more or less)
Requires no paint for most environments
Can still result in rust stains onto concrete piers etc
e.g. WRB bridge in Kelowna (steel is painted near the
expansion joints only)
e.g. in cladding is the Civil Rusty Hut
Example types of Weathering Steel
{ Canada CSA G40.20 Grades 350A and 350R
{ US ASTM A242, ASTM A588 (check)
{ UK BS 4360
 Examples of Canadian Codes

Code Designation Title

CSA-S16-01 Limit States Design of Steel Structures
CAN/CSA-S6 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code
CSA-W59 Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding)
CSA-G40.20/G40.21 General Requirements for Rolled or Welded
Structural Quality Steel/Structural Quality Steel
CSA-S136 Cold Formed Steel Structural Members
CSA W47.1 Certification of Companies for Fusion Welding of
Steel Structures
- 3 divisions of certification
- Owner/designer should specify the appropriate
division (e.g. buildings and bridges Div 1 or Div
2.1)
 Examples of British Steels
Plate and Rolled Steel BS 4360 or EN 10025
{Grade 43 (fy = 275 MPa)
{Grade 50 (fy = 335 MPa)

Buildings mostly Grade 43 although columns and composite beams in

multi-story are often Grade 50

Grade 50 common in bridges

Notch toughness: -5 C buildings internal

-15 C buildings external
-15/-25 C bridges
(depending on location)
Weather resistant BS 4360
Cladding Cold reduced, hot rolled
BS 1449.1 (production standard)
BS 2989/EN 10142 galvanized formed steel
Grades: Z28 (fy = 280 MPa)
Z35 (fy = 350 MPa)
Steel Wire BS 2763 fult appox 1700 MPa
 Fastener Products

Conventional bolts,
twist-off type tension control bolt assemblies,
nuts,
washers,
compressible-washer-type direct tension
indicators,
anchor rods,
threaded rods,
forged steel structural hardware
 Reinforcing Steel (rebar)

Geometry:
{ Bars (wire rolls for small sizes and straight
bar)
Plain (smooth round) now not common
Deformed (bumps on surface)
{ Most commonly used reinforcing for structural
concrete
{ Wire Mesh (sheets or rolls)
Plain and deformed (deformed not common)
{ Used in some structural concrete but more common
as crack control in non-structural concrete
 Rebar Specifications
Types of Rebar in CSA S6 and MOTH BC
G30.3 and G30.14 Cold-drawn steel wire; Deformed steel wire
G30.5 and G30.14 Welded steel wire fabric; Welded deformed steel wire fabric
G30.18 Billet steel bars 300R, 400R, 500R, 400W, 500W
CSA A23.1:
{ CSA-G30.18

{ ASTM A82/A82M-07 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
{ ASTM A496/A496M-07 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement

{ ASTM A184/A184M-06 Standard Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete
Reinforcement
{ ASTM A185/A185M-07 Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for
Concrete
{ ASTM A497/A497M-07 Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed, for
Concrete
{ ASTM A704/A704M-06 Standard Specification for Welded Steel Plain Bar or Rod Mats for Concrete
Reinforcement

{ ASTM A775/A775M-07 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars

 Rebar Sizes

Bar Uncoated Bars Epoxy Coated Nominal Linear

Designati (CSA Grades) Bars Mass
on (kg/m)
300R 400R, 400W,
500W (confirm these)
10M Y Y Y 0.785
15M Y Y Y 1.570
20M Y Y 2.355
25M Y Y 3.925
30M Y Y 5.495
35M Y Y 7.850
45M Y Y 11.775
55M Y Y 19.625
ASTM A615/A615M-07 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for
Concrete
1.1 This specification covers deformed and plain carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcement in
cut lengths and coils. Steel bars containing alloy additions, such as with the AISI and SAE series
of alloy steels, are permitted if the resulting product meets all the other requirements of this
specification. The standard sizes and dimensions of deformed bars and their number
designations are given in Table 1 . The text of this specification references notes and footnotes
which provide explanatory material. These notes and footnotes (excluding those in tables) shall
not be considered as requirements of the specification.
1.2 Bars are of three minimum yield strength levels: namely, 40000 [280 MPa], 60000 [420
MPa], and 75000 psi [520 MPa], designated as Grade 40 [280], Grade 60 [420], and Grade 75
[520], respectively.
 Reinforcing Steel for Chloride Environments

Epoxy coated reinforcing steel

{ ASTM A-775M and D-3963M from certified plants
{ care not to damage coating
{ gives about extra 20 years protection
{ was common in 80s and 90s
Galvanized Rebar
{ ASTM A-767M Class 1 or CSA G164
{ Not too common in Canada but do have good track record in
some locations
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
{ Typically glass or carbon composites
{ excellent new products
{ See Chapter 16 of Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code
and CSA S806
 Reinforcing Steel for Chloride Environments

Regular steel with other protection measures

such as combinations of:
{ Increased concrete cover,
{ Corrosion inhibitors,
{ Better crack control, (curing practice, pre-stressing
or post tension, fibers, rebar detailing)
{ Low permeability to chlorides (silica fume, fly ash,
slag, low w/cm)
{ Coatings,
{ cathodic, protection

e.g. good cover, corrosion inhibitors, silica fume, fly ash, low w/cm
used on Golden Ears
 Wire, Strand, Cable

Higher carbon contents

Individual wire is cold drawn from hot rolled to 90% reduction
which produces a heavily worked structure
Dislocation network provides high strength
Wires wound together to make a strand (typically 7 wire strand but
also 19, and 37)
Strands wound together to make cables
 Prestressed Concrete Tendons

ASTM A416/A416M-06 Standard Specification for Steel Strand,

Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
{ Two types: low-relaxation (most common) and stress relieved
{ Two grades: 1725MPa and 1860 MPa ultimate tensile strength
{ 0.5 and 0.6 mm average diameter

ASTM A421/A421M-05 Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-

Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
{ Two types: BA button anchorage and WA wedge anchorage

ASTM A722/A722M-07 Standard Specification for Uncoated High-

Strength Steel Bars for Prestressing Concrete
{ Min 1035 MPa
{ Plain (Type I) and Deformed (Type II)

CSA S6 references CSA G279

 Post-Tensioning

Fully bonded (grouted) or unbonded

(greased and inside plastic sheath)
Usually 7 wire strand to:
{ ASTM A416, A421, A722

Note: corrosion of unbonded tendons has been a problem in

the past and special care is need during manufacture and
installation
 Wire for Cables in Suspension Bridges
Example of Properties:
{ High quality (close control on composition)
e.g.
Carbon 0.75-0.85
Manganese 0.55-0.75
Phosphorus <0.03
Sulfur <0.03
Silicon 0.15-0.30

{ Galvanized
{ High strength (e.g. tensile strength =1550 MPa
{ Elongation (e.g. 4% in 250 mm)
{ Coating elongation (e.g. no peel on 1.5x wire diameter mandrel)
{ Wire size: 4.88 (more common) and 4.11 mm dia
{ Supplied in large diameter rolls (e.g. 1.5m) to prevent coating failure
and to facilitate spinning on site
{ Wires can be pre-assembled into strands at factory then made into
cables (or run parallel) on site
 Fire and Steel

Fire and Steel do no mix steel softens quickly and

looses strength, leaving little life safety for egress
Fire protection is stipulated in buidling codes (not
structural standards) such as:
{ Vancouver Building By-law
{ BC Building Code
Amount of protection depends on:
{ Type of Occupancy e.g. school, home, warehouse
{ Size of structure
Protection over fire resistant insulation may be
required
 Corrosion of Steels

Destructive action or deterioration of metal by

sometimes chemical but mostly
electrochemical reaction with the environment
Corrosion Environments:
{ atmosphere
{ aqueous solutions
{ soils
{ acids and bases
{ inorganic solvents
{ sea water (deicing salts) etc
{ high temperature
 Electrochemical Corrosion Process

corrosion cells are formed with a

continuous flow of electrons
Cathode and Anode reactions
corrosion requires:
{ source of water
{ source of oxygen
{ electrical continuity
{ potential difference
 Types of Corrosion

general corrosion (rusting)

Pitting corrosion
galvanic corrosion
stress-corrosion
crevice corrosion
hydrogen
intergranular
biological
filliform
case of dissimilar
metals
Fe has a higher
electromotive
potential than Cu
if Fe replaced with
Zn electrons would
flow opposite
direction
 Case of Reinforced Concrete

high pH (caused by OH-) results in

passive layer on surface of steel,
therefore does not rust
HOWEVER: chloride can disrupt
passive layer and cause corrosion or
carbonation can lower pH and cause
corrosion
 Corrosion Control

1. Protective paint coatings paint

becomes a barrier between steel and
atmosphere
2. Hot Dip Galvanizing steel immersed
in bath of molten zinc resulting in:
Zn corrodes preferentially over the iron
(sacrificial anode)
acts as a barrier as well
 Corrosion Control

3. Cathodic Protection:
{ impressed current will reverse potential and
reaction does not occur
4. Use corrosion resistant metal:
stainless steel
weathering steels
5. In the case of reinforced concrete replace
steel with FRP materials
glass, aramid, carbon in a polymeric matrix
very brittle
polymer can be vinyl ester or epoxy
Galvanic Series

materials higher in the

chart will corrode
before those lower
 Uniform Corrosion

General loss of
material exposed to
corrosion
environment
General thinning
takes place until
failure
 Galvanic Corrosion

corrosion due to electrical contact of two

dissimilar conductive materials
 Pitting Corrosion

Pitting corrosion is a localized form of

corrosion by which cavities or "holes" are
produced in the material.
Pitting is considered to be more dangerous
than uniform corrosion damage because it is
more difficult to detect, predict and design
against.
A small, narrow pit with minimal overall metal
loss can lead to the failure of an entire
engineering system.
Example of Corrosion Pits
 Intergranular Corrosion

loss of material at grain boundary

 Hydrogen Embrittlement

cracking, blistering and premature failure of a

material due to the entry of hydrogen into the
material causing brittleness
 Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a
localized form of
corrosion usually
associated with a
stagnant between metals
in close contact

Such stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in

crevices (shielded areas) such:
{ under gaskets, washers, disbonded coatings, threads, lap
joints and clamps etc.
 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion is initiated by changes

in local chemistry within the crevice:
{ Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice
{ Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
{ A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
{ Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g.
chloride) in the crevice
 Stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) is
the cracking induced
from the combined
influence of tensile
stress and a
corrosive
environment.
BCE Place, Toronto, Ontario