A 176673

AD-A 176 673
AD
AOEOF- _
SPECIAL PUBLICATION ARLCD-SP-84001
pTT
S /0SE EO
STRUCTURES TO RESIST THE EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL ADPLSIES
VOLUME 11, BLAST, FRAGMENT, AND SHOCK LOADS
....
HENRY AYVAZYAN YDTIC
D I
MICHAEL DEDE
NORVAL DOBBS ECTE
AMMANN & WHITNEY IEEtII67
MARK WHITNEY
PATRICIA BOWLES
WILFRED BAKER
SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE
JOSEPH P. CALTAGIRONE
PROJECT ENGINEER
ARDEC
DECEMBER 1986
U.S.ARMY A W IESRCH, DEVELOPMENT MI) G3EERNt CEMIfER

US ARMY
ARMAMENT ARMAMENT ENGINEERING 1IRECTORATE
COMMAND
MUNIONSCHEMICAL DOVER, NEW JERSEY
ARMAMENT IDE CENTER
APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED.
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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE BEFORECOMPLTINGF

. I. REPORT NUMBER 2, GOVT ACCESSION NO. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
* Special Publication ARLCD-SP-84001 /!1-

'7 7 .
p
4. TITLE ( Snd ubtl.) S. TYPE OF REPORT b PERIOD COVERED
STR TURES TO RESIST THE EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL Special Publication
ST~JCURE TORESIT TE EFECS 01 AGID~TAI Jan 84 - Oct 86
SVOLUME II, BLAST, FRAGMENT, AND
SHOCK LOADS 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUXIER
7. AUTHOR(a) Henry Ayvazyan, Michael Dede, Norval Dobb s CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER()
Ammmaun & Whitney; Mark Whitney, Patricia Bowles,

Wilfred Baker, Southwest Research Institute; DAAK1O-82-C-0112
- ~-ncn Jo.pP gfn &E.. JR."' "iT,-
9. P0AFORMING ORGA I I N A O OR S 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK
Ammann and Whitney AREA & WORK UNIT NUMSERS
96 Morton Street
New York, New York 10014
II. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT OATE
ARDEC, IMD December 1986
STINFO Div (SMCAR-MSI) IS. NUMBEROF PAGES
Dover, NJ 07801-5001 505
14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & AODRESS(I diff.,. ,ow,
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EC, AED Unclassif ied
Energetic Systems Process Div (SMCAR-AES-M)
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SCHEDULE
W6 04STRiOUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
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rabettct
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTfS

This report is Volume II of six volumes which will eventually be published as a
tri-service design manual and was sponsored by the Departmert of Defense
Explosives Safety Board. Sections of this volume were prepared by Southwest
Research Institute, San Antonio, TX under a subcontract.
Blast effects Blast pressures Fragment velocity
Weapons effects
Fragments Impulse Protective structures
TNT explosions Aic blast
Primary fragments Shock loads Surface burst
Secondary fragments Ground ohock Impulse equivalency (cont)
72VaABSTRACT (Cwta an Poere -f X na~wy amdIdemslli by block ntmbef)
is report details design procedures for structures which are subjected to
the effects of accidental explosions. The procedures cover the determinat.on
of the blast environment and structural design. This volume contains proce-
dures for determining the effects from unconfined and confihed explosions
ibility, TNT equivalency, external
(shock, gas, and leakage pressures),blast
including
loads multiple explosions, frang-
on structures with and without
openings, and the pressure buildup in structures. Another section deals with
Dprimary
D FOF" fragments
14n (fragment velocity, distribution of fragments, impact--cont)
z t o o rO9 mo 6&a
Is S O L.
E TE
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SECUITY CLAt&FICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Dats E ntered)
UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION Of THIS PAOG(When Dol Enitre)
19. KEY WORDS (cont)
Blast loads Structure motion

Shock pressure Gas pressures
Frangibility Leakage pressures
Vented explosions
Confined explosions
Shock spectra
Fragment impact
20.- ABSTRACT (coit)
effects) and secondary fragments (velocity, trajectory). The last section

on shock loads contains procedures for determining ground shock and air
shock effects, structure motions, and shock r'sponse spectra. An appendix
is included with appropriate example problems and solutions.\
",
.
V..'
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SECuRITY CLASSIFICAT ION OF THIS PAGE(When Date Entered)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
2-I Purpose 1
2-2 Objective 1
2 3 Background 1
2-4 Scope of Manual 2
2-5 Format of Manual 3
VOLUME CONTENTS
2-6 General
EXPLOSION EFFECTS
2-7 Effects of Explosive Output 4
BLAST LOADS
2-8 Blast Phenomena 5

2-8.1 General 5
2-8.2 Explosive Materials 5
2-9 TNT Equivalency 6
2-10 Blast-Loading Categories 7
2-10.1 Unconfined Explosion 7
2-10.1.1 Free Air Burst Explosion 7
2-10.1.2 Air Burst Explosion 7
2-10.1.3 Surface Burst Explosion 7
2-10.2 Cont'ined Explosion 11
2-10.2.1 Fully Vented Explosion 11
2-10.2.2 Partially Confined Explosion 11
2-10.2.3 Fully Confined Explosion 11
2-11 Blast Loading Protection 11
2-12 Blast-Wave Phenomena 12
2-13 Unconfined Explosions 15
2-13.1 Free-Air Burst 15
2-13.2 Air Burst 17
2-13.3 Surface Burst 28
2-13.4 Multiple Explosions 29
2-14 Confined Explosion 75
2-14.1 Effects of Confinement 75 0[[
2-14.2 Shock Pressures 78
2-14.2.1 Blast Loads 78
2-14.2.2 Frangibility 182
2-14.2.3 TNT Equtvalency 183 .................
2-14.2.4 Multiple Explosions 185
,do-,
or
Dist
L-C
LLL./
r1
PAGE
2-1 4.3 Gas Pressures 186

2-14.3.1 Blast Loads 186
2-14.3.2 Frangibility 203
2-14.3.3 TNT Equivalency 203
2-14.4 Leakage Pressures 205
2-14.4.1 introduction 205
2-14.4.2 Fully Vented Three-Wall Cubicles 206
2-14.4.3 Partially Vented Four-Wall
Cubicles - Vent Openings
in Roof 208
2-14..4 Partially Vented Four-Wall
Cubicles - Vent Openings
in Wall 209
2-15 External Blast Loads on Structure 209
2-15.1 General 209
2-15.2 Forces Acting on Structures 232
2-15.3 Above-Ground Rectangular Structures
Without Openings 23
2-15.3.1 General 2314
2-15.3.2 Front WalI Loads 234
2-15.3.3 Roof and Side Wall Loads 239
2-15.3.4 Rear Wall I.oads 245
2-15.4 Above-Ground Rectangular Structure
With Openings 246
2-15.4.1 General 246
2-15.4.2 Exterior Front Wall Loads 251
2-15.4.3 Interior Front Wall Loads 253
2--15.4.4 Interior Side Wall and Roof Loads 258
2-15.4.5 Interior Back Wall 284
2-15.5 Pressure Buildup in Structures 285
2-15.5.1 General 285
2-15.5.2 Method of Calculation 285
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FRAGMENTS
2-16 General 293

2-17 Primary Fragments 293
2-17.1 General 293
2-17.2 Initial Fragment Velocity 294
2-17.2.1 Exploslves with Uniform
Cylindrical Containers 294
2-17.2.2 Explosives with Non-Uniform
2-17.2.3 Explosives with Non-
2-17.3 Fragment Mass Distribution 296
2-17.3.1 Explosives with Uniform
ii
PAGE
2-17.3.2 Explosives with Non-Uniform

2-17.3.3 Explosives with Non-Cylindrical
Contal ners 307
2-17.4 Variation of Fragment Velocity with Distance 309
2-17.5 Primary Fragments - Shape, Caliber, Density
and Impact Angle 310
2-17.5.1 General 310
2-17.5.2 Shape of Primary Fragments 310
2-17.5.3 'aliber Density 315
2-17.5.4 Nose Shape Factor 315
2-17.5.5 Impact Angle 315
2-18 Secondary Fragments 315

2-18.1 General 315
2-18.2 Velocity of Unconstrained Secondary Fragments 316
2-18.3 Velocity of Constrained Secondary Fragments 326
2-19 Fragment Trajectories 327
SHOCK LOADS
2-20 Introduction 331

2-21 Ground Shock 332
2-21.1 Introduction 332
2,21.2 Air Blast-Induced Ground Shock 333
2-21.3 Direct-Induced Ground Motion 338
2-22 Air Shock 339
2-22.2 Method of Analysis 340
2-23 Structure Motions 341
2-23.2 Net Ground Shock 341
2-23.3 Maximum Structure Motion 344
2-24 Shock Response Spectra 344
2-24.2 Definition of Shock Spectra Grid 3414
2-24.3 Response Spectra 345
APPENDIX 2A ILLUSTRATIVF EXAMPLES 349
APPENDIX 2B LIST OF SYMBOLS 453 "
2C BIBLIOGRAPHY 473
DISTRIBUTION LIST 485 ,

S
p.
lii,
o,
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
2-1 Blast loading categories ....................................... 10

2-2 Free-field pressure-time variation ............................. 13
2-3 Peak incident pressure versus peak dynamic pressure density
of air behind the shock front and particle velocity ......... 14
2-4 Free-air burst blast environment ............................... 18
2-5 Pressure-time variation for a free-air burst ................... 19
2-6 Peak incident pressure versus the ratio of normal reflected
pressure/incident pressure for a free air burst ............. 20
2-7 Positive phase shock wave parameters for a spherical
7NT explosion in free air at sea level ...................... 21
2-8 Negative phase shock wave parameters for a spherical
TNT explosion In free air at sea level ...................... 22
2-.9 Variation of reflected pressure as a function of
angle of incidence ......................................... 23
2-10 Variation of scaled reflected impulse as a function
of angle of incidence ....................................... 24
2-11 Air burst blast environment .................................... 25
2-12 Pressure-time variation for air burst .......................... 26
2-13 Scaled height of triple point .................................. 27
2-14 Surface burst blast environment ................................ 30
2-15 Positive phase shock wave parameters for a hemispherical
TNT explosion on the surface at sea level ................... 31
2-16 Negative phase shock wave parameters for a hemispherical
TNT explosion on the surface at sea level ................... 32
2-17 Explosive shapes ............................................... 42
2-18 Peak positive incident pressure and scaled impulse for an
explosion on the surface at sea level ....................... 43
2-26 peak positive Incident pressure and scaled impulse for an
2-28 Peak positive JncIdent pressure and scaled impulse for an
lv
IV3
.. . . . . . hV ~
"~~L~.~
YL . . hS.... . . .. ..-
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

2-41 Peak positive incident pressure and scaled impulse for an..d
2-47 Peak positive incident pressure and scaled Impulse for an
explosion on the surface at sea level ....................... 73 %
2-5) Confined explosion structures .................................. 76
2-51 Barrier and cubicle configurations and parameters.............. 80
2-52 Average peak reflected pressure
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H = 0.10) ............................. 84
2-53 Average peak reflected prczurc
(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.10)..................... 85
(N - 1, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 86
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H = 0.25) ............................. 87
v
EA
'U-
. . . . . ... . . . .- . .
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
J.J

(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25) .................... 88
2-57 Average peak reflected pressu'e
(N = 1, P/L - 0.50 h/H = 0.25) .............................. 89
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ..... ...................... 90
(N2- A r P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H 0.51) .................... 91
2-60 Average peak reflec-ted pressure ,
(N - 1, P/L = 0.50, h/H 0.50).............................. 92
2-61 Average peak reflected pressure ,
(N = 1, P/L = 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 93
(N = 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H a 0.75) .................... 94
(N = 1, P/L = 0.50, h/H = 0.75) ............................. 95
2-64 Average peak reflected pressure ,
(N = 2, P/L = 0.50, h/H = 0.0) ............................. 96
(N = 2, P/L = 0.25, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 97
(N = 2, P/L = 0.50, h/H = 0.10) ............................. 98
(N P/L - 0.75, h/H = 0.10) .............................. 99
(N = 2, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 10
(N - 2, P/L = 0.25, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 101
(N = 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 1OZ
(N = 2, P/L = 0.75, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 103
(N = 2, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 104
(N = 2, P/L = 0.25, h/H = 0.50) ............................. 105
(N = 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 106
(N = 2, P/L - 0.75, h/H = 0.50) ............................. 107
(N = 2 P/L = 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 108
(N = 2, P/L = 0.25, h/H = 0.75) ............................. 109
(N = 2, P/L = 0.50, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 110
(N = 2, P/L - 0.75, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 110
(N - 3, P/L = 0.70, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 112
(N = 3, P/L = 0.25 and 0.75, h/H = 0.10) .................... 113
vi
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 114
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 115
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25) .................... 116
(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 117
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 118
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.50) .................... 119
(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 120
2-89 Average peak reflected pressure U
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 121
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H 0.75) ...................... 122
(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 123
(N - 4, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 124
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.10)..................... 125
(N - 4, P/L = 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 126
(N - 4, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.25 and 0.75) .................... 127
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25 and 0.75) ........... 128
2-97 Average peaK reflected pressure
(N - 4, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25 and 0.75) .................... 129
(N - 4, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 130
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0,75, h/H - 0.50) .................... 131
(N - 4, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 132
2-101 Scaled average unit reflected impulse
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 133
(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.10) .................... 134
(N - 1, P/.. - (1.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 135
2-104 Scaled average ,rit reflected impulse
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 136
(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25) .................... 137
(N - 1, P/L - 0.50, h/H = 0.25) ............................. 138
2-107 Scaled average unit reflected Impulse
(N = 1, P/L = 0.10, h/H = 0.50' .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 139
vii
-..-... _
FIGURE TITLE PAGE I

(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.50) .................... 140
(N - 1, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ......................... ,... 141
(N - 1, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 142
(N - 1, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.75) .................... 143
(N - 1, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 144
(N - 2, P/L - 0.10, h/H 0.10) ....................... ..... 145
4-114 Scaled average jnit reflected impulse
(N - 2, P/L - 0.25, h/H - 0.10) .............................. 146
(N - 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ................ ............. 147 "
2-116 Scaled average unit reflected Impulse %
(N - 2, P/L - 0.75, h/H - 0.10) .............................. 148
(N - 2, P/L = 0.10, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 149
(N - 2, P/L - 0.25, h/H - 0.25) .............................. 150
2-119 Scaled average unit refiected impulse
(N - 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 151
2-120 Scaled average unit r4?flected impulse
(N = 2, P/L o0., h/H .. 0.25) ............................... 152
2-121 Scaled average unit 'eilected impulse
(N - 2, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50).............................. 153
(N - 2, P/L - 0.25, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 154
(N = 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 155 l
(N - 2, P/L = 0.75, h/H - 0.50) ............................ 156
(N - 2. P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ........................... .. 57.
(N - 2, P/L - 0.25, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 158
(N - 2, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 159 %-
(N = 2, P/L - 0.75, h/H = 0.75).............................. 160
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 161
2-i30 Scaled average unit reflected impulse
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.10) .................... 162
(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 163
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 164
2"i33 Scaled average unit reflected impulse
(N - 3, P/L 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25) .................... 165
viii
pJI
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

(N - 3, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25) ............................. 166
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 167
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.50) .................... 1 8
(N - '), P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 169
(N - 3, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 170
(N - 3, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.75) .................... 171
(N - 3, P/L a 0.50, h/H - 0.75) ............................. 172
(N - 4, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 173
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.10) .................... 174
(N - 4, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.10) ............................. 175
(N - 4, P/L = 0.10, h/H = 0.25 and 0.75) .................... 176
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.25 and 0.75) ........... 177
Scaled avcrage unit, reflected impulse
(N 4, P/L - 0.50, h/H - 0.25 and 0.75) .................... 178
(N - 4, P/L - 0.10, h/H - 0.50) ............................. 179
2-148 Scaled average unit reflected Impulse
(N - 4, P/L - 0.25 and 0.75, h/H - 0.50) .................... 180
(N - 4, P/L = 0.50, h/H = 0.50) ............................. 181
2-150 Reflection factor for shock loads on frangible
elements .............................................. ..... 1884
2-151 Pressure-time variation for a partially vented explosion ....... 187
2-152 Peak gas pressure produced by a TNT detonation
in a partially contained chamber ...... ........ 188
2-153 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf 0.002, ir/W - 20) ................ 189
2-154 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf . 0.002, i /W 1 / 3
- 100) ............... 190
/3
2-155 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf - 0.002, ir/W - 600)............... 191
1/3
2-156 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf 0.015, ir/W - 20) ................ 192
1 1 3
2-157 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf 0.015, rlW - 100) ............... 193 I
1 3
2-158 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf 0.015, Ir/W / - 600) ............... 194
2-159 Scaled gas impulse W/Vf = 0.15, ir/W 1 /3 20) ................. 195
2-160 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf - 0.15, / /3 100) ................ 196

2-161 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf
f 0.15, ir/W 1 / 3 - 600) ................ 197
ix
m
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
I/ 3 100) ................. 198

2-162 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf a 1.0, ir/W -
I/ 3
2-163 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf - 1.0, ir/W - 600) ................. 199
2-164 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf - 1.0, ir/W' /3
- 2000) ................ 200
2-165 Combined shock and gas pressures ............................... 202
2-166 TNT conversion factor for, charges .............................. 204
2-167 Fully vented three-wall cubicles and direction of
blast wave propagation ...................................... 207
2-168 Envelope curves for peak positive pressure outside
three-wall cubicles without a roof .......................... 210
2-169 Envelope curves for peak posiLive pressure outside
three-wall cubicles with a roof ............................. 211
2-170 Envelope curves for maximum peak pressure outside
three-wall cubiciles ......................................... 212
2-171 Scaled peak positive impulse out the open front of
cubic three-wall cubicle without a roof ..................... 213
2-172 Scaled peak positive impulse out the open front of
rectangular three-wall cubicle without a roof ............... 214
2-173 Scaled peak positive impulse behind sidewall of cubic
Lhree-wall cubicle without a roof ........................... 215
2-174 Scaled peak positive impulse behind sidewall of rectangular
three-wall cubicle without a roof ........................... 216
2-175 Scaled peak positive impulse behind backwall of cubic
tKree-wall cubicle without a roof ........................... 217
2-17b Scaled peak positive impulse behind backwall of rectangular
three-wall cubicle without a roof ........................... 218
2-177 Scaled peak positive impulse out the open front of cubic
three-wall cubicle with a roof .............................. 219
2-178 Scaled peak positive impulse out the open front of rectangular
2-179 Scaled peak positive impulse behind sidewall of cubic
2-180 Scaled peak positive impulse behind sidewall of rectangular
2-181 Scaled peak positive impulse behind backwall of cubic
2-182 Scaled peak positive Impulse behind backwall of rectangular
2-183 Four wall cubicle vented through its roof ...................... 225
2-184 Peak positive pressure outside of a four-wall cubicle
vented through its roof ..................................... 226
2-185 Scaled positive impulse outside of a four-wall cubicle
vented through its roof ................................... 227
2-186 Four wall cubicle vented through a wall and direction of
blast wave propagation ...................................... 228
2-187 Peak positive pressure at the front of a partially vented
four-wall cubiJ.e ......................................... 229
2-188 Peak positive pres3ure at the side of a partially vented
four-wall cubicle ........................................... 230
x
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
2-189 Peak positive pressure at the back of a partially vented

four wall cubicle ........................................... 231
2-190 Idealized pressure-time variation ............................. 233
2-191 Front wall loading ............................................. 235
2-192 Velocity of sound in 'eflected overpressure region
versus peak 'nciderit overpressur .......................... 237
2-193 Reflected pressure coefficient versus angle of Incidence ....... 238
2-194 Reflected scalad impulse versus angle of incidence ............. 240
2-195 Roof and side wall loading ..................................... 241
2-196 Peak equivalent uniform roof pressures ......................... 242
2-197 Scaled rise time of equivalent uniform positive
roof pressures ............................................ 243
2-198 Scaled duration of equivalent uniform roof pressures ........... 244
2-199 Rear wall loading .............................................. 247
2-200 Idealized structure configuration for interior blast loads..... 249
2-201 Idealized interior blast loads ................................. 250
2-202 S'.b-divisiorn of typical front wall with openings ............... 252
2-203 Maximum average pressure on interior face of front wall
(W/H - 3/4) ................................................. 254
(W/H - 3/2) ................................................. 255
(W/H - 3) .......................................256
-206 Maximum average pressure on interior face of front wall
(Wi/ - 6) ................................................... 257
2-207 Arrival time, T 1 , for interior front wall blast load
(WIH - 3/4 and 3/2) ......................................... 259
2-208 Arrival time, T1 , for interior front wall blast load
(W/H - 3 and 6) ............................................. 260
2-209 Idealized rise time, T 2 - TI, for interior front wall
blast load (W/H = 3/4 and 3/2) ............................. 261
2-210 Idealized rise time, T 2 - T 1 , for interior front wall
blast load (W/H - 3 and 6) ................................. 262

2-211 Idealized duration, - T 1 , for interior front wali
blast load (W/H = 3/4 and 3/2) .............................. 263

2-212 Idealized duration, T 3 - T 1 , for interior front wall
blast load (W/H - 3 and 6) .................................. 264
2-213 Idealized timeT and T for interior side wall
blast load .................................................. 267
2-214 Idealized times T and T for interior side wall
blast load (L/H - 1 W/H = 3/4) ............................. 268 r
2-215 Idealized times T 3 and T 4 for interior side wall f
blast load (L/H.- 1, W/H - 3/2) ............................. 269
2-216 Idealized times T 3 and T 4 for inte,,ior side wall
blast load (LIH 1, W/H = 3) ................... ........... 270
xi
iV
'.0 . ' '- . . '% ... % -. . ,

FIGURE TITLE PA GE
2-217 Idealized times T 3 and T 4 for interior side wall

blast load (L/H - 1, W/H = 6) ............................... 271
blast load (L/H - 2, W/H - 3/4) ............................. 272
blast load (L/H = 2. W/H - 3/2) ............................. 273
2-220 Idealized times T 3 and T4 for interior side wall
blast load (L/H - 2, W/H - 3)............................... 274
blast load (L/H - 2, W/H - 6)............................... 275
2-222 Idealized times T 3 and T4 for interior side wall
blast load (L/H - 4, W/H - 3/4) ............................. 276
2-223 Idealized times T and T for interior side wall
blast load (L/H - 4, W/H - 3/2) ............................. 277
blast load (L/H - 4, W/H - 3)............................... 278
2-225 Idealized times T3 and TU for interior side wall
blast load (L/H = 4, W/H - 6) ............................... 279
2-226 Idealized times T and T 4 for interior side wall
blast load (L/H - 8, W/H - 3/4) ............................. 280
blast load (L/H - 8, W/H - 3/2) ............................. 281
blast load (L/H - 8, W/H - 3)............................... 282
2-229 Idealized times T3 and T4for interior side wall
blast load CL/H - 8, W/H - 6)............................... 283
2-230 Idealized pressure coefficient for back wall interior
blast load (L/H - 1 and 2).................................. 287
2-231 Idealized pressure coefficient for back wall interior
blast load (L/H - 4 and 8) .................................. 288
2-232 Arrival time, T,, for interior back wall blast load
(W/H - 3/4 and 3/2) ......................................... 289
2-233 Arrival time, T,, for interior back wall blast load
(W/H - 3 and 6)............................................. 290

2-234 Idealtzed time T 2 - T, for interior back wall blast load ....... 291
2-235 Le kage pressure coefficient vs. pressure differential ......... 292
2-236 Explosive outer casing separated by incompressible fluid....... 297
2-237 Initial velocity of primary fragments for various geometries... 299
2--238 MA/B versus cylindrical casing geometry ......................... 303
2-239 Design fragment weight versus design confidence level
(0.3<CL<I) ................................................. 304
2-2!10 Design fragment weight versus design confidence level
(0.986(CL< ) ............................................... 305
ii
Ixii
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
2-241 B2 NT/W versus casing geometry ................................. 306

2-242 Equivalent cylindrical explosive casings ....................... 308
2-243 Variation of primary fragment velocity with distance ........... 311
2-244 Priru'ry fragment shapes ........................................ 312
P-245 Relationship between fragment weight and fragment diameter ..... 313
2-246 Interaction of blast wave with an irregular object ............. 317
2-247 Idealized pressure-time loading on an irregular fragment ....... 318
2-248 Nondimensional object velocity, V, as a function of
pressure and impulse ........................................ 320
2-249 Target shape factor for unconstrained fragments ................ 323
2-250 Specific acquired impulse versus distance ...................... 325
2-251 Scaled fragment velocities for constrained fragments........... 328
2-252 Fragment range prediction ..................................... 330
2-253 Net ground motions produced by an explosion at the
ground surface .............................................. 334
2-254 Typical response shock spectra ................................. 346
rr
R
1i
xiii
o,, q..,..-......
.. ............ .
. . . -. -.- o . . . - . .
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
2-1 Heat of Detonation and Heat of Combustion ....................... 8

2-2 List of Illustrations of Peak Incident Pressure
and Impulse Produced by Surface Detonation of
Various Explosives ......................................... 33
2-3 List of Illustrations for Average Peak Reflected Pressure
and Scaled Average Unit Reflected Impul3e .................... 81
2-4 List Of Illustrations for Interior Side Wall Idealized
Times T3 and T 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 2 8 4
2-5 Specific Weight and Gurney Energy Constant for

Various Explosives ........................................... 295
2-6 Initial Velocity of Primary Fragments for Various Geometries .... 298
2-7 Mott Scaling Constants for Mild Steel Casings and
Various Explosives ........................................... 301
2-8 Drag Coefficient, CD, for various shapes ........................ 322
2-9 Steel Toughness ................................................. 327
2-10 Mass Density for Typical Soils and Rocks ........................ 335
2-11 Typical Seismic Velocities for Soils and Rocks .................. 336
2-12 Coefficient of friction for concrete foundation and
underlying soils .................................................. 343
xiv
VOLUME 11
BLAST, FRAGMENT AND SHOCK LOADS
INTRODUCTION
2-1 Purpose
The purpose of this six volume manual is to present methods of design for pro-
tective construction used in facilities for development, testing, production,
maintenance, modiflcation, inspection, disposal and storage of explosive
materials.
2-2 Objective
The primary objectives are to establish design procedures and construction

techniques whereby propagation of explosion (from one structure or part of a
structure to another) or mass detonation can be prevented and protection for
personnel and valuable equipment will be provided.,PA
The secondary objectives are:
!.A.
(1) Establish the blast load parameters required for design of protec-
tive structures;
(2) Provide methods for calculating the aynamic response of structural

elements including reinforced concrete, structural steel, etc.;
(3) Establish construction details and p'ocedures necessary to afford

the required strength to resist the applied blast loads;
(4) Establi3n guidelines for siting explosive facilities to obtain max-

imum cost effectiveness in both the planning and structural
arrangements; providing closures, and preventing damage to interior
portions of structures due to structural motion, shock, and frag-
ment perforation.
2- 3 Background r
For the first 60 years of the 20th century, criteria and methods based upon
the results of the catastrophic events have been used for the design of explo-
sive facilities. The criteria and methods did not include a detailed or reli-
able quantitative basis for assessing the degree of protection afforded by the
protective facility. In the late 1960's quantitative procedur-es were set
forth in the first edition of the present manual, "Structures to Resist the
Effects of Accidental Explosions". This manual was based on extensive re-
search and development programs which permitted a more reliable approach to
current arid future design requirements. Since the original publication of
this manual, more extensive testing and development programs have taken place.
This additional research was directed primarily towards materials other than
reinforced concrete which was the principal construction material referenced
in the initial version of the manual.
Modern methods for the manufacture and storage of explosive materials, which
include many exotic chemicals, fuels, propellants, etc., required less 3pace
,
-1,
1I
for a given quantity of explosive material than was previously needed. Such
concentration of explosives increases the possibility of the propagation of
accidental explosions (one accidental explosion causing the detonation of
other explosive materials). It is evident that a requirement for more accu-
rate design techniques has become essential. This manual describes rational
design methods to provide the required structural protection.
These design methods account for the close-in effects of a detonation includ-
ing associated high pressures and nonuniformIty of the blast loading on pro-
tective structures or barriers as well as intermediate and far-range effects
which are Involved within the design of structures which are positioned away
from the explosion. The dynamic response of structures, constructed or var-
ious materials, or combination of materials, can be calculated, and details
have been developed to provide the properties necessary to supply the required
strength and d.ctility specified by the design. Development of these proce-
dures has been directed primarily towards analyses of protective structures
subjected to the effects of high explosive detonation. However, this approach
is general and is applicable to the design of other explosive environments as
well as other explosive materials as nL.ierated above.
The design techniques set forth in this manual are based upon the results of
numerous full- and small-scale structural response and explosive effects tests
of various materials conducted in conjunction wlich the development of this
manual and/or related projects.
2-4 Scope of Manual
This manual is limited only by variety and range of the assumed design sit-
uation. An effort has been made to cover the more probable situations. How-
ever, sufficient general information on protective design techniques has been
included in order that application of the basic theory can be made to situa-
tions other than those which were fully considered.
This manual is generally applicable to the design of protective structures

subjected to the effects associated with high explosive detonations. Foi'
these design situations, this manual will generally apply for explosive quan-
tities less than 25,000 pounds for close-in effects. However, this manual Is
also applicable to other situations such as far or intermediate range effects.
For these latter cases the design procedures as presented are applicable for
explosive quantities in the order of 500,000 pounds which is the maximum quan-
tity of high explosive approved for storage facilities In the Department of
Defense manual, "Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards", DOD 6055.9-STD.
Because the tests conducted so far In connection with this manual have been
directed primarily towards the response of structural steel and reinforced
concrete elements to blast overpre,3sures, this manual concentrates on design
procedures and techniques for these materials. However, this does not imply
that concrete and steel are the only useful materials for protective construc-
tion. Tests to establish the response of wood, brick blocks, plastics, etc.
as well as the blast attenuating and mass effects of soil are contemplated.
The results of these tests may require, at a later date, the supplementation
of these design methods for these and other materials.
-2-
-'.N
Other manuals are available which enable one to design protective structures
against the effects of high explosive or nuclear detonations. The procedures
in these manuals will quite often complement this manual and should be con-
sulted for specific applications.
Computer programs, which are consistent with procedures and techniques con-
tained in the manual, have been approved by the appropriate representative of
the U.S. Army, the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Air Force and the Department of Defense
Explosive Safety Board (DDESB). These programs are available through the fol-
lowing repositories:
1. Department of the Army
Commander and Director

U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station
Post Office Box 631
Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180
Attn: WESKA
2. Department of the Navy
Office-In-Charge
Civil Engineering Laboratory K
Naval Battalion Construction Center
Port Hueneme, California 93043
Attn: Code L51
3. Department of the Air Force
Aerospace Structures
Information and Analysis Center
Wright Patterson Air Force Base
Ohio 45433
Attn: AFFDL/FBR
The individual programs are identical at each repository. If any modifications

and/or additions to these programs are required, they will be submitted by the
organization for review by DDESB and the above services. Upon concurrence of
the revisions, the necessary changes will be made and notification of the
changes will be made by the individual repositories.
2-5 Format of Manual
This manual is subdivided into six specific volumes dealing with various as-
pects of design. The titles of these volumes are as follows:
I
Volume I Introduction
Volume II Blast, Fragment and Shock Loads
Volume III Principles of Dynamic Analysis
Volume IV Reinforced Concrete Design
Volume V Structural Steel Design
Volumre VI Special Considerations in Explosive Facility Design
Appendix A pertinent to a particular volume and containing illustrative exam-

ples of explosive effects and structural response problems appears at the end %"'
of each volume.
Commonly accepted symbols have been used as much as possible. However, pro-
tective design involves many different scientific and engineering fields, and,
thereforp, no attemr't has been made to standardize completely all the symbols
used. Each symbol has been defined where it is first introduced, and a list
of the symbols, with their definitions and units, is containe . in Appendix B
of each volume.
VOLUME CONTENTS
2-6 General
This volume contains the procedures for determ ining explosive output and
associated structure loadings, fragment effects, as well as, the structural
motion effects associated with accidental explosions. These procedures are
contained in the following sections: Sections 2-8 through 2-15 deals with the
loadings associated with the blast phenomena. This data includes, in addition
to the determination of the effects of the explosive output, methods for de-
termining blast loads acting on the exterior of and within structures. Sec-
tions 2-16 through 2-19 covers the formation of fragments which can be pro-
jected by an explosion and include both primary and secondary fragments
effects. Sections 2-20 to 2-24I presents the method for determining the struc-
tural motions; Including both ground and air shock effects.
EXPLOSION EFFECTS
2-7 Effects of Explosive Output
In the design of protective structures to resist the effects of accidental ex-

plosions, the principal effects of the explosive output to be considered are
blast overpressures (hereafter referred to as blast pressures or pressures), _
fragments generated by the explosion and the shock loads produced by the shock
wave transmitted through the air or ground. Of these three parameters, the
blast pressures are usually the governing factor in the determination of the
structure response. However, in some situations, fragments and/or shock loads
may be just as important as the pressures in determining the configwratiun of
the facility.
4-
.o,1
Although the quantitative data presented pertains to the blast output of bare
TNT spherical or hemispherical charges considered as point source explosions,
and other explosives which have been specificall) tested. This data can be
extended by appropriate means including testing to include other potentially
mass-detonatling materials (solid, liquid, or gas) of varying shape.
BLAST LOADS
2-8 Blast Phenomena
2-8.1 General
Bare, solid explosives must detonate to produce any explosive effect other
than a fire. The term detonation refers to a very rapid and stable chemical
reaction which proceeds through the explosive material at a speed, called the
detonation velocity, which is supersonic in the unreacted explosive. Detona-
tion velocities range from 22,000 to 28,000 feet per second for most high ex-
plosives. The detonation wave rapidly converts the solid or liquid explosive
into a very hot, dense, high-pressure gas, and the volume of this gas which
had been the explosive material then is the source of strong blast waves in
air. Pressures immediately behind the detonation front range from 2,700,000
to 4,900,000 psi. Only about one-third of the total chemical energy available
in most high explosives is released in the detonation process. The remaining
two-thirds is released more slowly in explosions in air Ps the detonation
products mix with air and burn. This afterburning process has only a slight
effect on blast wave properties because it is so much slower than detonation.
The blast effects of an explosion -e in the form of a shock wave composed of

a high-intensity shock front which xpands outward from the surface of the ex-
plosive into the surrounding air. As the wave expands, it decays in strength,
lengthens in duration and decreases in velocity. This phenomena is caused by
spherical divergence as well as by the fact that the chemical reaction is com-
pleted, except for some afterburning associated with the hot explosion pro-
ducts mixing with the surrounding atmosphere.
As the wave expands in air, the front impinges on structures located within
its path and then the entire structure is engulfed by the shock pressure3.
The magnitude and distribution of the blast loads on the structure arisirg
from these pressures are a function of the following factors: (1) explosive
properties, namely, type of explosive material, energy output (high or low
order detonation) and weight of explosive; (2) the location of the detonation
relative to the protective structures; and (3) the magnitude and reinforcement
of the pressure by its interaction with the ground barrier, or the structure
itself. The first of these three factors are discussed in Sections 2-8.2 and
2-9 below and the latter two factors are discussed throughout the remainder of
this section.
2-8.2 Explosive Materials
Explosive materials may be classified according to their physical state:

solids, liquids, or gases. Solid explosives are primarily high explosives;
-5
however, other materials such as flammable chemicals and propellants may also
be classified as potentially explosive materials. Liquid and gaseous explo-
sives encompass a wide variety of substances used in the manufacture of chem-
icals, fuels, propellants, etc. The blast pressure environment produced will Il
vary not only among the different materials but may also differ for a particu-
lar material. Such factors as methods and procedures used in manufacturing, ,
storage, and handling, In addition to specific individual physical and chem-
ical characteristics, may alter the blast effects of an explosive material.
The blast effects of solid materials are best known. This is particularly
true for high-explosive materials. The blast pressures, impulses, durations, 6
and other blast effects of an explosion have been well established. These
effects are contained in this volume.
Unlike high-explosive materials, other solid, liquid, and gaseous explosive

materials will exhibit a variation of their blast pressure output. An explo-
sion of these materials is in many cases incomplete, and only a portion of the
total mass of the explosive (effective charge weight) is involved in the deto-
nation process. The remainder of the mass is usually consumed by deflagration
resulting in a large amount of the material's chemical energy being dissioated
as thermal energy which, in turn, may cause fires or thermal radiation damage.
2-9 TNT Equivalency
The major quantity of blast effects data presented in this manual pertains to
the blast pressures output of bare spherical TNT explosive. This data can be
extended to include other potentially mass-detonating materials (Clas3 1.1) by
relating the explosive energy of the "effective charge weight" ot those mater-
ials to that of an equivalent weight of TNT. In addition to the energy out-
put, other factors may affect the equivalency of material compared to TNT.
These factors include the material shape (flat, square, round, etc.), the num-
ber of explosive items, explosive confinement (casing, containers, etc.), and
the pressure range being considered (close-in, intermediate or far ranges).
These other factors will be discussed later in this manual.
For blast resistant design, the effects of the energy output on explosive
material, of a specific shape, relative to that of TNT, of similar shape, can
be expressed as function of the heat of detonation of the various materials as
follows:
d d
WE = [HExP/HTNT3WExP 2-I
where
WE - effective charge weight

EJ
W X weight of the explosive in question
EXP
-6-
-- 6 -
HHTNT
d heat of detonation of TNT
di
Hd heat of detonation of explosive in question
EXP
The heat of detonation of some of the more commonly used explosives are listed
in Table 2-1.
The above equation for the effective charge weight is related primarily tc the
blast ouput associated with the shock effects of unconfincd detonations (Sec-
tion 2-13). The effective charge weight produced by the confinement effects
of explosions (Section 2-14) will differ. These differences will be discussed
later in this manual.
2-10 Blast-Loading Categort
Blast loads or. structures can be divided into two main groups based on the
confinement of the explosive charge (unconfined and confined explosions) and
further subdivided based on the blast loading produced within the donor struc-
ture or acting on acceptor structures. These blast loading categories are
illustrated in figure 2-1. Figure 2-1 lists the six (6) blast loading
categories possible, namely; free air burst, air burst, sur'ace burst. fully
vented explosion, partially vented explosion and fully confined explosion.
The five (5) possible pressure loads associated with the blast load categories
are also listed. In addition, the location of the explosive charge which
would produce these pressure loads are also presented. Lastly, the protective
structures subjected to these loads are listed.
The blast load categories and the resulting pressure loads listed in figure 2-
I are qualitatively and, quantitatively defined below and in subsequent sec-
tions, respectively.
2-10.1 Unconfined Explosion
2-10.1.1 Free Air Burst Explosion. An explosion, which occurs in free air,
produces an initial output whose shock wave propagates away from the center of
the detonation, striking the protective structure without intermediate ampli-
fication of its wave,
2-10.1.2 Air Burst Explosion. An explosion which is located at a distance

from and above the protective structure so that the ground reflections of the
initial wave occurs prior to the arrival of the blast wave at the protective
structure. As used in this manual, an air burst is limited to an explosion
which occurs at two to three times the height of a one or two-story building.
2-10.1.3 Surface-Burst Explosion. A surface burst explosion will occur when

the detonationat isthelocated close to or on the ground so that the initial shock
is amplified point of detonation due to the groud reflections.
7-
Table 2-1 deat of Detonation and Heat of Combustion .-
Explosive Heat of Heat or

Mme Symbol Detonation (ft-lb/lb) Combustion (tt-lb/lb)
Boratol 1.04 x 106

Boracitol 5.59 x 105
BTF 2.37 x 106
Composition B Comp B 2.15 x 106 3.91 x 106
Composition C-4 Comp C-4 2.22 x 106
Cyulotol 75/25 - 2.20 x 106 3.68 x 106
DATB/DATNB 1.76 x 106 4.08 x 106
DIPAM 1.89 x 106
DNPA 1.48 x 106
EDNP 1.72 x 106
FEFO 2.03 x 106
HMX 2.27 x 106 3.31 x 106
HNAB 2.06 x 106
HNS 1.99 x 106

LX-01 2.41 x 106
LX-02-1 1.99 x 106
LX-04 1.99 X 106
LX-07 2.08 x 106
LX-08 2.77 x 106
LX-09-0 2.24 x 106 ,
LX-10-0 2.17 x 106

LX-11 1.72 x 106
6
LX-14 2.20 x 10
NG 2.22 x 106 2.26 x 106
NQ 1.49 x 106 2.79 x 106
-8-
t.,
Table 2-1 Heat or Detonation and Heat of Combustion (oont.)
Explosive Heat of Heat of

Same Symbol Detonation (ft-lb/lb) Combustion (tt-lb/lb)
Octol 70/30 2.20 x 106 3.81 x 10N

PBX-9007 2.18 x 10
PBX-9010 2.06 x 106
PBX-9011 2.14 x 106
PBX-9205 2.04 x 106
PBX-9404 2.18 x 106
PBX-9"07 2.24 x 10 6 3.31 x 106
PBX-9501 2.22 x 10
Pentolite 50/50 - 2.14 x 106
PETN 2.31 x 106 2.70 x 106
!RDX 2.27 x 106 3.20 x 106
TETRYL 2.11 x 106 4.08 x 106
TNETB 2.34 x 106

TNT 1.97 x 10 5.05 x 106
--
9I 9 --
I.
. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , . .... . - ...- .-. .-. . -.- -..q ,

,.' .$,.q,
, ','. .' .,;- . ,' . ,'.t .,, ,i , ,,' .. ' - .- .. ., -,. , . . . .,, ,',..",' . 4.
No.1I -Containment Cell
* only
PArtial Containment'
BarrierCell,
oarir Suppressive Shield,
orAbove Ground or
Cubicle Sheiter Containment Cell
rNo. 2 -Nos:-
No. 4 I
* I - o 5a6
11-
-wGround
Shelter
BLAST LOADING CATEGORIES
CHARGE CAEOYPRESSURE PROTECTIVE

CONFINEMENT CAEOYLOADS STRUCTURE
1. Free Air Burst a. Unref lected

Unconfined
Explosior- 2. Air Burst b. Ref lected '_helter
3. Surface Burst b., Ref lected
4.FlyVented c . InternalI Shock Cubicle

4. Fllyd. Leakage
Partial
Confined c. ir'ternal Shock Containment CellI
poins 5F-artially Confined e. Internal Gas or
d. LekageShield
6.c. Inlernal Shock Full

6Fully Co~nfined eInralGsContainment
e. Inerna
GasCell
Figure 2-1 Blast loading categovies
MOM
I
LA
2-10.2 Confined Explosion
2-10.2.1 Fully Vented Explosion. A fully vented explosion will be

produced within or immediately adjacent to a barrier or cubicle type
structure with one or more surfaces open to the atmosphere. The inLLial
wave, which is aznplifiled by the nonfrangible portions of the structL're, and
the products of detonation are totally vented to the atmospl.ere forming a
shock wave (leakage pressures) which propagates away from the structure.
2-10.2.2 Partially Confined Explosion. A partially confined explosion
will be produced within a barrier or cubicle type stracture with limited
size openings and/or frangible surfaces. The initial wave, which is
amplified by the frangible and nonfrangible portions of the structure, and
the products of detonation are vented to the atmosphere after a finite
period of time. The confinement of the detonation products, which consist
of the accumulation of high temperatures and gaseous products, is
associated with a build up of quasi-static pressure (hereafter referred to
as gas pressure). This pressure has a long duration in comparison to that %
of the shock pressure.
2-10.2.3 Fully Confined Explosions. Full confinement of an explosion Is

associated with either total or near total containment of the explosion by
a barrier structure. Internal blast loads will consist of unvented shock
loads and very long duration gas pressures which are a function of the "
degree of containment. The magnitude of the leakage pressures will usually ,
be small and will only affect those facilities immediately outside the
containment structure.
2-11 Blast Loading Protection
Protection of personnel and valuable equi:ment (acceptor system) will y

usually involve protective shelters located away from the detonation.
Their design may involve one or more of the following blast-loading
categories: free-air burst, air burst, surface burst and exterior or
I
leakage pressures from either vented or partially confined explosions.
These shelters are usually enclosed buildings located at pressure ranges of
a few hundred psi or less. Depending on the shelter design pressures,
these structures can be either above, below, or at ground surface. In this
manual, primary consideration is given to above ground shelters. However,
soy.e consideration is given in Volune VI regarding shelters positioned at
other locations. For the third type of pressure loading of figure 2-1
(interior shock pressure), protection is required when the shelter is
located Immediately adjacent to the explosion. The reflected pressure
here may be in the order of thousands of psi, but with pressure drations
usually small. The acceptor portion of such an explosive system may
include other explosive materials and/or personnel. The structures
associated with the fifth pressure-loading type is a containment type J
building and is usually used to prevent escape of toxic chemicals, %
radiological and/or biological materials or to limit blast pressure at the
exterior to a level consistent with personnel protection.
Of the six categories, those from air bursts are seldom encountered and the
free air burst is the least likely to occur. The possibility of such blast
I-
environments exist where potentially explosive materials are stored at
heights adjacent to, or away from, protective structures, such as in
manufacturing (process or storage tanks, etc.) or missile sites. In the
latter, the rocket propellant would be a source of explosive danger to the
ground crew and control facilities.
The other four blast-loading categories can occur in most explosive

manufacturing and storage facilities. In such installations,
transportation of explosive materials between buildings either by rail,
iehicle, or in the case of liquid or gases, through piping, is a
*iity. Also, storage and handling of explosives within buildings are
comino ccurrences.
Although the blast-loading categories can be separated and classified indi-

vidually, no clear-cut limits differentiate each category. In most
explosive facilities, the various blast environments will overlap, and
judgement should be used in the application of the following
recommendations for determining the blast parameters consistent with the
various blast-loading categories.
2-12 Blast-Wave Phenomena
The violent release of energy from a detonation converts the explosive

material into a very high pressure gas at very high temperatures. A
pressure front associated with the high pressure gas propagates radially
into the surrounding atmosphere as a strong shock wave, driven and
supported by the hot gases. The shock front, termed the blast wave, is
characteri 'ed by an almost instantaneous rise from ambient pressure to a
peak incident presaure P (fig 2-2).
so
This pressure increase or shock front travels radially from the burst point
with a diminishing 3hock velocity U which is always in excess of the sonic
velocity of the medium. Gas molecules behind the front move at lower flow
velocities, termed particle velocities u. These latter particle velocities
are associated with the dynamic pressures, whose maximum values are denoted
qo9 or the pressures formed by the winds produced by the passage of the
shocL' front. As the shock front expands Into Increasingly larger volumes
of the medium, the peak incident pressures at the fronts decrease and the
duration3 of the pressures increase. Those parameters which vary as the
peaK incident pressure varies are presented in figure 2-3.
At any point away from the burst, the prcsare disturbance has the shape
shown in figure 2-2. The shock front arrives at a given location at time
t A and, after the rise to the peak value, P., the incident pressure
decays to the ambient value in time t which is the positive phase
0
duration. This is followed by a negative phase with a duration t 0 that is
usually much longer than the positive phase and characterized by a negative
pressure (below ambient pressure) having a maximum value of p as well as
so
a reversal of the particle flow. The negative phase is usually less
impurtarit in a desilgn than is the positive phase, and Its amplitude P
3
- 12-
P 0 - _ _
w POSITIVE SPECIFIC IMPULSE, is

in
w NEGATIVE SPECIFIC
0-
AMBIENT, P0 A "0t+t0+t0
Pio tA
POSIT IVE
PHASE NEGATIVE PHASE
DURATION , DURATION, t;
TIME AFTER EXPLOSION
F~gu - 22 Fee-feldpresure-imevaritio
100
300.
wwA
.~ ....
'Ij
r 4-
4 ...
q IT
00
70~~~ I' .1 .05.I

7~
Pj. .0
C.4
-14 4.ii
must, in all cases, be less than ambient atmosphere pressure p . The
incide,.t impulse density associated with the blast wave is the integrated
area under the pressure-time curve and is denoted as is for the positive
phase and i for the negative phase.
s4
An additional parameter of the blast wave, the wave length, is sometimes

required in the analysis of structures. The positive wave length L is
that length at a given distance from the detonation which, at a particular
instant of time, is experiencing positive pressures. The negative wave
length Lw is similarly defined for negative pressures.
The above treatment of the blast wave phenomena is general. In subsequent

sections of this volume, the magnitude of the various parameters is
pre.sented depending upon the category of the detonation as previously
described: free air burst, surface burst, exterior or leakage pressures,
or interior or high pressure blast loading.
2-13 Unoonfined Explosions
2-13.1 Free-Air Burst
When a detonation occurs adjacent to and above a protective structure such

that no amplification of the initial shock wave occurs between the
explosive source and the protective structure, then the blast loads acting
on the structure are free-air blast pressures (fig. 2-4).
As the incident wave moves radially away from the center of the explosion,
it will impact with the structure, and, upon impact, the initial wave e ,-
(pressure ar.d impulse) is reinforced and reflected (fig. 2-5). The
reflected pressure pulse of figure 2-5 is typical for infinite plane
reflectors.
When the shock wave impinges on a surface oriented so that a line which de-
scribes the path of travel of the wave is normal to the surface, then the r"
point of initial contact is said to sustain the maximum (normal reflected)
pressure and impulse. Figure 2-6 presents the ratios of the normal I
reflected pressures to the incident pressures as a function of the incident
press ir es.
The p.ak pressure and impulse patterns on the structure vary with distance :
ic.'*n a maximum at the normal distance R to a minimmn (incident pressure) P-
A
where the plane of the structure's surface is perpendicular to the shock
front. The positive phase pressures, impulses, durations and other
parameters of this shock environment for a spherical TNT explosions are
1 3
given in fig. 2-7 versus the Scaled distance (Z - P/W / ).
The smallest scaled distance of 0.136 ft/lb1 " 3 represents the radius of the
spherical TNT explosive and, therefore, represents the surface of the
explosive. Some parameters have been extrapolated to the charge surface h
which are shown as dashed portions of the curves. These dashed crves
represent an upper limit of scatter in experimental data and variation in
5'
151
A
theoretical predictions, giving for design parposes conservative limits for
these parameters.
In some blast loading situations, negative blast wave parameters (fig. 2-8)
are needed to predict the loading-time function of the blast wave acting on
a structure. This Is particularly true in flexible type protective
structures (usually steel-frame structures) where the overall motion of the
structure will be affected by the phasing of the blast loads acting on the
various structure surfaces. The effects of the negative phase parameters
are usually not important for the design of the more rigid type structures
(reinforced concrete).
The curves presented in figures 2-7 and 2-8 which give the blast wave
parameters as a function of scaled distance, extend only to a scaled
distance Z = 100 ft/lb. 1 / 3 . For, most protective structures, or even light
structures, damage is relatively superficial beyond this scaled distance,
consisting at most of broken windows or deformation of light panels or
blow-out walls. But, the curves are also not extended beyond these levels
because the blast wave properties start to be seriously affected by
atmospheric conditions so that overpressures are very much less or very
much more than the "ideal" parameters transmitted through a homogeneous
atmosphere.
In the low pressure region, the pressure varies as a function of sound

velocity with altitude above the Kro)xd surface. At very far distances
from an explosion (Z= 1000 ft./b1 ), the peak pressures (really sound
pressures at these levels) can be ten times greater or more than ten times
less than the ideal pressures for a homogenous atmosphere.
Even with enhancement caused by real atmospheric conditions (also called

blast focusing), the pressures are still quite low and structural damage
should be superficial. If it is necessary to predict such low levels, one
should obtain and study more detailed reports listed in the bib]iography.
The variation of the pressure and impulse patterns on the surfac, nf a

structure between the maxLijum and minimum values is a function of the ar.O'e
of incidence a This angle Is formed by the line which defines t
normal distance RA between the point of detonation and the structure, and
line R (slant distance) which defines the path of shock propagation between
the center of the explosion and any other point in question on the
structure surface (fig. 2-4).
The effects of the angle of incidence on the peak reflected pressure

Pra and the reflected impulse Ira are shown in figures 2-9 ard 2-10,
respectively. The figures are plots of the angle of incidence versus the
peak reflected pressure or the reflected impulse as a function of the
scaled normal distance between the charge and the surface in question. The
usual load condition involves the ground surface and, therefore, this
-16 -
normal scaled distance is referred to as the scaled height of charge above I
the ground (H /W 1 / 3 ). All other blast parameters are obtained from figures
2-7 and 2-8 for the scaled slant distance R/W 1 /3 to the point in question.
2-13.2 Air Burst
The air burst environment is produced by detovations which occur above the
ground surface and at a distance away from the 'otective structure so that
the initial shock wave, propagating away from the explosion, impinges on
the ground surface prior to arrival at the structure. As the shock wave
continues to propagate outward along the ground surface, a front known as
the Mach front (fig. 2-11) is formed by the interaction of the initial wave
(incident wave) and the reflected wave. This reflected wave is the result
of the reinforcement of the incident wave by the ground surface.
Some variation of the pressures over the height or the Mach front occurs
bvt, for design purposes, this variation can be neglected and the shock
considered as a plane wave over the full height of the front. The blast
parameters in the Mach front are calculated at the ground surface. The
pressure-time variation of the Mach front (a, fig. 2-12) is similar to that
of the incident wave except that the magnitude of the blast parameters are
somewhat larger.
The height of the Mach front increases as the wave propagates away from the
center of the detonation. This increase in height is referred to as the
path of the triple point and is formed by the intersection of the initial,
reflected, and Mach waves. A protected structure is considered to be
subjected to a plane wave (uniform pressure) when the height of the triple
point exceeds the height of the structure. The scaled height of the triple
1/3
point Hl/W versus scaled ground distance ZG and scaled charge height
Hc/W is plotted in figure 2-13.
If tre height of the triple point does not extend above the height of the
structure, then the magnitude of the applied loads will vary with the
height of the point being considered. Above the triple point, the
pressure-time variation consists of an interaction of the incident. and
reflected incident wave pressures resulting in a pressure-time variation
(b, fig. 2-12) different from that of the Mach incident wave pressures.
The magnitude of pressures above the triple point is smaller than that of
the Mach front. In most practical design situations, the location of the
detonation will be far enough away from the structure so as not to produce .
this pressure variation. An exception may exist for multi-story buildings
even though these buildings are usually located at very low-pressure ranges
where the triple point is high.
In determining the magnitude of the air blast loads acting on the surface
of an above-ground protective structure, the peak incident blast pressures
in the Mach wavc acting on the groud surface immediately before the
structure are calculated first. The peak incident pressure Pra is
determined for this point from figure 2-9 using the scaled height of charge
above thte ground Hc/W I / 3 and the angle of incidence O.
17 -
U
49 ks
oo
Figure 2-4 Free-air burSt bla3t environment

IJ
(n
w
n-
cr
i,
Pso -REFLECTED PRESSURE
INCIDENT PRESSURE
Po \\to to, t0
PF
o--
.
_____-_--_____
NEGATIVE PHASE
TIME U
(.
DURATION, t-
POSITIVE PHASE
DURATION, to
Figure 2-5 Pressure-time variation for a free-air burst ie
-19-.-
............
-144
t~C bL 0
oV
- r 4J
Dq
C)- 44I
0.0
1.4
0 1~
4- t4.. ..- L
jj ~~
....
II
-20-
4-:t-
~ . * .~ . .... * * .. ..
.. . . . . . .
-20-
50,000 500
R1 :. 10.
10,00 I.X100
M1 -O .5
a.l
100I00
50. 0.0.55 5 0
tA/W/3 SALE TWIMEO lVL FBATWVE a b
U~~L SHCIFOT EOCT, tm
Pa CHPARG WOIIENID,
l RSSRSa
3 11 3
tlWW" SCALED WAIVE LUNGTO OF POSITIVE PHASE,ms/b
Figure 2-7 Positive phase shock wave parameters for a spherical TNT explosion
in fret' air at sea level
1,000 t0
500 50
100 KI 10w
50 5,.~
5 0.5
3
L/W"/
L
0.1.
SCLE
.. ITAC
Pi Z 1
a SCAL N
SCALEDT IGTIVANCEN /, W US
IZ
Rpi 1/3
F xSCALEK U NEGATIVE NORMAL REFLECTED URpUsi~ u~m/b/
t /WI/ 2 SCALED DURATION Of NEGATIVE PHASE, mu/ilb 3

Lj/ SCALED WAV! LENGTH OF NEGATIVE PHASE, ft/lb"
J.
Figure 2-8 Negative phasp shock wave parameters for a sphei ical TNT explosion
in tree air ac sea level
-22-
7N,,
ae cures
sc led
4- -- igh
......o of c /corg
0.)
.. . .. . ...
Ch.
U
-J0
wI
0 10 2 3 0 0.03 ~ 0 9
ANLEO ICDECEoDGTE
Fiue
- Vraio f eletdprsur s uct~ o ng8o.icdec
BON
-- - -23-..
. ....
1000
I-
4)
CL05
00
0 8.9. 20 3 4 0 60 7 090I
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE,c, ,DEGREES
Figure 2-10 Variation (if scaled reflected imnnulse as a function of angle of I
inc idunce
-2 4
(L&
> .
w
w
-. 4.
U;a
C4-)
c.J
ILL .
0. -0
-25- '
0
CL
w
-j
(L
w
0
z I
w
0 z
z 0. .
0.0
38nlsS3NdH3AO i:
z
z 'V
0~ (0
I C)
"4
L4)
zz
3?jnSS8d83o
fill[1+ H4 4
II- bO
L I I
it
.9.
x
!L!.~~~~. . N~I
..LI~
.O a3Ivi
-27-
at W S . - , .-
rM ; .W ,,. - .&.-a rZ .- t h..f. --- 4 Xw
, r.t.." b'l .b- IU'l - - .--.
A similar proce ire is used with figure 2-10 to determine the impulse irc
of the blast wave acting or. the ground surface immidiately before the
structure. An estimate of the other blast parameters may be obtained from
figures 2-7 and 2-8 by setting the values of Pra and iro equal to the
values of the peak incident pressure Pso and incident impulse '. of the
mach wave, respectively. The scaled distances corresponding to P3 0 arid is
are determined from figure 2-7. The scaled distance corresponding to Pso
is used to obtain values of Pr' Pso' tA/W 11 3, U, Lw/W 1/ 3 and L /WI/ 3 while
the scaled distance corresponding to i is used to obtain values of i r , 31
1/ 3
iF, tolW1l3 and t6iW .
2-13-3 Surface Burst
A charge located on or very near the ground surface is considered to be a

surface burst. The Initial wave of the explosion is reflected and
reinforced by the ground surface to produce a reflected wave. Unlike the
air burst, the reflected wave merges with the incident wave at the point of
detonation to form a single wave, similar in nature to the mach wave of the
air burst but essentially hemispherical in shape (fig. 2-1j4).
The positive phase parameters of the surface burst environment for

hemispherical TNT explosions are given in figure 2-15 while the negative
phase parameters are given in figure 2-16. A comparison of these parame-
ters with those of free-air explosions (fig. 2-7 ano 2-8) indicate t"'at, at
a given distance from a detonation of the same weight of explosive, all of.
the parameters of the surface burst environment are lar6er than those for
the free-air environment.
As for the case of air oursts, protected structures subjected to the

explosive output of a surface burst will usually be located in the pressure
range where the plane wave (fig. 2-14) concept can be applied. Therefore,
for a surface burst, the blast loads acting on structure surface are
calculated as described for an air burst except that the Incident pressures
and other positive phase parameters of the free-field shock environment are
obtained from figure 2-15 while theoretical negative phase blast parameters
are shown in figure 2-16.
As for the case of an air burst, the curves presented in figures 2-15 and
2-16 which give the blast wave parameters as a fnction of scaled distance,
extend only to a scaled distance Z - 100 ft/Ibl (see section 2-13.1). U
Blast parameters for explo.3ives detonated on the ground surface other than
hemispherical TNT are listed in table 2-2. These explosives include both
uneased and cased high explosives, propellants and propelling charges as
well as pyrotechnic mixtures. The various shapes of the explosive
materials are given in figure 2-17. The blast parameters for the various
explosives are illustrated in figures 2-18 through 2-49. For each
-28-

U
explosive material considered, the peak incident pressure Pso and scaled
11 3
incident impulse is/W is presented as a function of the scaled ground
/3
distance Z G = RG/W1 from the point of detonation.
The charge weight W Is equal to the actual weight of the explosive material
under consideration increased by the required factor of safety
(20 percent).
An estimate of the blast parameters other than incident pressure and

impulse, may be obtained from figures 2-15 and 2-16. The scaled ground
distance corresponding to the incident pressure PSO is used to obtain the
3
values of Pr- Psb, Pr, tA/WI/ , U, Lw/W 1 1 3
and Lui/W'/3, In addition, this
scaled ground distance ZG = RGIW I / 3
is used to calculate the equivalent TNT
design charge weight W for pressure using the actual ground distance RG.
The absolute values of' the scaled blast parameters are obtained by
multiplying the scaled values by the equivalent TNT de3ign charge weight.
The scaled ground distance corresponding to the incident impulse requires a

graphical solution. The point corresponding to the scaled incident impulse
and scaled ground distance for the explosive material in question is
plotted on figure 2-15. A 45 degree line is drawn through this point. The
point where the line intersects the scaled impulse curve cor'responds to the
scaled impulse and scaled ground distance for the equivalent TNT char e.
ThisI /scaled
3, ground distance is then used to obtain the values of ir/WF 3 ,
i-/ I /3 1/3 1/3
ir/Wl, to/W and to/W In addition, this scaled ground
distance and the actual ground distance is used to calculate the equivalent
TNT design charge weight for impulse. The absolute values of the scaled
blast parameters are obtained by multiplying the scaled values by the
equivalent TN design charge weight.
It may be noted that the above data for explosives other than TNT is
limited to surface bursts with container shapes indicated in figure 2-17.
This data should not be extrapolated for scaled distances less than those
indicated on figures 2-18 ttrough 2-49. In addition, the blast pressure
and impulse for propellants and, in particular, the pyrotechnic mixtures
were obtained from tests which utilized booster charges to initiate the
explosive material. Therefore, the blast parameters for both of these
materials should be considered as upper limits.
2-13.4 Multiple Explosions

I
When two or more explosions of similar material occur several milliseconds
apart, the blast wave of tho initial explosion will propagate ahead of the
waves resulting from th. iu.usequent explosions, with the phasing of the
propagation of these latter waves being governed by the initiation time and
orientation of the individual explosives. If the time delay between
explosions is not too l-rge, the blast waves produced by the subsequent
explosions will eventually overtake and merge with that of the initialb
detonation. The distance from the explosion at which this merger occurs
- 29-
I
z
0
w
w I
>w
z
0 oZ
w 0
WW
ccj
a
i
-30-
100,0001,000
50,000500
5,0001so
500!,50
N,.
0.1.
0.m 0.001
SCLEWISACE/3R/W/
'A:
1//3
t/W SALED PSIVEDDURANCOF POSI4IVEPAE3 m/
Po SHOCK FOTVELONCIET, PRESSUE s

i W/ SCHARLE WIT, bSIV NIETIPLE s-n/
to/ SCALED WAIVELENGTIO OF POSITIVE PHASE,t/ b
Figure 2-15 Positive phase shock wave parameters for a hemispherical TNT
explosion on the surface at sea level
-31-
100 . 0
Bo05
1/.0
too 0. ... 5 O 0 0
~
DITNCm.'W
SCALED~ " I
UMp
50 5
'//3 EAIENRA EFETDIPLE s-sl"

SCLDUI
a~/V
11 CL..UA.O.F EATV HAE .. 1
s/b
z 6/
SCL0 WAELIT FNGAIEPAE tl
2l~ Ngatve wae paameers

Figuepaseshoc or hemsphrica0TN
ALlso n h ufc a e ee
-32-
0.5 0.0
4'
IAA 8
C%. W a
20 -A 4J IA
. 11
i
I *u I.C L. 0
- a
~
C2 0 ~ X4, v .. m0
I-L z4 A,. 4i -4
b4 ..0W 4 b4 a O b N 41
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00 p..
0 -
.r ' !1 999l
IwC I
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w N
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No c-4 mNNCNC.C. Na'
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N 1441 4 414.
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C. J3 .. 4 p
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H[
e CLOSED-TOPD HOPPER
a. ORTHORHOMBIC j. CYLINDRICAL
f. PRESSED BILLETS
D A
I'I
b. HEMISPHERICAL k. SPHERICAL
,. EXTRUDED ROD
c. IN-PROCESS HOPPER I. CARPET
h. PROJECTILES
d. GRENADES IN-PROCESS i. BEAKER m. BAG
Figure 2-17 Explosive shapes
-42-
I AF
0- Q
CL a.
0
E -4
CYY
GD 3
i/cw ~';~~" 7~~ 06

00
Ls CL
Ion
10
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will depend on: (1) the magnitude of the individual explosions, (2) the time
delays between the initiation of the explosions, (3) the separation distances
between and orientation of the explosives, and (4) obstructions between the
explosives themselves and other obstructions tetween the expl'osives and other
parts of tne facility (buildings, walls, barricades, terrain, etc.) which will
distort, IVnder, and generally interfere with wave propagation.
The pressuretime relationships associated with the wave propagation will
depend upon the interaction of the individual waves themselves. After all the
waves have merged, the pressures associated with the common or merged wave
will have a pressure-time relationship which is similar to that produced by a
single explosion (fig. 2-12). However, at closer distances to the explosion,
the pressure-time relationship will be more closely represented by a
pressure-time curve with multiple peak pressures (similar to that occurring
above the triple point (fig. 2-12)). The multiple peak pressures represent
the interaction as the various waves reach the point in question. At
distances even closer to the explosion, the time history of the pressuros
acting on the ground surface may consist of a series of completely separate
blast loads. This loading condition is a result of the arrival of the
subsequent blast waves at a particular point during or after the occurrence of
the negative phase pressures produced by the initial wave at that point.
The latter pressure-time relationship is probably most likely to occur at high

pressures close to the explosions while the multiple peak pressure pulse is
normally associated with low pressures at far distances. However, in many
instances, the multiple peak pressure pulse will occur at high pressures, in
particular where the individual explosives are positioned close together,
e.g., in a cubicle or other storage facility.
2- 14Confined Explosions
2-11.1I Effects of Confinement 'S
When an explosion occurs within a structure, the peak pressures associated

with the initial shock front (free-air pressures) will be extremely high and,
in turn, will be amplified by their reflections within the structure. In ad-
dition, and depending upon the degree of confinement, the effects of the high
temperatures and accumulation of gaseous products produced by the chemical
pr c ess involved In the explosion will exert additional pressures and increase
the load duration within the structure. The combined effects of these pres-
sures may eventually destroy the structure unless the structure is designed to
the effents of the interna] pressures. Provisions for venting of
these pressures will reduce their magnitude as well as their duration.
The use of cubicle-type structures (fig. 2-50a) or other similar barriers,

with one or more surfaces either sufficiently frangible or open to the atmos-
pfere will provide some degree of venting depending on the opening size. This
t ye of structure will permit the blast wave from an internal explosion to
spi11 over onto the surrounding ground surface, thereby, significantly re-
ducing the magnitude and duration of the internal pressures. The exterior
pressures are quite often referred to as "leakage" pressures while the pres-
sures reflected and reinforcec w;thin the structure are termed interior "shuck
press,,es'. The pressures associated with the accunulation of the gaseous
products and temperature rise are identified as "gas" pressures. For the
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design of most fully vented cubicle type structures, the effects of the gas
pressure may be neglected.
Detonation in an enclosed structure with relatively small openings (fig. 2-

50b) is associated with both shock and gas pressures whose magnitudes are a
maximum. The duration of the gas pressure and, therefore, the impulse of the
gas pressure is a function of the size of the opening. It should be noted
that the onset of the gas pressure does not necessarily coincide with the on-
set of the shock pressure. Further, it takes a finite length of time after
the onset for the gas pressure to reach its maximum value. However, these
times are very small and, for design purposes of most confined structures,
they may be treated as ins tantaneous.
The term "frangible" pertains to those elements of a protective structure

which fail and wr.ose strength and mass are such as to reduce the amplit'ication
of the shock pressures and the confinement of the explosive gases. To reduce
the amplification of the shock pressures, frangible elements must fail so as
to relieve quickly the interior pressures acting on those surfaces and
minimize their reflection to the nonfrangible elements of the structure.
Blast tests of glas9 panels have shown that a true frangible material does not
exist and that some reflection of the initial blast pressures may be expected
from very weak and light elements. Further, the buildup of gas pressures is a
function of the ratio of the weight of the charge to the volume of the
confining structure and the venting area. As stated, this pressure buildup
will not begin until sometime after the onset of the shock pressures.
Therefore, an element which is not considered frangible for the shock pressure A
may be frangible for gas pressures.
In addition to being dependent upon the physical properties of an element,

frangibility will also be a function of the magnitude of the applied blast
loads and, therefore, a function of the quantity of explosive being contained
and the distance from the frangible element. Although frangibility is imper-
fectly understood and difficult to measure, in general, it can be assumed that
if a closure's resistance to outward motion is equal to or less than 25 pou ds
per square foot of surface drea, the resistance can be neglected since the
time to reach failure is practically zero. In this case, frangibility can be
stated solely in terms of the weight (inertial force) of the vent area clo-
sure. For resistances greater than 25 psf, the evaluation of frangibility
I
must include the effects of resistance in addition to the weight of an ele-
ment. The combined effects of the inertial force and the resistance can be
accounted for, by performing a dynamic analysis and determining the time to
reach failure. However, if the blast pressure is ve-y large in comparison to
the resistance of the element, the effects of the resistance can be neglected
without introducing significant errors. Therefore, it Is advantageous to use
vent closures that are light and inherently weak and/or weakly supported; such
as, corrugated metal decking supported on steel joists, metal panels for
walls, plexiglass or thin fiberglaus panels 3upported by wood or lightweight
steel frames or gypsu:u board panels.
In the following paragraphs of this section, a simple cantilever barrier as

well as cubicle-type and containment type structures will be discussed. The
cubicles are assumed to hpve one or more surfaces which are open or frangibie
while the containment structures are either, totally enclooed or have smai
- 77 -
N
size openings. The effects of tne inertia of frpngible elements of these
structures will be discusse6 In subsequent sections.
2-14.2 Shock Pressures
2-14.2.1 Blast Loadings. W'hen an explosion occurs within a cubicle or

containment-type structure, the peak pressures as well as the impulse associ-
ated with the shock front will be extrfmely high and will be amplified by the
confining structure. because of the olo!,e-in effects of the explosion and the
reinforcement of blest nressw es due to the reflections within the structure,
the distritution of the shock loads on any one surface will be non-uniform
with the structural surfacc closest to the explosion subjected to the maximum
load.
An approximate method for the calculation of the internal shock pressures has
been developed using theoretical procedures based on semi-erplrlcal blast data
and on the results of response tests on slabs. The calculated average shock
pressures have been compared with those obtained from the results of tests of
a scale-mo)del steel cubicle and have shown good agreement for a wide range of
cubicle configurations. This method consists of the determination of the peak
preb.bures and impulses acting at various points of each interior, surface and
then integrating to obtain the total shock load. In order, to simplify the
calculation of the response of a protective structure wall to these applied
ioad5, the peak pressures and total impulses are assumed to be uniformly dis-
tributed on the surface. The peak average pressure and total average impulse
is given for any wall surface. The actual distribution of the blast loads is
highly irregular due to the multiple reflections and time phasing and results
in localized nigh shear stresses in the element. The use of the average blast
loads when designing is predicated on the ability of the element to transfer
these localized loads to regions of lower stress. Reinforced concrete with
properly designed shear reinforcement and steel plates exhibit this character-
istic.
The parameters which are necessary to determine the average shock loads are
the structure's configuration and size, charge weight, and charge location.
Figure 2-51 shows many possible simple barriers, cubicle configurations and %
containment type structures and the definition of the various parameters per-
taining to each. Surfaces depicted are not frangible for determining the shock
loadings. The effects of frangibility will be discussed later.
Because of the wide range of required parameters, the procedure for the deter-
mination of the shocK loads was progranmed i'or solutions on a digital com-
puter. The results of these calculations are presented in figures 2-52
through 2-100 for the average peak reflected pressures Pr and figures
Pr. 2-101 N
I 1 3
through 2-1149 for the average scaled unit impulse K /W 1 . These sh-ock loads
are presented as a fimction of the parameters defining the configurations pre-
sented in figure 2-51. Each illustration is for a particular combination of
values of h/H, /L and the number' N of reflecting surfaces ad~acrt to the
surface for which the shock loads are being calculated. The wall (if ar;y)
parallel and opposite to the surface in question has been found to have a neg-
- 78-
ligiole contribution to the shock loads for the range of parameters used and
was therefore rot considered.
The general procedure for use of the above illustrations is as follows:
1. From figure 2-51, select the particular surface of the struc-

ture which conforms to the protective structure given and note
the number, N, of adjacent eflecting surfaces as indicated in
parenthesis,
2. Determine the values of the parameters indicated for the

selected surface of tne structure in Item I above and calcu-
late the following quantities:
h t L L_ a1Z~ /3 1 La
H' L' H' R' and ZA ' RA/W andL
A t.'
3. Refer to Table 2-3 for the p'oper peak reflected pressure and
impulse charts conforming to the number of adjacent reflected P
surfaces and the values of t/L. and h/H of Item 2 above, and
enter the charts 'o determine the values of Pr and ir/W1 / 3 ,
In most cases, the above procedure will require interpolation for or.e or more
of the parameters which define a given situatJon, in order to obtain the cor-
reet average reflected pressuire and average reflected impulse. Examples of
this interpolatIotn proceduure are given in the Appendix 2A.
Becacse of the limitations in , range of the test data and the limited num-
ber of values of the parameters giver, in the above shock load charts, extrapio-
lation of the data given in figures 2--52 t,,r'ough 2-149 may be required for
some of the parameters involved. On the other hand, the limit.ng values as
give in the charts for other parameters will not require extrapolation. The
values of the average shotk loads corresponding to the values of the param--
eters which exceed their limiting values (as defined by the charts), w11 be
approximately equal to those coriespondi ng t.o the limiting value .. The fol--
4i-g ar recommended proc?(dures which will be appl icAble in most cases,
either extrapoiation, or establishing the llwlts of 1repulse loads correspond-
for ?
ing to values of the various paraneter wh;ch exceed th1 limits of' the charts:
1. To extrapo ate beyond the 1imiting values of Z A , plot a curve
of values of' pr ver'su3 A ftr constart. values of L/RA, L/H,

h/H and /L. Extrapol ate curve to include the val ue of pr
corresponding to the va-lue or ZA required. Repeat similari,
/
fur value of i,,i' ' 3,
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2. To extrapolate beyond the limiting values of L/RA, extrapolate
the given curve of Pr versus L/RA for constant values of ZA,
L/H, h/H and UlL to include the value of pr corresponding to
the value of L/RA required. Repeat this extrapolation for
I / 3,
value of ir/W
3. 1/ 3
Values of Pr and ir1W corresponding to values of L/H
greater than 5 shall be taken as equal to those norresponding

to L/H = 6 for actual values of Z., h/H, and b/L but with a
fictitious value of L/RA in which RA is the actual value and L
is a fictitious value equal to 5H,
I/3
4. Values of Pr and ir/W corresponding to values of /L less
than 0.10 and greater than 0.75 shall be taken as equal to

those corresponding to UlL - 0.10 and 0.75, respectively,
and
/ 3
5. Values of Pr and ir/WI corresponding to values of h/H less
than 0.10 and greater than 0.75 shall be taken as equal to
those corresnonding to h/l - 0.10 and 0.73, respectively.
A computer program is available which executes the interpolation procedure

using numerical tables equivalent to figure 2-52 through 2-149. Availability
of this program is listed in Section 2-4.
A protective element subjected to high intensity shock pressures may be de-

signed for the impulse rather than the pressure pulse only if the duration of
the applied pressure acting on the element is short in comparison to its re-
sponse time. However, if the time to reach maximum displacement is equal to
or less than three times the load duration, then the pressure pulse should be
used for these cases. The actual pressure-time relationship resulting from a
pressure distribution or, the element is highly irregular due to the multiple
reflections and time phasing. For these cases, the pressure-time relationship
may be approximated by a fictitious peak triangular pressure pulse. The aver-
age peak reflected pressure of the pulse is obtained from figures 2-52 through
2-100 and the average impulse from Figure 2-101 through 2-1 9 and a fictitious
duration is established as a function of the reflected pressure Pr and impulse
ir acting on the element.
t o Prr 2-2
The abovw z- t!on for the average shock load does not account for increased
blast effects produced by contact charges. Therefore, if the values of the
average shock loads given in figures 2-52 through 2-149 are to be applicable,
a separation distance between the element and explosive must be maintained.
This separation Is measured between the surface of the element and the surface
- 82 -
of either the actual charge or the spherical equivalent, whichever results in
the larger normal distance between the element's surface and the center of the
explosive (the radius of a spherical TNT charge is r = 0.136 WI/ 3 ). For the
purposes of design, the following separation distances are recommended for
various charge weights:
Weight of Explosive (Ibs) Separation Distance
up to 500 1.0
501 to 1,000 1.5
1,001 to 2,000 2.0
2,001 to 3,000 2.5
above 3,000 3.0
The above separation distances do not apply to floor, slabs or other similar
structural elements placed on grade. However, a separation distance of at
least one foot should be maintained to minimize the size of craters associated
with contact explosions.
It should be noted that these separation distances do not necessarily conform

to those specified by other government regulations; their use in a particular
design must be approved by the cognizant military construction agency.
Average shock loads over entire wall or roof slabs were discussed above. An
approximate method may be used to calculate shock loads over surfaces other
than an entire wall. These surfaces might include a blast door, panel,
column, or other such items found inside any shaped structure.
The method assumes a fictitious strip centered in front of the charge having a
width equal to the normal distance RA and a height equal to that of the
structure. This is the maximum representative area that may be considered.
Average shock loads can be determined on entire area or any surface falling
within the boundaries of the representative area.
The procedure for determining the shock loads consists of partitioning the
surface under consideration into subareas. These subareas do not need to be
the same size. The angle of incidence to the center of each subarea is
calculated. The reflected pressure and scaled impulse are determined for each
subarea using Figures 2 3 nd 2- 10 respcctively. A weighted average with
respect to area is taken for both pressure ard scaled iipulse.
Both the pressure and the impijlse are multiplied by a factor of 1.75 to
account for secondary shocks. Idealized diration is calculated using Equation
2-2.
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2-14.2.2 Frangibility. A frangible element, as defined here, is an element
that exhibits a resistance to internal shock loads equal to or less than 25
pounds per square foot and will undergo significant displacement during the
loading time of the stock pressures and, thereby, reduce the effects of the
shock pressures acting on both the frangible panel itself and reflections to
other elements of the structure.
The following are design procedures for determining the magnitude of applied
shock pressures which will contribute to the displacement of the frangible
element:
1. Determine the peak average reflected pressure P and average

r
I
impulse i r acting on the frangible element assuming that the
element is rigid (figures 2-52 through 2-149)
2. Calculate the unit weight cf the frangible element and divide

this weight by the sixth root of charge weight, WF/W 1/6
3. Determine the fictitious scaled distance Z from figure 2-7,

which corresponds to the average impualse determined In Step 1.
4. Using the value of WfW/6 from Step 2 and the fictitious

scaled distance of Step 3 and utilizing figure 2-150,
determine the value of the factor fr' of average impulse
contributing to the translation of the frangible element (may
require interpolation)
5. Calculate the value of the average impulse contributing to the

translation of the frangible element by multiplying the values
of Ir and f of steps 1 and 4 respectively
r r
6. The value of the peak average pressure contributing to the
translation of the frangible element is assumed to be equal to
the value of Pr of Step 1.
The step by step procedure for determining the shock loads being reflected
from a frangible element to an adjacent element is:
1. Determine the average peak reflected pressure P and the aver-

r
age reflected impulse i r acting on the element in question,
assuming that the adjoining frangible element will remain in
place (figures 2-52 through 2-149)
2. Determine the average impulse acting on the element in ques

tion assuming that the adjoining frangible element is removed
(figures 2-52 through 2-1,A9) '
- 182 -
i
3. Subtract the average impulse determined in Step 2 from the
average impulse determined in Step 1
4. Calculate the unit weight of the frangible element and divide

1
this weight by the sixth root of the charge weight, W F/W /6
5. Calculate the normal scaled distance Z between the center of

the charge and the surface of the frangible element
6. Utilizinv figure 2-150, determine the value of the fraction

f of the average impulse reflected to the element in ques-
tion using the scaled weight density and scaled distance of
Steps 4 and 5 respectively (may require interpolation)
7. Determine the magnitude of the impulse load reflected to the

element in question from the frangible element by multiplying
the value of the average impulse of Step 3 by the value of fr
of Step 6
8. Determine the total impulse load acting on the element in

question by adding the impulse loads determined in Steps 2 and
7..
9. The peak average reflected pressure of the shock loads acting
on the element in question may be taken equal to the value of
Prof Step 1.
In the above procedure, it is assumed that the frangible element will remain
intact while being displaced away from the structure. If the element fails
while being translated, then the portion of the shock pressure impulse dis-
placing the element as well as that portion of the impulse being reflected to
other elements will be reduced due to additional venting area produced by the
element's "break up".
2- 1.2.3 TNT Equivalency. The shock loads presented in figure 2-52 through
2-149 pertain to the blast effects of bare spherical TNT explosives and must
be extended to include other potentially mass-detonating materials. However,
only a limited amount of testing has been performed to determine the TNT
equivalency of confined explosives. Therefore, as an interim procedure, it is
suggested that the determination of shock pressures for, confined explosives
other than TNT utilize equivalencies based on Equation 2-1.
The above relationship assumes that the explosive in question is a bare charge
and spherical in shape. If the charge is not spherical, then it is suggested
that the explosive be subdivided into several segments which will have approx-
imately equal dimensions and that the reflected impulse for any segment be
calculated, as previously discussed. The reflected impulse of the total
charge is then determined by multiplying the impulse of the individual seg-
ments by the total number of segments. The peak average reflected pressure is
calculated by assuming the total charge as having a spherical shape.
The impulse load for multiple explosives is obtained in a similar manner ex-
cept that the locations of the individual charges are considered in calculat
- 183-
'I
TT7-T
r 1 17 -2 lT IX -I 42 -7:
--- LT 22T 8T-r
EE
4)
2 - -- - -- -
-2 _
---- -- 4---
0
-r-r rrr-T-r-T-rT -Tr---
j ILL L--
4'
. . .. . . . . .. . - - -- - --
31 U
- - - - - - - - 4
4 C.
0 00 o ~0
-184-
CD IDCY 0
ing their individual impulse load. The impulse load of the total charge is
determined by adding together the individual impulse loads. The average peak
reflected pressure is calculated using the total weight of the explosive lo-
cated at the centroid of the individual charges.
The explosive casing will have an effect on the magnitude of the shock pres-
sures. These effects are dependent on the properties of the casing such as
material, thickness, shape, etc. A review of a limited amount of surface
detonated test data has indicated that the effects of the casing are not
severe and, therefore, for design purposes it is recommended that casing
effects be neglected.
2'-14I.2. 4 Multiple Explosions
The blast pressures and impulse loads, acting on various elements of cubicle
or other similar structures, which are produced by multiple explosions, will
usually differ from those produced by a single explosion of the same amount of
explosives.
Although the magnitude of the total combined impulse produced by the multiple
explosions will usually be larger than that produced by the single explosion,
the damage to a protective element due to the impulse of the multiple
detonation may be either greater, equal to, or less than that produced by the
impulse of the single explosion. For a given total impulse, the degree of
damage to a protective element will be defined by the duration of the entire e
load relative to the response time of the element (time to reach maximum
deflection). p.
A minimum amount of theoretical and experimental data is available conoerning

the degree of damage sustained by structural elements due to multiple
explosions. However, results of response tests of reinforced concrete slabs
have indicated that if the total combined duration of the blast loads produced
by simultaneously or near simultaneously exploded charges is equal to or less
than one-third the response time (time to reach maximum deflection) of the
element, then the total combined impulse acting on the element can be
estimated by numerically adding the impulse loads produced by the individual
explosions. However, if the total combined duration of the blast loads is
greater than one-third the response time, the actual pressure-time
relationship of the combined loads approximated by a fictitious peaked
triangular pressure pulse (similar to that of a single explosion) should be
considered. The blast loads produced by charges that are not simultaneously
or near simultaneously exploded may be considered as two or more impulse
loads, two or more pressure-time loads, or a combination of impulse and
pressure-time loads depending on the time delay and the duration of the
individual loads compared to the response time of the element. A load or
group of loads should be treated as an impulse load if the duration (one load
or the combined duration of two or more loads) of the loading is less than
une-third the ti.ne Interval between the onset of the load or group of loads
and the response time of the member.
The duration of the blast loads due to multiple explosions may be approximated
by considering the interelationship between (a) the time intervals between %
individual explosions, (b) arrival times of the blast waves of the individual
explosions at the element and (c) the fictitious duration of the pressure load
from individual explosions. Because of the many variables involved, a
I
1%
185-
L -"I
r%
relationship cannot be given to obtain the daration of the blast loadL due to%
multiple explosions. Each situation will require a series of computations
involving the time Increments outlined above.
2-14.3 Gas Pressures
2- 1.3.1 Blast Loads. When an explosion occurs within a confined area,

gaseous products will accumulate and a temperature within the structure will
rise, thereby forming blast pressures whose magnitude is generally less than
that of the shock pressures but whose duration is significantly longer. The
magnitude of the gas pressures as well as their durations is a function of the
size of the vent openings in the structure. For very small openings or no
openings at all, the duration of the gas pressures will be very long in cor- "
parlson to the fundamental periods of the structure's elements and, therefore,
may be considered as a long duration load similar to that associated with a
nuclear event.
These conditions usually occur in total or near - tqinment type structures.

In the former, the internal blast pressures must be contained because of the
presence of toxic or other harmful materials in the structure. In near con- N
tainment structures, the leakage of pressure flow out of the structure usual;,
must be limited because of either personnel or frangible structures ar -
cated immedlateiv adjacent to the donor structure. In other cases, howev".
openings in structures may be quite large, thereby minimizing the products'
accumulation and Limiting the temperature rise, hence producing gas pressures
with limited duration or no duration at all. Thc structures without gas prt:-
sure buildup are referred to as fully vented structures.
A typical pressure-time record at a point on the interior surface of a par-

tially vented chamber is shown in figure 2-151. The high peaks are the mul-
tiple reflections associated with shock pressures. The gas pressure, denoted
as p , is used as the basis for design and is a function of the charge weight
g
and the contained net volume of the chamber.
Figure 2-152 shows an experimentally fitted curve based upon test results of
partially vented chambers with small venting areas where the vent properties
ranged between:
0 <_ Af/V 2/3 < 0.022 2-3
The values of A and Vf are the chamber's total vent area and free volume
which is equal to the total volume minus the volume of all interior equipment,
structural elements, etc. The maximum gas pressure, P I is plotted against
the charge weight to free volume ratio. 9
Figures 2-153 through 2-164 provide the relationship of the gas pressure
scaled impulse ig/WI/3 as a function of the charge weight to free volume ratio
W/Vf, scaled value of the vent opening A/V 2/3 the scaled unit weight of the
1/ 3
cover Wf/W over the opening, and the scaled average reflected impulse
- 186 -
I ! !
14
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> 1
3unSS36d
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Ut.
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El Iiiiiii
rL&
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i lit
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4)0
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.........
.Id
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- I ~8
10000-.
tooo-
0.3
to -
vv-A
-J C I -
0.
to.
o to
0. 1 .
SCLDVNTAE /
.4f
Sae(a3musc 11I 00 2 ,W/ 0

Fiue213
Cd) t0
tO0000)
___
100
1
G10
E 30
10010
w
tox x
C,
0.
<A
P
-J
to I _ I
SCALED VENT AREA A/ V 2 / 3
Figure 2-154 Sca led gai mp1c WV 0.002, i Wi 100)

10000-
-- 'S
~10
U, _,
-j
a.
w
U)0.
-1 1
0I
001
A/Vf 2 3
SCALED VENT AREA,
3 600)
Scaled gas impulse (W/%'f =0.002.. ir/I
Figure 2-155
-19r-
10000
p 1000.
IHi
SCLE VETAEP /f/
-1 2
100000
1000-
.10
Sfo-
_L
II:
0.01 0._to
SCLDVETAEAA4/
Fiue2 17 Sae gsip le(/f 0.1,,I 13 10

10000-
1000-S
L; IL
cf,
0
00
00
0.0
SCALED VENT AREA, A/Vf2/3
Figure 2-158 Scaled gas impulse 3

(W/Vf =0.015, i,/I/ =600)
-19 4-
* .a ~ a-a-,.,
10000%
00
0%
w
ci
00
2I
/0.
W/V
irWl
1,
Ise
0c0 0._1_t
SCLDVN AE /f/
Fiue219 Scldgsip
-1 5
.0 0
to
-196
10000,_
_00 - - -
100
a
In1
I-
-TI
0.0
-197-
NN
*/l/
CL)
010
03
0.0
100 h4
to-
2/3
SCALED VENT AREA A/V
f
1 3
Figure 2-162 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vlf 1.0, itr/,W / 10C))
10000__ _
1000- - 01
30~
wO
__ __ __4
CD
wV
-j
100-
0.01 011
SCALED VENT AREA, A/Vf2 ' 3
Figure 2-163 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf =1.0, ir/Wi'/3 600)
-199--
N.
t00000-
.10
1-S0
_ .5
N. 0
t.0
S%%
3
ir/Wl/ of the shock pressures acting on the frangible wall (Section 2-14.2.2)
or a non-frangible wall with a vent opening. For a full containment type
structure the impulse of the gas pressure will be infinite in comparison to
the response time of the elements (long duration load). For near containment
type structures where venting is permitted through vent openings without
covers, then the impulse loads of the gas pressures are determined using the
scaled weight of the cover equal to zero. The impulse loads of the gas pres-
sures corresponding to scaled weight of the cover greater than zero relates to
frangible covers and will be discussed later. The effects on the gas pressure
impulse caused by the shock impulse loads will vary. The gas impulse loads
will have greater variance at lower shock impulse loads than at higher loads.
Interpolation will be required for the variation of gas impulse as a function
of the shock impulse loads. This interpolation can be performed in a manner
similar to the interpolation for the shock pressures.
A computer program is available which executes the interpolation procedure.

Availability of this program is listed in Section 2-4.
The actual duration and the pressure-time variation of the gas pressures is
not required for the analysis of most structural elements. Similar to the
shock pressures, the actual pressure-time relationship can be approximated by
a fictitious p.ak triangular pulse. The peak gas pressure is obtained from
figure 2-152 and the impulse from figures 2-153 through 2-164 and the
fictitious duration is calculated from the following:
2 1g
ts
tg Pg
Figure 2-165a illustrates an Idealized pressure-time curve considering both

the shock and gas pressures. As the duration of the gas pressures approach
that of the shock pressures, the effects of the gas pressures on the response
of the elements diminishes until the duration of both the shock and gas pres-
sures are equal and the structure is said to be fully vented.
If a chamber is relatively small and/or square in plan area then the magnitude
of the gas pressure acting on an individual element will not vary significant-
ly. For design purposes the gas pressures may be considered to be uniform on
all members. When the chamber is quite long in one direction and the explo-
sion occurs at one end of the structure, the magnitude of the gas pressures
will initially vary along the length of the structure. At the end where the
explosion occurs, the peak gas pressure is Pgj (fig. 2-165b) which after a
finite time decays to Pg2, and finally decays to zero. The gas pressure Pg2
is based on the total volume of the structure and is obtained from figure
2-152 while the time for this pressure to decay to zero is calculated from
equation 2-4 where the impuulse is obtained from figures 2-153 through 2-164
again for the total volume of the structure. The peak gas pressure Pgl is
obtained from figure 2-152 based on a pseudo volume (fig. 2-165b) whose length
is equal to its width and the height is the actual height of the structure.
The time t p for the gas pressure to decay from Pgl to Pg2 is taken as the
actual length of the structure minus the width divided by the velocity of
sound (1,12 fpms).
- 201 -
L ,
IDEALIZED SHOCK PRESSURES
w Pr 31:1
c /--IDEALIZED GAS PRESSURES

a.
to !
TIME
o) SMALL AND/OR SQUARE CHtMBER

,I.
w
w
CL P9 P
to tp tg
TIME
b) LONG RECTANGULAR CHAMBER
Figure 2-165 Combined shock and gas pressures
-202-
At the end where the explosion occurs, the peak gas pressures (Pgl, figure 2-
165b) will be a maximum and, after a finite time, they will decay to a value
Pg2, figure 2-165b) which is consistent with full volume of the structure;
after which they will decay to zero. The magnitude of the peak gas presjures
(F'gI) may be evaluated by utilizing figure 2-152 anu a pseudo volume whose
length is equal to its width and the height is t-e actual height of the
chamber. The length of time tp between the pi
two peak gas pressures may be
taken as the length minus the width of the structure divided by the velocity
of sound (1 fpms). N
2-14.3.2 Frangibility. Similar to shock pressures, an element can be con-
sidered frangible if it is deslgned such that its resistance to internal blast
forces does not exceed 25 psf and that it will undergo significant displace-
ment during the shock and gas loading phases. Figures 2-153 through 2-164
present the method for determining the gas pressure impulse acting on the In--
terior surfaces of the donor structure. These impulse loads will vary as the C.
mass of the cover over the vent opening varies; that is, the heavier the vent
opening cover, the larger the gas pressure impulse. Like the vented strue-.'%
tu-es, the internal gas pressure impulse loads produced by a frangible cover
must be interpolated as a function of the shock pressure impulse loads.
2-i14. 3.3 TNT Equivalency. The data presented in figure 2-152 and figures 2-
153 to 2-164 are for TNT only and must be extended to include other poten- 0,
tially .a.3-dctonating materials. Similar to the shock pressures, only a lir-
ited amount of data is available regarding the TNT equivalency of confined ex-
plooiors and in particular the effects produced on gas pressures. It has been
suggested that the TNT equivalency of explosives relating to gas pressures is
a function of both the heat of detonation as well as the heat of combustion, ,' -
a'
while for the shock pressures, the TNT equivalency is a funcrion of the former
only. A relationship has been developed based on a limited amount of testing
as follows:
W 0 ~
~4 W
d 1+d 2-5 -
w (i EXP HEXP H EXPW -
g Hd TN *d EXP
TNT TNT + i
where:
W -- effective charge weight for gas pressure
H.INT - heat of combustion of TNT
HC - heat of comnbu.3tiDn of explosive in question
- fNT conver:sion factor (figure 2-166) S.
HINT heat of detonation of TNI
L.0
- 203 - -
. . .. .. . I .
.. . .. . . --- ---
- - -.--- --- -- - - .----
S0.67
0 1 - ------ j
C/).
> O
0.2 ___ ~ __._L_
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
CHARGE WEIGHT TO FREE VOLUMN RATIO, W/Vf (lbs /cu f t
Figure 2-166 TrNT conversion factor for charges
-204-
V-t " ' \" -'
-':.'Vb v '-' " . ' ,- Xi'"--j. - ,' '- .. .',. . '2 '. L\ . '. . -J
- .P.. J. '.'_, ,* '.b"U ,, .. * .=, ,,. . ..... .. ...
d
H - heat of detonation of explosion in question
WEXP - weight of explosive in question
Gas pressures will be increased due to casings and in particular if the casing
is combustible. Since only unrelated data is available concerning the effects
on gas pressures by the casing, a method of compensating for these effects is
to adjust the heat of combustion of the given explosive material in Equation
2-5 to account for the heat of combustion of the casing material. This ad-
justment should be made by chemically combining the heat of combustion of the
explosive and casing.
12-14I.3.4 Multiple Explosions
The gas pressure produced by the release of the gaseous products of' multiple
explosions in a confined area may be approximated by considering the explosion
to be produced by a single explosive whose weight is equal to the combined
weights of the individual charges. This approximation is accurate if the
individual charges are positioned in the immediate vicinity of one another and
if near simultaneous detonation of the individual charges occurs. If the
individual charges are not close to one another and/or positioned at one end
of the structure, the magnitude of the gas pressures will initially vary along
the length or width of the structure. This variation may be determined in a
manner similar to that described in Section 2-14.3.1.
2-1R4. Leakage Pressures
2-14.4.1 Introduction. When an explosion occurs inside a vented chamber, I-
shock pressures escape to the outside along with venting of the gas pres-
sures. Trailing shocks overrun and coalesce with the lead shock at some dis-
tance from a single diverging shock wave. Close to the structure, the blast
prpssures are affected by the structure itself as the shock pressures spill
around the edges of the structure and form highly turbulent vortices. At fur-
ther distances, this effect is no longer present and the shock pressure de-
creases with increasing distances. The leakage pressures are enhanced in the
directic of venting (front) and reduced to the side and rear. The enhance-
ment of 'essures in the front and reduction of pressures to the side and rear
are less extreme as the distance away from the structure is increased.
The blast environment outside of cubicles containing fully and partially

vented explosions is presented in this section. Pressures and impulses acting p-
on the ground surface are provided as a function of distance from the explo-
sion, direction (front, side, back) relative to the vent opening in the struc-
ture, area of the vent opening and volume of the structure. For design pur-
poses, the remaining blast parameters corresponding to the pressure and
impulse acting on the ground surface may be obtained from figures 2-15 and
2- 6 in exactly the same manner as a surface burst of an explosive other than
TNT.
Explosions in three and four wall cubicles are considered. Three wall cubic-
le are fully vented structures. The blast environment is furnished for cu-
-205-
;,". . . , .,. . . .. . . , .. . . .. ....,- . ,_ . ....

bicles with or without roofs. Four wall cubicles with a vent opening located
either in the roof or one wall are considered. The size of the vent opening
is varied from that of a fully vented cubicle through a full range of par-
tially vented structures.
The data presented is based on tests In which the vent openings were com-
pletely open. There were no frangible covers over the vent area which might
inhibit the pressure flow. Vent openings in protective structures are nor-
mally covered with frangible panels for weather protection, separation o,
operations, etc. These panels will affect the leakage pressures. However, it
is assumed that these frangible panels will reduce the shock pressures lelI'ing
through the 'pening to a greater extent than the increase in the interna gas
pressure buildup. Therefore, use of this data will predict conservative
leakage pressures from cubicles with frangible covers.
2-1 .4.2 Fully Vented Three Wall Cubicles. For cubicle-type structures
where full venting is provided through the frangible or open portion of the
structure, the resulting blast wave exterior of the cubicle will be appre-
ciably modified as compared to an unbarricaded detonation. As the blast wave
propagates out from the center of the explosion, the shock front will collide
with the interior surfaces of the structure. These collisions will reflect
and reinforce the initial loads (pressure and impulse). Eventually these
pressures will spill over and around the blast walls, and in the event of
rapid collapse of frangible walls, through the structure to the surrounding
area. The exterior pressures will not initially have a definite shock front
but will. at some distance from the structure, shock-up with frontal pressures
similar to those produced by a surface burst. The pressure distance gradients
away from the explosion will vary in all directions. This variation is de-
fined by the configuration (shape, openings, etc.) of the protective structLL-e
containing the explosion.
wall cubicle type structures
A series of tests have been performed on three
illustrated in figure 2-167. Cubic and rectangular three wall cubicles with
and without a roof were tested. The results indicated that several parameters
were important:
(1) Direction - Three directions illustrated in Figure 2-167 are

considered. The direction normal to the open wall is called
the front. The directions perpendicular to the front normal
are called the sides. The direction opposite the normal to
the open wall is called the back. The blast pressures out the
front are greater than that to the side which, in turn, are
greater than that to the back.
(2) St-ucture geometry - Differences were found in the blast en*;i--

ronment depending upon whether the structure was cubic or rec-
tangular in shape. This was true for pressure and impulse
measurements to the side and back, and only impulse to the
front. There were no differences in press -e out the front
for the cubic and rectangular structures. "- difference in
pressures to the side and back occur only cl iro the struc-
tu-e. Far from the structure, there is no effect on pressure
in any direction due to structure shape. However, impulse
does riot converge with distance for differences in cubicle
shape.
--206 -
SIDE
FRONT4 w1 BACK GROUND
PLAN SECTION
a) CUBIC THREE WALL CUBICLE WITHOUT A ROOF

SIDE
FRONT4 0 BACK
PLAN SECTION
b) RECTANGULAR THREE WALL CUBICLE WITHOUT A ROOF
SIDE
FRONT - BACK 71
PLAN SECTION
c) CUBIC THREE WALL CUBICLE WITH A ROOF

SIDE
FRONT4
WI 0 BACK
7* %'
PLAN SECTION
d) RECTANGULAR THREE WALL CUBICLE WITH A ROOF
Figure 2-167 Fully vented three-wall cubicles and

direction of blast wave propagation
-207-
i
--r'"-*'-'".-
",4, --',
'.M,
',4'
" . r"4-'L
'4,'*..' '' .'
4 .,'.'."" "' "" 'W " ""a" ""a""* "a "" "- " "' ,/ -' -' -" ' o'' ',''/ 4''' :"r
(3) Charge weight to volume ratio W/V and distance - The ratio W/V
does not have an effect on the pressure to the front of any
cubicle. There is an effect of W/V on pressure to the side
and back of all cubicles, but only close to the structure.
For a particular W/V, the pressure is affected differently for
a cubic or rectangular structure. Thus, the effect on pres-
sure close in depends both on structure size and W/V. But,
for further out, neither affect the pressures. For all values
of Z, there is a measured effect of W/V on impulse.
(4) Venting through the roof - For any direction, cubicle shape,
and W/V value, there are differences in blast pressure and
impulse based solely on whether or not venting could occur
through the roof.
(5) Scaled distance Z - Both blast pressure and scaled impulse are
affected by scaled distance from the explosion. This param-
eter is not independent of other factors.
The pressure variation in the front, side and back direction of any three wall
cubicle without a roof is given in figure 2-168 while for a three wall cubicle
with a roof the pressure variation is given in figure 2-169. Due to interfer-
ences from the side and back walls which cause complex vortices near the
structure and coalescence of shock waves in close, there Is a maximum pressure
produced in the side and back directions. These pressures are a function of
the charge weight to cubicle volume ratio, W/V, and the configuration of the
cubicle. The maximum peak pressure in the side or back directions of three
wall cubicles with or without a roof are given in figure 2-170.
The scaled peak positive impulse in the front, side and back direction of
three wall cubicles is given in figures 2-171 through 2-182. The scaled im-
pulse is given as a function of scaled distance from the explosion for various
values of charge weight to structure volume ratio. The curves are presented
in two groups; three wall cubicles without roofs and then cubicles with roofs.
For each direction, the impulse is given for explos' -q in cubic and rectang-
ular cubicles, respectively.
aI.4.3
-- Partially vented four wall cubicles - vent opening in roof. Four
wall cubicles with a vent opening located in the roof will produce blast pres-
sures on the ground surface which are symmetric about the vent opening. Leak-
age pressures were determined for a below ground cubicle with its roof flush
with the ground surface (fig. 2-183a). The vent opening was centrally located
in the roof and various vent areas were considered. The blast pressure was
determined to be a strong function of the vent area divided by the structure
volume to the two-thirds power (A/V 2 / 3 ) and the scaled distance, and a very
weak function of the charge weight to volume ratio W/V which can be ignored
with negligible error.
- 208 -
" . . . . . .. . . " "

The leakage pressures resulting from an explosion in a partially vented below-
ground cubicle with a vent opening in its roof is given in figure 2-184 while
the impulse is given in figure 2-185. The scaled ground distance as indicated
in figure 2-183a is used in these charts for the below-ground structures.
Figures 2 -18 4 and 2-185 may also be used to determine the pressure and impulse
acting on the ground surface for above-ground four wall cubicles (fig 2-183b).
I
For an above-ground structure, the shock front must travel a longer distance
than a below-ground structure. Therefore, the scaled distance that must be
used in figures 2-184 and 2-185 is approximated by the addition of the slant
and horizontal distances indicated in figure 2-183b.
The above charts are useful in selecting the degree of venting required to
limit leakage pressures outside roof-vented four wall cubicles to a specified
safe level at some given distance. From a knowledge of the pressure and im-
pulse on the ground surface, the blast load acting on a structure may be ob-
tained from the procedures given in this report. Thus, an adjacent structure
may be designed to resist a blast load resulting from a given vent opening or
the vent opening may be varied to suit the capacity of an adjacent structure.
2-14.4i.4 Partially vented four wall cubicle - vent opening through wall.
Leakage pressures resulting from an explosion in a partially vented four wall
cubicle where the vent opening is located in a wall (fig. 2-186) have not been
documented. These leakage pressures have a variation in direction similar to
a three wall cubicle with a roof and a variation with vent opening similar to
a roof vented four wall cubicle. Extrapolation of the data for these types of
cubicles have resulted in figures 2-187 through 2-189. These charts present a
reasonable estimate of the pressures produced in the front, side and back
directions (fig. 2-186). In addition to direction, these pressures are a
function of scaled distance and the vent area divided by the volume to the
two-thirds power (A/V 2 / 3
).
2-15 Ecternal Blast Loads on Structures
2-15.1 General
The blast loading on a structure caused by a high-explosive detonation is de-

pendent upon several factors:
(1) the magnitude of the explosion,

(2) location of the explosion relative to the structure in ques-
tion (unconfined or confined),
(3) the geometrical configuration of the structure, and
(4) the structure orientation with respect to the explosion and
the ground surface (above, flush with, or below the ground).
U
The procedures presented here for the determination of the external blast
loads on structures are restricted to rectangular structures positioned above
the ground surface where the structures will be subjected to a plane wave
shook front. The procedures can be extended to include structures of other
shapes (cylindrical, arch, spherical, etc.) as well as structures positioned
at and below the ground surface.
-209-
*1
100-
. ..... ..... . .
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LJ
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-221-
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I T
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L4-,
-224-
VENT
OPENG
44
*W R
a) BELOW GROUND STRUCTURE WITH ROOF AT GROUND SURFACE
VENT
Z di + h +d3
WI,
b) ABOVE GROUND STRUCTURE
Figure 2-183 Four wall cubicle vented through its roof
-22S
0.6.
1.0
m .4.
o2.0
100
3.0.
50.
.7-
0.00 005 06 . .0
1A 5
-226-
30,
C~i ton to0
4p~
6L4~
IU141 -11A 0:
I~~~ rk-L 1
H i! ... 0 0 00
(~~11qg/3asw~~~~is
)1.M
+ 1!'~fdvIL31N 3 3
iI
T.227-
SIDE
VENT
OPENING g
'! I 1
1w
W I
FRONT 4- ACK
I I,",
PLAN
VENT
OPENING W
II
SECTION
,b
lb
Figure 2-186 Four wall cubicle vented through a wall and

direction of blast wave propagation
-228-
...................................
2 3 4 5
100
6
T T'
2001
0o
0o
L 30.
0"0
470
80
60
700
90'
0.1.
SCALEDVENTING, A/V /
Figure 2-187 Peak positive pressure at the front of a partially

vented four-wall cubicle
-229-
44
06
I- 7
Da ..
..
. ! .
0.0
It mm
z 1.0
50~
IN I
.5-- ~- *'s - ' . ~ .'~' 70. ~ -
.. t
000
1.00 040 .
SCALE vEN~r~3,/v50
Figur 2-70ekpstiepesr t h ako

for wal cuicl
partallyventd
60I
-231-90
AAA AA AAA
AA AA AA AAA
AS#~ A .A'A100..
2-15.2 Forces Acting on Structure
The forces acting on a structure assoctated with a plane shock wave are de-
pendent upon both the peak pressure and the impulse of the incident and dy-
namic pressures acting in the free-field. The peak pressures and impulses
associated with the free-field shock wave have been presented for various
explosives.
For each pressure range there is a particle or wind velocity associated with
U
the blast wave that causes a dynamic pressure on objects in the path of the
wave. In the free field, these dynamic pressures are essentially functions of
the air density and particle velocity. For typical conditions, standard rela-
tionships have been established between the peak incident pressure, Pso, the
peak dynamic pressure %, the particle velocity, and the air density behind
the shook front. The magnitude of the dynamic pressures, particle velocity
And air density is solely a function of the peak incident pressure, and,
therefore, independent of the explosion size. Figure 2-3 gives the values of
the parameters ver-sus the peak incident pressure. Of the three parameters,
the dynamic pressure is 'he most important for determining the loads on struc-
tures.
For design purposes, it is necessary to establish the variation or decay of

both the incident and dynamic pressures with time since the effects on the
structure subjected to a blast loading depend upon the intensity-time history
of the loading as well as on the peak intensity.
I
The form of the incident
blast wave (fig. 2-190) is characterized by an abrupt rise in pressure to a
peak value, a period of decay to ambient pressure and a period in which the
pressure drops below ambient (negative pressure phase).
The rate of decay of the incident and dynamic pressures, after the passage of
the shock front, is a function of the peak pressure (both positive and nega-
tive phases) and the size of the detonation. For design purposes, the actual
decay of the incidental pressure may be approximated by the rise of an equiva-
lent triangular pressure pulse. The actual positive duration Is replaced by a
fictitious duration which is expressed as a function of the total positive Imr-
pulse and peak pressure:
t -2i/p 2-6
the above relationship for the equivalent triangular pulse is applicable to

the incident as well as the reflected pressures; however, in the case of the
latter, the value of the pressure and impulse used with equation 2-6 is equiv-
alent to that associated with the reflected wave. The fictitious duration of
-232
I I I
POSITIVE PHASE P-T
Pso,
IDEALIZED POSITIVE PHASE P-TL
tof IDEALIZED NEGATIVE
toPH
AMBIENT,P o
0-25qfNEGATIVE PHASE P-T

POSITIVE
,PHASE. NEGATIVE PHASE
DbURATION,'- DURATION, t-U
TIME AFTER EXPLOSION
Figure 2-19U Idealized pressure-time variation
-233-
the dynamic pressure may be assumed to be equal to that of the incident pres-
e
sure.
For determining the pressure-time data for the negative phase, a 3imilar pro-
cedure as used in the evaluation of the Idealized positive phase may be uti-
lized. The equivalent negative pressure-time curve will have a time of rise
equal to 0.25 t whereas the fictitious duration to? is given by the tri-
angular equivalent pulse equation:
t - 21/p /-7
of
where I and p are the total impulse and peak pressure of the negative pulse
of either the incident or reflected waves. The effects of the dynamic pres-
sure in the magazine phase region usually may be neglected.
Since the fictitious duration of the positive phase will be smaller In magni-
tude than the actual duration, a time gap will occur between the fictitious
dLuation and the onset of the negative phase. This time gap, which is illus-
trated in figure 2-190, should be maintained in an analysis for consistency of
the onset of the various load phasings.
2-15.3 Above-Ground Rectangular Structure Without Openings
2-15.3.1 General For any given set of free-field incident and dynamic
pressure pulses, the forces imparted to an above-ground structure can be
divided into four general components: (a) the force resulting from the inci-
dent pressure, (b) the force associated with the dynamic pressures, (c) the
force resulting from the reflection of the incident pressure impinging upon an
interfering surface, and (d) pressures associated with the negative phase of
the shock wave. The relative significance of each of these components is de-
pendent upon the geometrical configuration and size of the structure, the ori-
entation of the structure relative to the shock front, and the design purpose
of the blast loads.
The interaction of the incident blast wave with a structure is a complicated

process. To reduce the complex problem of blast to reasonable terms, it will
be assumed here that: (a) the structure is generally rectangular in shape,
(b) the incident pressure of interest is in the order of 200 psi or less, (C)
the structure being loaded is in the region of the Mach stem, and (d) the Mach
stem extends above the height of the building.
2-15.3.2 Front Wall For a rectangular above-ground structure at low pres-

sure ranges, the variation with time on the side facing tht leton Ion (front
face) when this side is parallel to the shock front (norm 1 ref -ction) is
illustrated in figure 2-191a. At the moment the incident sh ont strikes
the front wall, the pressure immediately rises from zero to the normal re-
flected pressure, Pr' which is a function of the incident pressure (fig. 2-
15). The clearing time, t o , required to relieve the reflected preosure is

represented as:
- 234 -
I I.
Pr SHOCK
DIRECT i IJ
W \11
Ps+ Coq-
0
tY
r TIME
025 f~
NORMAL REFLECTION
jr
Proc(
r -
W7
/-',-
//Ps+coq
IV)
JPso+Cpqo
C-
\
rf tc tof
0
r
P7
0.2 t T TIME
b. OBLIQUE REFLECTION .
Figure 2-191 Front wall loading
-235-
t4S 2-8i
C (0.+ R)Cr
where:
S - clearing distance and Is equal to H or W (fig. 2-191a)

whichever is the smallest
H - height of the structure
R - ratio of S/G where G is equal to H or W (fig. 2-191) whichever

is the larger
Cr - sound velocity in reflected region (fig. 2-192)
The pressure acting on the front wall after time tc is the algebraic sum of
the incident pressure P and the drag pressure C q or:
5D
P- Ps+C q 2-9
sD
The drag coefficient CD gives the relationship between the dynamic pressure
and the total translational pressure in the direction of the wind produced by
the dynamic pressure and varies with the Mach number (or wlth the Reynold's
number at low incident presures) and the relative geomet,'y of the structure.
A value of CD-1 for the front wall is considered adequate for the pressure
ranges considered in this manual. At higher pressure ranges, the above proce-
dure may yield a fictitious pressure-time curve because of the extremely short
pressure pulse durations involved. Therefore, the pressure-time curve con-
structed must be checked to determine its accuracy. The comparison is made by
constructing a second curve (dotted triangle as indicated io fig. 2-191a)
using the total reflected pressure impulse i r from figure 2-15 for a normal
The fictitious duration t
reflected shock wave (fig. 2-191a).
rf for the nor-
mal reflected wave is calculated from:
21
t
rf - r 2-10
r
where Pr is the peak normal reflected pressure (fig. 2- 15). Whichever curve
(fig. 2-191a) gives the smallest value cf the impulse (arca under curve), that
curve should be used in calculating the wail loading.
If .the shock front approaches the structure at an oblique angle (fig. 2-191b),
then the peak pressure will be a function of the incident pressure and the in-
cident angle between the front and the front wall and is obtained from figure
2-193.
An equation similar to that used for the manual shock front may be used when
the angle of obliquity is greater than zero as follows:
- 236 -
-- H-
LC
E I J-Wo
w0
44
N~++
- --
CL 44
444 +11 1
I. I. II . .. . I .
I
crr
D CL
U z
o(.)
0 U
. . . . (-()
w w IN
A'
(Aww (1
cr UrL
**.
5 aW > - 0 -~ - - - -~
-. -f -j N f0
Lc) >
wI
%6-4
0A
-23.--
21
trf Pra
where peak reflected impulse i is obtained from figure 2-194.
Usually only the positive pulse of the pressure-time relationship of figure 2-

191b is utilized for the front wall design since the negative pulse seldom
affects the design. For determining the overall motions of the structure,
however, the effects of negative pressures should be included. The peak nega-
tive reflected pressure (fig. 2-190) and reflected Impulse are obtained from
figLre 2-16 and correspond to the peak incident pressure (fig. 2-15) acting on
.he front wall. The rise time and decay of the negative pressures are simi-
larly calculated as described in Section 2-1 5.2.
2-15.3.3 Roof and Side Walls. As the shock front traverses a structure a
pre-- ,;e is imparted to the roof slab and side walls equal to the incident
i.es'ure at a given time at any specified point reduced by a negative drag
pressure. The portion of the surface loaded at a particular time is dependent
u[pon tne magnitude of the shock t,'ont incident pressure, the location of the
shock Ifont and the wavelengths (L. and L -) of the positive and negative
puls. w
To determine accurately the overall loading on a surface, a step-by-step

an yss of the wave propagation across the surface should be made. Thi.
anaiyi s includes an integration of the pressures at various points (fig. 2-
195z) on the surface and at various times to determine the equivalent uniform
incient pressure acting on a span L as a function of time (fig. 2-195b).
Since the point of inflection of the element will vary as the shook front tra--
verses the surface, in order to make the assumptioi of the uniform pressure
valid, the reinforcement on both faces must be continuous across the span
length.
As the shock waie traverses the .- oof, the peak value of the incident pressure
decays and the wave length increases. As illustrated in figure 2-195b, the
equivalent uniform pressure will increase linearly from time tf when the blast
wave reaches the beginning of the element (point f) to time t d when the peak
equivalent uniform pressure is reached when tne shock front arrives at point
d. The equivalent uniform pressure will then decrease to zero where the blast
load at point b on the element decreases to zero.
To simplify the calculations, the equivalent uniform pressure has been ex-
pressed as a function of the blast wave parameters at point f. The equivalent
load factor CE, the rise time and duration of the equivalent uniform pressur,.
are obtained from figures 2-196, 2-197 and 2-198, as a function of the wave
length-span ratio Lwf/ L
The peak value of the pressure acting on the roof P

is the sum of contri-
R
bution of the equivalent uniform pressure and drag pressure:
PR C E Psof + CDqof 2-12 .
- 239-
.%
700IDICATE THE PEAK INCIDENT
3000
7000
(A . . .. .
-4-
100
70
30..
0 20
-240
IA~itillI 1 .3 -TTT- 4WU
4-
o0
-4
C44
z 0
0. 4
0 0
~~CL
I.-
U a
U t
+
$-
I0
38nSS3Ud
-241 -
In [J21 I .
..........
0 0 -
w 1POSITIVE PRESSURE I
<0.0
CL ..
....
....
I- > Ole-I
.. ..
7 IT I EGTIaPRSSR
- ll
0..I-
w..
>I
WA..LENGTH/SPA NGTVE
LA"HLf/
. .. .... ...
-4U
FiuM216Pa qiaetuiomro rsue
-242-P
*111MR
N ~ 4 limp
111 11:t~
ifV
LAJo
I I S
Ui.
w .0.1 010.
WAVE LNGTH/PAN LNGTHilt/
pa'
32 I%
Figure
2-197 Scaled rilctm feuvln nfr oiiero rsue
hlU
Q-
I;R:'
'It! ftS
--------------------------------------------------------------
POSITIVE PRESSURE
- -NEGATIVE PRESSURE
I MR
N
,ti
0 t t
40 1
161
031.1011 l
wU
1.0-
Figtiw c 2- 198 Sca led duration of equivalent uniiforn roof pr(.~sures
-244-
whr P sof is
where the incident pressure occurring at point f anQ qof is the dy-
namic pressure corresponding to CC Psof *
The drag coefficient C for the roof and side walls is a function of the peak
dynamic pressure. Rexommended values are as follows:
Peak dyna1 c pressure Drag ooeffiient
0-25 psl -0.40

25-50 psi -0.30
50-130 psi -0.20
The data presented above for the equivalent uniform roof and side wall blast
pressures are used principally for the design of individual elements. For
overall motions of a structure, the effects of the negative phase pressures
should be included. The equivalent load factor CE for the peak equivalent
uniform negative pressure is obtained from figure 2-196 as a function of the p
wave length-span ratio Lw /L. The value of the negative pressure acting on
the roof, PR P is equal to CE Psof where the value of CE is a minus value.
The value of the equivalent negative pressure duration tor is obtained from
figure 2-198. The value is not a function of the peak incident pressure at
point f. The rise time of the negative phase is equal to 0.25 tof.
If a side wall is positioned at an oblique angle to the shock front then blast
loads acting on the side wall are calculated in the same manner as that de-
scribed for front walls.
2-15.3. 4 Rear Wall. As the shock front passes over the rear edges of the
roof and/or side walls the pressure front will expand, forming secondary waves
I
which propagate over the rear wall. In the case of long buildings, the see-
ondary wave enveloping the back wall essentially results from the spillover
from the roof, and the side walls. In both cases, the secondary waves are re-
inforced due to their impingement with reflecting surfaces. The reinforcement
of the spillover wave from the roof is produced by its reflection from the
ground surface at the base of the rear wall, whereas the reinforcement of the
secondary waves from the side walls is produced by their collision near the
center of the wall and/or their interaction with the wave from the roof.
Little information is available on the overall effects on the rear wall load-
ing produced by the reflections of the secondary waves. U
In most design cases, the primary reason for determining the blast loads
acting on the rear wall is to determine the overall drag effects (both front
and rear wall loadings) on the building. For this purpose, a procedure may be
used where the blast loading on the rear wall figure (2-199a) is calculated
using the equivalent uniform method used for computing the blast loads on the
roof and side walls. Here the peak pressure of the equivalent uniform pres-
sure-time curve (fig. 2-199b, is calculated using the peak pressure that would
accrue at the back edge uf the roof- slab Psb The equivalent uniform load ,
sob
factors C_ and C are based on the wave length of the peak pressure above and
E
.he height of the rear wall Hsas are the t-rme rises and durations of both the
positive and negative phases.
- 245 -
W
Like the roof and side walls, the blast loads acting on the rear wall are a P
function of the drag pressures in addition to the incident pressure. The dy-
namic pressure of the drag corresponds to that associated with the equivalent
pressure CE Psob' while the recommended drag coefficients are the same as used
for the roof and side walls.
In the event that the back wall is positioned at an oblique angle to the shock
front, then peak incident pressure at point b should be calculated at the mid
width.
2-15.3.5 Multiple Explosions
As previously mentioned, the blast loads, produced by multiple explosions,

acting on structures located far from an explosion may consist of a series of
separate pressure pulses rather than a single pulse blast load. However, the
multiple pressure-pulse loading is usually associated with weights of
explosives which are very small (several pounds) and, therefore, will not be
the usual design situation. For large charge weights, however, the single
pressure pulse loading with multiple peak pressures will occur. At the
present time no specific method has been devised which will enable one to
evaluate this type of blast loading. In the interim, it is suggested that the
multiple peak pressure type loading be replaced by the pressure-pulse which is
associated with the merged shock wave. The parameters of this shock wave and
corresponding pressures are determined assuming a single explosion, the
explosive weight of which is equal to the combined weight of the individual
char ges.
2-15.4 Above Ground Rectangular Structures with Openings.
2-15.4.1 General. Two structural configurations are usually enountered

when blast loads are determined on structures with unsealed or unprotected
openings in its exterior. The first configuration includes windows, doors or
other openings located in both the front and rear walls as well as along the
side walls of the structure. The second would include openings located only
in the front face of the structure. The remaining surfaces are void of open-
ings. The second configuration is the one most likely to be encountered since
interior partitions will restrict the flow of the blast wave through the
structure. Increased interior blast loads are produced due to the reflection
of the blast wave on interior components. The blast loads associated with the
second onfiguxation are primarily discussed in this section with comments re-
garding the loads pertaining to the first configuration.
When a shock front strikes the front wall of a structure, the incident pres-
sure is amplified. Windows and doors will fail almost immediately (approx-
imately one millisecond) after, the onset of the shock front unless they were
designed to resist the applied load. As a result, blast pressures will flow
into the structure through these openings. This sudden release of high pres-
sure will cause a shock front to form inside of each opening. Each individual
front will expand and tend to combine into a single front which will further
expand throughout the structure's interior. This Interior shock is initially
weaker, than the incident pressure at the building's exterior. However, the
interior pressure will tend to get stronger due to reflections off interior
building components.
- 246 -
10
0
Qz z
000
rc 04
z a:
I.... Is
D
cr.
a: I
00
a:10 U (
jw
wh
Q+
0.0
C , A
_ _a. - a
4l
+ 0
.
0
o -38fSS3Ui
'
-247-
An Idealized structure configuration is shown in figure 2-200. The incident
shock front arriving at the front wall of the structure has an incident pres-
sure Pso and wave length L W . As the shock front sweeps across the structure,
blast pressures enter the interior of the building through the opening in the
front wall of area A 0 . The areas of multiple openings are added to obtain a
fictitious single opening located at the center of the front wall. The blast
pressures entering the building first load the interior surface of the front
wall, followed by the interior surface of the side walls and roof, and finally
the interior surface of the back wall. The idealized pressure-time load
curves for these surfaces are presented in figure 2-201. The procedures nec-
essary to obtain the magnitude of the parameters given on the idealized load
curves for a particular explosion are presented in the remainder of this sec-
tion. Except for the front wall, the blast pressures acting on the exterior
of the structure are not affected by the opening and are determined according
to the procedures of the previous section.
The primary purpose of this section is to provide the blast loading on the in- "
terior surface of an exterior wall so that the maximum outward motion of the
wall may be determined. It is not the intent to use these interior loads to
reduce the exterior positive phase loading. Except for the front wall, accu-
rate phasing of the interior and exterior blast loads are not possible. The
interior loads will always lag the exterior positive phase loading and, due to
reflections off interior components, the duration of the Interior load is al-
ways longer. For design, the interior blast loads should be added to the neg-
ative phase exterior loading to obtain the m,Lt.imum outward motion (negative
response) of a side wall, roof or back wall, The maximum positive response
should be determined for the exterior positive phase loading without any re-
ductions due to internal pressures. In most instances, interior partitions
are required to withstand the blast pressures leaking into a structure. The
procedures presented in this section may be used to determine the design blast
load acting on these elements. An interior partition located parallel to the
front wall will reflect the shock front and, therefore, Is considered as a
back wall. The length of the side wall would then be taken as the distance
between the front wall and this partition. An interior partition(s) perpen-
dicular to and framing into the front wall may be considered as a side
wall(s). The length of the front wall would then be taken as the distance
between an interior partition and a side wall or between two interior parti-
tIons. In both cases, only the openings located between these partition walls
would be considered as the vent opening.
The procedures presented in this section to determine interior blast loads

acting on a structure with an ope;;ing in the front wall were developed for a
3hock front striking the front wall head-on. For the same size opening In a
front wall, this orientation of the approaching shock front results in the
most severe interior shock wave effects. The use of these procedures for
shock fronts approaching at all other angles will result in oonservatJ fe
estimates or the blast loadings acting on the interior of the structure.
- 248 -
fi;S %
L
SIDE WALL
SHOCK BACK WALL
DIRECTION
FRONT WALL I
S-SHOCK FRONT
PLAN
Pso
Lw
SECTION
NOMENCLATURE:
L, LENGTH OF SIDE WALL
W, WIDTH OF BACK WALL AND FRONT WALL
H, HEIGHT OF ALL WALLS
Ao0,AREA OF OPENING IN FRONT WALL
Aw,AREA OF BACK WALL
Lw,WAVE LENGTH OF SHOCK WAVE OF INCIDENT PRESSURE, P1 o,
AT EXTERIOR FACE OF FRONT WALL
Figure 2-200 Idealized structure configuration for interior blast loads
-249-
T2
T2, T5
TIME
b. INTERIOR SIDE WALL OR ROOF SUFC
TO T, T2
TIME
c. INTERIOR BACK WALL SURFACE
Figure 2-201 Idealized interior blast loads
-250-
2-15.4.2 Exterior Front Wall Loads. The time required for reflected pres-
sures to clear a solid front wall is expressed in multiples of the time neces-
sary for a rarefaction wave to sweep the wall. When walls with openings are
considered, clearing takes place around the edges of the opening in addition
to the e dges of the wall. Depending upon the size of the overall wall and the
openings, the clearing time of the reflected pressures may be significantly
reduced.
The pressure-time relationship of the applied blast load acting on the front
wall of a structure with openings is the same as that of a solid front wall
(fig. 2-191) except the clearing time will be reduced. To evaluate this re-
duced time, the value of S' is introduced into equation 2-8. This value is
the weighted average distance that the rarefaction wave must travel to cover
the wall assuming immediate access of the incident shock to the interior of
the structure. If frangible covers (windows, doors, etc.) do not fail immed-
iately, the clearing time should not be reduced.
The method for evaluating S' is illustrated in figure 2-202 where the face of
the front wall is divided into rectangular areas. These areas are determined
by the location and dimensions of the openings in the wall, and by considera-
tion of the direction along which the reflected pressure clears around the
area in the shortest possible time. The individual areas are labeled depend-
ing upon the number and location of the clearing sides of the individual
areas. Clearing factors 6 n are established for these areas as follows:
6
Area n Number of Clearing Sides
1 1.0 Two adjacent sides

2 0.5 Two opposite sides
3 1.0 One side vV
4 1.0 None
.,
The weighted average clearing distance S' is expressed as:
6 hnA1
S' < S 2-13"-
A -
where
S' = weighted average clearing distance with openings
6 - clearing factor
n
h - average clearing distance for individual areas as follows;
n
Area 1 - width or height of area whichever is smaller
Area 2 - distance between opposite sides where clearing occurs
Area 3 - distance between side where clearing occurs

and opposite side
Area 4 - same as Area 1
An - area of individual wall subdivision
A , net area of the wall excluding openings
- 251 -
-P -A -4
WI
TICI
i o I
=2 o-1' 2 o * ' 2
iI I I
I I I I
3 1 31 4 131 3
I I I :
,V.
Figure 2-202 Sub-division Of tYPica] front wall with oPenfings

The clearing time t' for a front wall with openings is calculated from equa-
tion 2-8 in which S' is substituted for S or
t' 4 2-1 4
c (+ R)C r
r
where all components of equation 2-14 have been previously defined. It should
be realized that the load acting on the front wall with openings is still the
same as that shown on figure 2-191 except with the reduced clearing time,
t' The curve which represents the wall loading is still the curve which
c
gives the lower impulse.
As previously stated, window breakage will require a finite length of time.

This time may be evaluated using the resisting functions of Volume VI and the
dynamic proced.ures of Volume III. This time must be accounted for in deter-
mining the window contribution to the blast pressures acting on the wall.
2-15.4.3 Interior Front Wall Loads. The average pressure acting on the
interior face of the front wall will initially build up in a similar manner as
the average pressure on the exterior back wall of a closed structure. How-
ever, vortices are located all around the interior edges of all openings in
the front wall. The effect of these vortices, which tend to reduce the blast
load, have been neglected.
The shock front entering through the opening in the front wall travels along
the interior face of the front wall, thereby subjecting the wall to incident
pressures. When the front reaches the side wall, it is reflected back. The
length of wall loaded by this reflected wave is a function of the wave length,
Lw . The average pressure acting on the wall is determined assuming a single
opening of area A located at the center of the wail. In the case of multiple
openings, a single opening equal to the combined area of all openings is

located in the center of the front wall.
The idealized pressure-time blast load acting on the interior face of the N
front wall is shown on figure 2-201a. The time at which the shock front
arrives at the exterior surface of the front wall is taken as zero (0 = 0).
The blast load acting on the wall begins at time T1 . This time represents the
time it takes for the shock front to enter the structure through the opening
A 0 . The pressure buildup is linear from time T, to a maximum pressure Pmax at
time T2, and then decays linearly to zero at time T-
The maximum average pressure Pmax acting on the interior face of the front
wall varies as a function of the incident pressure Pso and thu sawe length L w
corresponding to that pressre, and the geometry of the wall. Figure3 2-203
through 2-206 give the maximum pressure Prax acting on front walls having
width to height ratio3 W/H equal to 3/4, 3/2, 3 and 6, re3pecttvely.
- 253-
10,000
AO/Aw Lu/H
I1 12
4W IA
1/41 ,
so 1/2
s1/4 3/4
IN to
21 63/020 3 1/
J5 pi
EXERA
0NIETPESR A RN AEO BIDNP 0 p
Fi gbre 2-2. l> u vrg rsueo nemrfc ffotwl WH=34
*1.0U
1,000Aa/AW Lw /H
1/2}
9/2
1//6
I/2
------- 1/
f~SO 1/8
EXTRNA AE FBILIG P 0 p
-N--T-RSUR-T-RN
Figre -20 ~Axiuvrg rsueo neirfc ffotwl WH 32
0-165
.06
- 1000~ ~ ~ WW i~i R MF&~~Y. ~- ~*4
&loco
A0 LW/AW
/
./e
to4.
40 1/2i
"21/2
00-
W 4
1/"*
4 /4 /
10 (p/8a
NIETPESR TFOTFC FBIDNP 0 pi

ETRA
rs~ t rc ~ -Au iiLwl WH=6
FiuC226 NximaeaL
4-23/-
.2,
The idealized times T1 , T2 and T3 are also obtained from plots of front walls
having width to height ratios W/H equal to 3/4, 3/2, 3 and 6. The arrival
time T, of the load is given in figures 2-207 and 2-208 as a function of the
incident pressure acting on the exterior surface of the front wall Pso for
various opening to wall area ratios Ao/A w . The rise time of the load, T2 - T]
is given in figures 2-209 and 2-210 as a function of Pso and various wave
length to width of front ratios Lw/W. Finally, the duration of the load T3 -
Ti is given in figures 2-211 and 2-212 again as a function of Pso and LW/W.
The times T2 and T3 are obtained from subtracting T, from the rise time and
duration, respectively.
Failure of the cover sealing openings in a building (windows, doors, etc.)

will affect the onset of the blast load acting on the interior surface of the
front wall. Due to the time required to cause failure of the covers, the on-
set of the interior pressures may not be in phase with the onset of the exter-
ior blast load. Therefore, care must be taken to arrive at a combined loading
for the structural element.
2-15. 4. 4 Ihterior Side Wall and Roof Loads. The blast pressures entering
the interior of the building through the opening in the front wall (multiple
openings are combined to form a single opening) must travel along the interior
face of the front wall before arriving at the side wall. The incident pres-
sures arriving at the side wall ae increased due to reflection off the wall
itself. The front expands and travels across the side wall until it reaches
the back wall. It is then reflected off the back wall and the reflected wave
travels back across the side wall towards the front wall. The length of side
wall loaded by this reflected wave is a function of the wave length Lw .
The idealized pressure-time blast load acting on the interior face of the side
wall and roof is shown on figure 2-201b. The same assumption is made for the
side wall and roof as for the interior front wall. That is, the time at which
the shock front arrives at the front wall of the structure is taken as zero
(T o - 0). The time T, represents the time it takes the shock front to travel
from the opening across the interior face of the front wall to the side wall
(or roof). The pressure build up is linear from time T I to a maximum pressure
Pmax at time T2 , remains constant until time T 3 and decays linearly to zero at
time T4 . This idealized curve applies to both the side walls and roof. The
structure configuration parameters as given in figure 2-200 apply for side
wall loadings. However, to determine the roof loading, the structure must be
rotated 90 degrees so that the roof takes the position of a side wall. The
width and height of the structure must be interchanged. All other parameters
are not effected.
- 258 -
2 CL
0.z
C4.
(SW) '1
LL -
.,4.
W CN
IL-
C-
to.
CL
S)L'3V4!iL IVAIdUVI 3NnSS3Nd 1WMlV JNONJ
10.
I
43 V
0) a.
L
.5 j.: .
*.. . . ~ w
U $
Bill4'- CD.
4; c il
0 go (D 0
(ow)zi
(sw
-VA111V38nS3U
'I 3PY1 TIM IO0
x
'J-4
-~ 0
4-. .
14m
Irr
1t -7 -4A.
-4. i -1 0,J~
2
0
(0 L
0
0 0 Q 0 O0CD - 4
o -
II
CDj
40~
3 Z
(8w) 'I. - ;1_ 3NIJ 3$W 38nflS38Jd -IlYM INOJ

-~~~ -----
co 4-
0- 2
(0~ I h
(SW)U 6jA.
-4
ca G
-I
CDL
Iv,4
Im
1
80( 0 2 -o
( 1
1) fll. NoiivflG 3uflSS38d 11-VM INOU4
-263-
N UN
CA 0 0'
-r
4w
E .
0 04
m U3
I I. I w1- I(V m
" w I I 1' 0
* -~* -4
z
(SW) 'CD
-264-
The maximum average pressure Pmax acting on the interior faoe of the side wall
(or roof) varies as a function of the incident pressure Pso acting on the ex-
terior face of the front wall, the wavelength Lw corresponding to Pso and the
geometry of the structure. Since a large number of plots would be required to
describe Pmax for the blast and geometric parameters involved, an equation has
been developed. The value of Pmax is given by:
Pmax - K/(Lw/L; 2-15
Fcr 6 > W/H > 3/2

,, I1.025
K. [A (B x (L /L)CJ] x D x E x P .2 2-16
where:
4 46 7 ]
A = [0.002 (W/H)1. - 0.0213 2-17
B 2.2075 - [1.902 (W/H)

-0 08521
2-18
C - 1.231 [0.0008 (W/H) 2 .678] 2-19
- 0 444
D- [2.573 CL/H) ] - 0.3911 2-20
E- 0.4221 + [1.241 (A /A )0.367] 2-21

0 w
For W/H - 3/4

K-- A x B x CE x FH x P 9718 2-22
where:
A = [0.5422 (Lw/L) 1294 4 - 0.001829 -
2-23
B - [0.654 + 2.616 (A /A ) - 4.928 (A/A) 2 ] 2-24
[2.209 (L/H) -0.3451 0.739]
- 265-
i
C - 0.829 + 0.104 (L1,w/L) 1.6 2-25

3 33
+ [0.00124 + 0.00414 (Lw/L) 4] [L/H]D
D - 2.579 - 0.0534 (L /L)3.891 2-26

w
E - 999 (Ao/Aw) 9.96 4 2-27
F - 1.4 68 - 1.6627 (Ao/Aw)0.7801 2-28
+ (1.8692- 1.1735 (A IA )-0.2226] [LwIL]G

0Ow
G - 0.2979 (Ao/Aw )-1"4872 _ 0.8351 2-29
H - (5.425 x 10- ) + (1.001 x 10 (LH)965 2-30
For 3/2 > W/H > 3/4, graphical interpolation is required to determine Pmaxi
Several values of Pmax are determined from equation 2-15 for values of W/H
equal tc 3/4, 3/2 and preferably two values greater than 3/2. A plot of Pmax
versus W/H is prepared and the value of Pmax is read for the rquired W/H.
The idealized times T1 and T2 are determined from figure 2-213. These times
are presented as a function of the incident pressure Pso arriving at the ex-
terior of the building and the width to height ratio W/H of the front wall.
Since the distance that the shock front must travel across the front wall is
taken from the center of the opening, times TI and T2 are not a function of
the area of the opening. This assumption will not result in significant
errors since the openings considered are comparatively small.
The idealized times T and T are determined from figures 2-214 through 2-
229. Each figure is prepared for a given structure configuration defined by
the length to height ratio of the side wall L/H and the width to height ratio
of the front wall W/H. The times T 3 and T4 -re given on each figure as a
function of the incident pressure Pso and various values of the wave length to
side wall length ratio Lw/L. As explained above, these times are not a fuic-
tion of the area of the opening. For ease of reference, these figures are
listed in table 2-4 for the various L/H and WIH ratios provided. In most
266 -
. .. ....
.... ...
W',; IL-
0Os D it- (%J

,-
0.
D I-
S -
N, to
-Th Fn U
31:
.,4.
404
*7- -7
4 4
-4
8 80D v C. 0 co w0 t N -
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Wrr
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C16'
U).
0.0
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co
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......
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(IS) *1 3tA11 m r
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...... EL
9%
..... .. ..
(SW) LJi.
r %~
.4 4 6
QQ QQ 0 0 0 CD 1 or 0
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TI-
CY 0
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LL -4
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(SE-4 Li.)
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______________..
Fn Fn) 4 - CY
fr0 0
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p.ILL
II
% 44
le Fn.
C16
.. f* ------- w x
8 0Q 4D to v
- 272 -
c o 0
LL.
CD 40
U.
w -
CN
3-m -J 0 w cn-
w
..... .. ... C) J
L.A..K.I. jix
S~~ D r2 f
-273-
C in F
3C
IL Z
- - 0
w
v C.U
~w
w w -
61 - z
w -4
C I
--
C-4
--- -.....-. - - x-- U
(SWJ) '3bN'Ril
-274-
ILI
cc
CL U)
CDC
dc
Co I
4)
ID 1 10
-275-
I '-I
LC
Lli
LL
44
W 6
OD~~
- -4 .w
TI -
"I~~ 0S)-
Q)
C4.
- -4t
-276-
'-n
o1 m
----
---- K
LIL
10
LL..
N w C
I. .-
x
& W
-277-
-S N-
0.
CD~ C* 0
0 -
U.'
in fq 2W cn
LA' IN 1' -4
WE-4
C14.
fl~
*Y
0 It OD 10
(sw)~- F.-.'3Nl
-278-
*.W -%
*%* '. .a k~ T. - I. I. w. %%
Ile.
_jp
I- I
U-
in
(Ia
v~- e' W Q)
we w
0
- 4
CYu
(sw) 'I'Mi
-279-
Ia _
.. . ....-
..... 0
...
) ...... ..
.....
.....
-4 c
IN
0 0
crr
I
-280
*;sp CL*.
l
2~ I
prlp
. ~ ~. .. ~ .2 ~. t w
CYC
4 242
(twJ *j' 3V41LI
........... e
ILS
.3
(sw) t'3V~I
-281-
......................... "..................................................
IL Z
-Va
LI
to.
00
W
Cl)
fzt
CDV4'- 40
-282-
N V C
S 06.
.T .. 1P111T I T
CID.
4"-4
r:: i : Zl
.. 7 .::.
aIL s*:::
w
Q
N ILLI
8 8 8O
CCD oq R 1
C(SW
v AAD AY
-283-
cases, interpolation will be required to obtain the correct val,.es of T 3 and
T 4 for the given structure configuration.
Table 2-4 List of Illustratior for Interior Side Wall

Idealized Times T3 and T 4
L/H w/H ..
3 / 4 3/2 3 6
1 2-214 2-215 2-216 2-217
2 2-218 2-219 2-220 2-221
4 2-222 2-223 2-224 2-225
8 2-226 2-227 2-228 2-229
2-15.4.5 Interior Back Wall. The blast pressures entering the interior of
the building through the opening in the front wall must travel the full length
of the building before arriving at the oack wall. The incident pressure
arriving at the back wall is essentially uniform over the wall. This pressure
is immediately increased to the normal reflected pressure when it strikes the
back wal I.
The idealized pressure-time tlast load acting on the interior face of the back
wall is shown on figure 2-201c. Again, the time at which the shock front
arrives at the front wall of the structure is taken a3 .er o (T =
time T1 represents the time It takes the shock front to travel from the open-
1I
ing to the back wall. The pressure build up is instantaneous to PRIB due to
the normal reflection of the shock front and then decays to zero at time T2 .
This loading is similar to the loading of an exterior' front wall except that
clearing is not possible.
- 284 -
"1 " .-
r" ln. . --
"n. ..
"-n" " ""11"1" "1 "1 . . .. . ... ... 1 I' 11....1..... ..... " ' " -
The maximum average pressure PRIB acting on the back wall is obtained from
fgures 2-230 and 2-231. Each figure is prepared for a given value of L/H.
The ratio of the maximum average pressure on the back wall to the incident
pressure PRIB/Pso is given as a function of Pso for various values of Ao/A w.
Interpolation between figures may be necessary for a given structural configu-

ration.
The idealized time T I is determined from figures 2-232 and 2-233. Each figure
is prepared for a given value of the width to height ratio of the wall W/H.
The time TI is given as a function of the incident pressure Pso for various
values of the wall length to height ratio L/H and the ratio of the opening
area to the wall area Ao/Aw . The duration of the load T 2 -T 1 is determined
from figure 2-234. The time is given as a function of the incident pressure
Pso for various values of Ao/A w. Since the back wall is located at the
greatest distance from the front wall, the area of the opening has a signifi-
cant effect on these times and must be considered.
2-15.5 Pressure Buildup in Structures
2-15.5.1 General. The procedures in Section 2-15.4 are for determining tha
net effects of shock loads entering openings in st uctures from windows or
doors which are not designed to withstand the applied blast loads. In certain
cases, structures may have closures which are designed to resist the blast
loading, but have very small openings due to vents, ducts, etc., which will
not withstand the blajt. In this caje, the small opening will not allow the
shock front to develop inside the structure. However, the structure experi-
ences an increase in its ambient pressure (a "filling" pressure) in a time
that is a function of the structure volume, area of the openings, and applied
exterior pressure and duration. Since personnel exhibit a tolerance limit to
such pressure increases, a method of determining the average pressure inside
the structure is needed. It should be noted that the interior pressures in.-
mediately adjacent to the openings will be higher than the average pressure.
2-15.5.2 Method of Calculation. The following procedure is applicable for

structures with small area - volume ratios and applied blast pressures less
than 150 psi. The change in pressure APi inside the structure within a time
interval At is a function of the pressure difference at the openings, P-Pi,
and the area-volume ratio, Ao/Vo:
APi = CL (A /V ) At 2-31
where:
CL = leakage pressure coefficient and a function of the

pressure difference P-P. and is obtained from figure 2-235
- 285 -
P - applied exterior pressure
PI - interior pressure
LP I . interior pressure Increment
A - area of openings
V - structure volume
At - time increment
The interior pressure-time curve is calculated as follows:
1. Determine the pre3sure-time history of the applied blast pressures

P acting on the surface surrounding the opening as presented in
Section 2-15.3.
2. Divide the duration to of the applied pres3sae into n equal
intervals (At), each interval being approximately to/10 to t/20,
and determine the pressures at the end of each interval.
3. For each time interval, compute the pressure differential P--Pi'

determine the corresponding value of CL from figure 2-235, and
calculate AP i from equation 2-31 using the proper values of Ao/V o
and At. Add AP to P1 for the interval being considered to obtain
the new value ot P, for the next interval.
4. Repeat for each interval using the proper values of P and P1 .
Note: when P-PI becomes negative during the analysis, the value of
CL must also be taken as negative.
The above procedure is most easily accomplished by using a tabular arrangement

for the required computations. An illustrative example is presented in Appen-
dix 2A.
-286-
L/H I
4.0
2.2/
..
.o...
C1/4
C,, P5 3/16
a-
Cr.s
4.
~- %
-jS
(L- 1.an/42
to -7f.
-2B7
0.8 --- -- 3/1

L/H z4
2.0
I. I p / 1 11
I-M
11/
0 F0.
C., 4 6 810 20 3416000
w
W 0psi
W 0.
W
I-
C0.o,
m
wl
-J
4.0
I. a
39I
2. 2 1
.6.6080.0I0
. 20 40
P, 0 ( psi
EXTERNA INIETPESR TFOTFC FBIDIG a(

FiJr 2-231 IdAAe rsu r~p~cetfrbc al neirbtla
(L/ 1/2an
Ix . . .- 2.8.-
n/u3/4
100
44
It/j
I-.-
2z
02
-5-1
P60 ( psi)
0/ 10 //4 and3/2
AnW/H 3
;/
-1/
E /
1/
.-
z
0
0 W/H 6
-1/
>
RHII q
3/a
P50 ( psi)
EXTERNAL INCIDENT PRESSURE AT FRONT FACE OF BUILDING, Pao (Psi)

Figure 2-233 Arrival time, Tl, for interior back wall blast load
(W/11 = 3 and 6)
-290-
EI
It 4
C,)
(n 3.
I~L
-j
00
4 0.P
EXTERNAL INCIDENT PRESSURE AT FRONT FACE OF BUILDING, P5 0 (psi)
Figure 2-234 Idealized time T2 - Tj for interior back wall blast load
-291-
.... .... ...
............. .... .... ............. ..... .... ......
:1:
.::1" [:: : :: '10
.. ... ......
7!7p...
7:::l ::-I:: 4I
. . . .. . . . .
Leaka:
Figure~~~~~~~ mw-235
prsuec efcetv.pes:edfeeta
-292-
Y T7
U .... ......
T . ... ... . ......
.. ... ....
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FRAGMENTS
2- 16 General
Previous sections in this volume have discussed explosive accident predictions
in reference to studies of blast waves and their effects. Significant damage
from accidental explosions can also be caused by the impact of fragments or
objects which were generated during the explosions and hurled against struc-
tures or other receivers at high speed.
Fragments resulting from accidental explosions can be divided into two cate-
gories. The term "primary fragment" denotes a fragment from a casing or con-
tainer of an explosive source or a fragment from an object in contact with an
explosive. If the source is a true high explosive, the container or casing
usually ruptures into a large number of small primary fragments which can be
projected at velocities up to several thousand feet per second by the explo-
sion. For bomb and shell casings, typical weights of damaging fragments re-
covered in field tests are about 0.032 oz. These primary fragments, though
irregular, are usually of "chunky" geometry, i.e., all linear dimensions are
of the same order.
Containers or casings which fragment or burst during explosions are not the
only sources of fragments and missiles. Other potentially damaging objects,
known as "secondary missiles" or "secondary fragments" can also be produced
due to the blast wave Inter-action with objects or structures located near the
explosive source. These objects can be torn loose from their moorings, if
they are attached, and accelerated to velocities high enough to cause impact
damage. The objects could be pieces of machinery, small tools, materials such
as pipes and ltumber, parts of buildings or other structures disrupted by the
explosions, large pieces of equipment, etc. Characteristics of both primary
and secondary fragments (often referred to as secondary "debris" to dis-
tinguish them from primary "fragments") will be discussed in this section.
2-17 Primary Fragments
2-17.1 General
The explosion of a cased donor charge results In the formation of primary

fragments which are produced by the shattering of tne explosive container.
The container may be the casing of conventional munitions, the kettles, ho,-
pers and other metal containers used in the manufacture of explosives, metal
housing of rocket engines, etc.
Primary fragments are characterized by very high initial velocities (in the
order of thousands of feet per second), a large number of fragments, and rela-
tively small sizes in comparison to secondary fragments and concrete fragments
formed due to partial failure or total collapse of protective elements. The
initial velocity and size of the fragments are functions of the thickness of
the metal container, the shape of the explosive as a whole (spherical, cylin-
drical, prismatic), and the sections of the container (ends, middle, etc.)
from which the fragments are formed. The size and shape of the fragments will
depend greatly on the metallographic history of the casing, its physical con-
dition (such as dents, grooves, bends, or internal cracks or flaws), and the
condition of joints, most notably welded joints.
-293-
, , i i------ ------ - I - - I "i. . ..... ...- "i -I N . . .. . "".......; '

Upon detonation of a cased explosive, the casing breaks up into fragments with
varying weights and velocities. The destructive potential of these fragments
is a function of their shapes, materials, momentum and kinetic energy distri-
butions. Since only the larger fragments have the momentum necessary to per-
forate a barrier and/or cause propagation of explosions, they are usually the
only fragments of concern in design of a protective system. Therefore,
through testing or analysis, the velocity and weight of the 'worst case" frag-
ment must be determined and used as a design criterion.
2-17.2 Initial Fragment Velocity
2-17.2.1 Explosives with Uniform Cylindrical Containers. The most common

technique for calculating the initial velocity of fragments in contact with an
explosive charge is the Gurney method. The initial velocity of' primary frag-
ments resulting from the detonation of a cased explosive is a function of the
explosive output and the ratio of the explosive charge weight to casing
weight.
The initial velocity of primary fragments resulting from a high-order

detonation of a cylindrical casing with evenly distributed explosives Is
expressed as:
W/W
/I212 2-32
o I + 0.5 W/W
c
and, applying a 20 percent factor of safety, the design charge weight is:
W = 1.2 WACT 2-33
where:
v initial velocity of fragments

1/?
(2E') 1 Gurney' Energy Constant from table 2-5
W = design charge weight
Wc = weight of casing
WAC T actual quantity of explosive
The ratio of Gurney energy to the heat of detonation E'/AH, represents the
cornversion efficiency of chemical energy to "Gurney" energy. If E' is unknown
for a particular explosive, and 6H is known, E'/AH may be determined for a
similar explosive (i.e., similar heat of detonation) and the value used to
estimate the Gurney energy.
2-17.2.2 Explosives with Non-Uniform Cylindrical Containers. Cylinders are

the most common shape of cased explosives. Along the length of the cylinder',
there may be a large variation in the thickness of the casing and its outside
diameter. In such ca3es, the cylinder is divided into a series of equivalent
cylinders. This method is further discussed in Section 2-17.3.2.
- 294 -
. S ft........... .. . .- - - - -- =s
Table 2-5 Specific Weight and Gurney Energy Constant
for Various Explosives
Specific Weight ( E
Explosive (lb/In 3 ) (ft/sec) 1
Composition B 0.0621 9100

Composi tion C-3 0.0578 8800
HMX 0.0682 9750
Nitromethane 0.0411 7900
PBX-9404 0.0664 9500
PETN 0.0635 9600
RDX 0.0639 9600
TACOT 0.0581 7000
Tetryl 0.0585 8200
TNT 0.0588 8000
Trimonite No. 1 0.0397 3400
Tritonal 0.0621 7600 v
(TNT/Al 80/20)
2,
6 ].
aa
'I
- 295 -,.
i
* ar
. -.
t C. - V~ . ..- ~- '..4 . . . * - . . . . . .
Gurney's equations were developed for eased explosives where the explosive is
in direct contact with the outer metal casing. Several conditions are illus-
trated in figure 2-236 where the explosive and outer casing are separated by
an incompressible fluid. The initial velocity of primary fragments resulting
from the detonation of such items may be approximated by using the Gurney
equations with slight modifications. The actual weight of the explosive is
Increased by the required 20 percent factor of safety. The design charge
weight is.
W - 1.2 W ACT 2-34
and, the weight of the casing is increased to include the weight of the fluid
and the weight of the Inner casing which surrounds the explosive, if present,
or:
We a W 2-35
C CO + WCI + WA
where: 4.
W - design charge weight
W - actual quantity of explosive

ACT
Wc - total weight of casing
WCO weight of outer casing
W -weight of inner casing
W - weight of fluide
A
2-17.2.3 Explosives with Non-Cylindrical Containers. Gurney formulas for

some additional geometries are given in table 2-6. A plot of velocity versus
casing to charge weight ratio for various geometries is shown in figure 2-237.
The shapes considered in figure 2-237 are assumed to have an evenly distri-
buted explosive and also a uniform container (casing) or plate thickness.
However, for those cases where the shape is slightly non-uniform, the initial
velocity of the resulting fragents may be estimated by using the average
cross-sectional dimensions.
2-17.3 Fragment Mass Distribution
2-17.3.1 Explosives with Uniform Cylindrical Containers. The fragmentation r

pattern and the weight of the largest fragment, resulting from the high-order
detonation of an evenly-distributed explosive in a cylindrical metal case of
u.'iform thickness, have been calculated according to relationships developed
on the basis of theoretical considerations confirmed with a large number of
tests. The number of fragjents produced by a cylindrical cased charge
weighing more than a given design fragment is:
-296-
""
" "'.- . " * ".. " ." .*"" ' "" " ' ; "" " *" '"" ' \ -' """ '" "" "'
w Sh
aCYLINDER OR SPHERE
STEEL CORE
W WA
b. STEEL CORED CYLINDER
Fieue ouer 2236 csin

EXDI~iv searatd b inomorssile lui
-297-
1
ii
2
P
t
iii' -
c -
4J Va I Its
Tc I " + + *- *,
La
-4
4
__ ____ _____
-4)
I. AU
-298-
UU
wIT
z
I w
.....
.. . ...
>-.0
i: :: LaPH -
.....
.....E.
.-.
. .A.
.D
> 04 .......
.... SAN WIC
.. . .. . . Jt
uz 0. .. .. 7..2.47.. ....
0
z .1.2
. 2 47 1
U_ L
0 EIGT CAING TODESON CARGEWEIHT, c /
0I
Figure 2-23'1 initial velocity of primary fragments for various geometries
-2 1)~
-[(W)1 2
/M]
Nf 8W e A 2-36
=
f2 MA
and: t
M -Bt5/6 d 1/3(1 + -) 2-37
where:
N = number of fragments with weight greater than Wf

ff
W design weight
Wf .- casing fragment weight
MA - fragment distribution factor
B - explosive constant from table a-7
t = average casing thickness
d . average inside diameter of casing
The largest fragment produced by an explosion can be found by setting Nf - 1.

Thu.,, the weight of the largest fragment is given by:
8W
W -(MAkn (0) 32 2-38
MA
Setting the fragment weight Wf equal to zero, the following expression for
the total number of fragments is obtained:
NT 8W/M2 2-239
where: N = total number of' fragments

TP
Hence, the average particle weight can be found:
Wf - 16W /N T = 2M= 2-240
where:
Wf average fragment weight
- 3U0o -
Table 2-7 Mott Scaling Constants for Mild Steel Casings
and Various Explosives
A B
Explosive
(OZI /2 in. -3/2) (OZ11 2 in. -7/6)
Bar at ol 0.512
Composition A-3 - 0.220
Composition B 0.214 0.222
Cyclotol (75/25) - 0.197
H-6 - 0.276
HBX- 1 - 0.256
HBX-3 - 0.323
Pentolite (50/50) 0.238 0.248
PTX-1 - 0.222
PTX-2 - 0.227
RDX 0.205 0.212
Tetryl 0.265 0.272
TNT 0.302 0.312
-301 -
. ..
" "'},.'
_.-,".,.#,
-. "" ' . :.I ,., . .. .,.#. , '.,ei '_ ," ,". '. " " ., "- j '. "# ",,-w "" "l""'". _.m ,- " "/,",, ",."*, ".*
For design purposes, a confidence level CL, where (0 < CL < 1), can be de-
fined as the probability that the weight, Wf, is the largest weight fragment
released. The expression for the design fragment weight corresponding to a
prescribed design confidence level (CL) is given as.
CL - 1 - Nf/N T - e A 2-41
or rearranging terms:
2 In2 (1 CL) 2-42

t' A
Equation 2-42 can then be used to calculate the design fragment weight for a
prescribed design confidence level. Note that equation 2-42 uses an infinite
distribution to describe a physical phenomenon which has a finite upper limit.
Equation 2-42 may be used for CL < 0.9999. If CL > 0.9999, use:
2 2 -[11(W 1/2 / A ]
W
1' = M2n
A
[1 - CL (0 - e C A )] 2-43
The numher of fragments with weight greater than Wf is:
Nf = NT (1 - CL) 2-44
It should be noted that equations 2-41 through 2-44 are not applicable to cas-
ings designed to fragment in a specific pattern.
ln order to facilitate design calculations, figure 2-238 is available for de-

termining the quantity MA/B for a given cylindrical casing geometry and
figures 2-239 and 2-240 provide the value of W /M corresponding to a spec-
V' A
ified confidence level. Figure 2-239 is applicable for a wide range of confi-
dence levels (0.3 < CL < 1.0) whereas figure 2-240 is applicable for high
confidence levels (0.986 < CL < 1).
To calculate the actual number of fragments with a weight greater than the
design fragment weight, equation 2-36 can be applied directly. Alternatively,
figure 2-241 presents a plot of the quantity B2 NT/W versus the casing geom--
etry. The number of fragments with weight greater than W, can then be
calculated from equation 2-44.
2-17.3.2 Explosives with Non-Uniform Cylindrical Containers. The equations

In Section 2-17.3.1 were developed assuming a uniform cross-section long the 4
axis of the cylinder with evenly distributed explosive in direct cn, , with
the outer casing. Actual cased explosives rarely conform to these i con-
ditions. If there is only slight variation in the casing thickness and/or
302-
9'- -!
--
0 C
0
j1
11 1x t
--
Z o----E--
IR I I I II
M V- ..4
,0, .
LA
ci 0 F
II ,.'I
'..4
- .C /0 V C1
-30-4
a
. .. . . . . . . .
N . . . . . ..
/ I I I I I
-) - -! -I
Lh
too"
ioi
_1I0
1/01/
0.1 - -/
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 _ 0.7 I~d 0.8 0.9 1.0 :

DESIGN CONFIDENCE LEVEL,CL
Figure 2-239 Design fragment weight versus design confidence level

(0.3!CL! 1)4
-304-
0
0"
- - =-4 ,
co 0
I IV0 0 -
0 o9
0 w >
0
III
iu
I.I
-305-4 I _ I-.
96,
zU
44.
w 00 c *. o
2
50
10Numbers next to curvesr
E
indicate Casing Thicknoss,tc I.-
20 -
10
I LO.
0.5I .0- 14 ' O5
0.00
100
~~~~ 20" 0
tor 5 2 I05 0
.2 000
0.0'
Figure 2-241 B 2 NT/Wc versus casing geometry
-306-
.1%
or'?.
casing diameter, the fragment weight may be estimated using an average casing
thickness and diameter in equation 2-37.
If the cross-section varies greatly, the container is treated as a series of

equivalent cylinders, representing the actual shape as closely as possible
(see fig. 2-242). Using the average casing thickness and diameter of each
section, the velocity and weight of the design fragment must be determined for
each section. The worst case fragment of the equivalent cylinders is then
taken as the design fragment for the entire container.
Cylindrical explosives with steel and hollow cores are shown in table 2-6.
The fragment mass distribution may be estimated for these shapes using the
uniform cylinder equations of Section 2-17.3.1. In applying these equations,
the same procedures as outlined above for non-uniform cylinders are employed,
except that the steel or hollow cores are neglected in the calculations.
Figure 2-236 illustrates the cased explosive where the explosive and outer
casing are separated by an incompressible fluid. The outer casing is much
thicker than the inner casing which encloses the explosive. Here again, the
fragment mass distribution may be estimated using the uniform cylinder equa-
tions of Section 2-17.3.1 except as indicated below. The heaviest fragment
will fracture from the outer casing. Thus, W should be the weight of the
outer casing only. The thin inner casing is neglected in the calculations.
In additior, since the ratio of explosive weight to casing weight (W/W ) is
small, the fragment distribution factor (MA) should be the larger of that
given in equation 2-36 and equation 2-44 as follows:
(d. + t )3/2 W 112 .

MA -At d c (I + W) 2-45
c
A di Oc
where: a,'
A explosive composition constant from table 2-7
and all other terms are as previously defined.
2-17.3.3 Explosives with Non-Clindrical Containers. Information is not %

presently available for evaluating the number and weight of fragments from
charges other than those having a cylindrical casing.
The equations of Section 2-17.3.1 can only be employed to calculate masses of

primary fragments which evolve from accidents involving an explosive detona- -
tion within a container of some sort, like a casing, storage tank, or a con-
fining piece of machinery such as a centrifuge or press. Weights of fragments
created as a result of a given quantity of explosive detonating while being
machined or in an unconfined space must be escimated using other methods.
- 307-
.1
.........
.........
() ACTUAL CONFIGURATION
(b) IDEALIZED CONFIGURATION
Figure 2-242 Equivalent cylindrical explosive casings
-308-
2-174 Variation of Fragment Velocity with Distance
When an explosion is located close to an object (acceptor explosive, barrier,

etc.), the velocity v. at which a fragment strikes the object is approximately
equal to the initial velocity vo . However, if the detonation is located at a
relatively large distance from the object, then the impact or striking veloc-
ity of the fragment may be substantially less than its velocity immediately
after the explosion. This variation in velocities, which is primarily a re-
sult of air resistance, is also a function of the physical properties of the
casing and the distance between the donor explosive and the object.
When the protective barriers are located 20 feet or less from a detonation,
the variation between striking and initial velocities usually may be (
neglected. On the other hand, for determining the effects of primary fragment
impact on structures further away from a detonation, the variation of fragment
velocity with distance should be included in the design. The fragment veloc-
ity of major concern is the velocity with which the "design fragment(s)" (the
worst case fragment(s) which the structure must be designe,J to withstand)
strikes the protective structure. This striking velocity is expressed as:
v . v0 e 2-46
5 0
and:
kv . (A/Wf) PaCD 2-47
where:
vs . fragment velocity at a distance Rf from the center of detonation
v a initial (maximum) fragment velocity
Rf distance from the center of detonation
k - velocity decay coefficient
A - presented area of the fragment
Wf - fragment weight
A/Wf fragment form factor
Pa - specific density of air
C - drag coefficient
The decay coefficient can be evaluated as:
A/W = 0.7 8 /Wf/3 for a random mild steel fragment
- 309 -
3
Pa - 0.00071 oz/in
CD - 0.6 for primary fragments
The resulting expression for the striking velocity is:
vs -y oe'O4f/Wf
-0.004R fW f1/3 2-48
s 0
Figure 2-243 shows the variation of primary fragment velocity with distance.
The term initial velocity refers to the maximum fragment velocity as the frag-
rrent is ejected from the charge. Due to the extremely high rates of fragment
acceleration, this velocity is considered to be attained by the fragment prior
to moving appreciably from its initial position. N
2-17.5 Primary Fragments - Shape, Caliber Density and Impact Angle
2-17.5.1 General. In order to determine the damage potential of primary

fragments, it is necessary to evaluate the caliber density, shape and angle of
obliquity of the fragments as well as the previously described weight and
striking velocity. When a container fragments, a random distribution of frag-
ment shapes results. Section 2-17.3 contained a method for determining the
weight distribution of primary fragments. From the weight of the fragment and
shape of the containment vessel, one can estimate the size of individual frag-
ments. This section discusses a method for performing an engineering estimate
of a standard design fragment(s) for use in fragment impact damage.
2-17.5.2 Shape of Primary Fragments. Two possible fragment shapes are shown
in figure 2-244 for explosives in contact with the outer casing. The blunt
fragment shape in figure 2-244 is considered as the standard shape in the de-
sign charts presented in the following section. While the standard fragment
has a milder nose shape than the alternate fragment, the standard fragment is
generally considered appropriate for use in design since: (a) only a small
number of fragments will strike the structure nose-on, and (b) only a small
fraction of these fragments will have a more severe nose shape than the stan-
dard fragment. In addition, the length-to-diameter ratio of these fragments
is felt to be more representative of an average fragment configuration.
convenience, a plot of fragment weight versus fragment diameter for these t
fragment shapes is given in figure 2-245.
For
I
-rare is little data available concerning the shape of a fragment ejected from
a cased explo3ive where the explosive is not in direct contact with the casing
(fig. 2-236). Consequently, the worst possible shape is assumed, a thin rec-
tangular or circular rod. The diameter of the cross-section (the thickness of
a rectangular cross-section) is equal to the casing thickness at rupture.
The fragmentation pattern of this type of cased explosive somewhat resembles

that of a ruptured pressure vessel. The casing diameter typically expands be-
fore rupturing and, therefore, to conserve mass, the casing thickness must be
decreased.
-310-
r0.0 NUMBERS NEXT TO
DISTANCE CURVES
TRAVELED_ --
50.0 INDICATE
BY FRAGMENT (ft)
10. - -- - I
8.0 1 i
-~6.0------------------
3.0
- 5.0 II I I
4.0 -- - _ -
z 2.0 -- - -
5.0
0.6 ----- ---
0.5~- - -
0.4 - - -
0.3 r ~-
0.2 -- -
0.1STt(N
0.3 0.4
-
0.5
L
0.6
--
0.7
ii 0.9
0.8 1.0
I VELOCITY / INITIAL VELOTY, Vs/IV
Figure 2-243 variation of primary fragment velocity with distance
r
d
n = C.5
N - 0.6145
d Volume a 0.654d3
Weight a O.654d 3 7 u 0.1186d3
3
L2 D a 0.186 lb./In.
(a) STANDARD FRAGMENT SHAPE
0.98d 1.12d
77- n u 1.5
N x 1.00
d Volume a 1.2d 3
Weight a 1.2d 3 ;. 0.34d3
D a 0.34lb./in.3
(b) ALTERNATE FRAGMENT SHAPE
NOTE
N a Nose shape factor i 0.72+0.25 6lO'5-0.25
n z Caliber radius of the tangent ogive of the
fragment nose a R/d
D a Caliber density a Wf/d
Figure 2-244 Primary fragment shapes
-312-
4- . .
.......
'41
Li
070
;-Itl t- ?!Il A
4-:V.4 .J
M313
I
. . . L
.
It is assumed that the outside diameter expands to 1.5 times the original
diameter. Thus, the adjusted inside diameter is:
d1 - [1.25 (d, + 2t) 2+ d2]1 / 2 2-49
where:
d,1- adjusted inside diameter of casing 9:
dI - original inside diameter of casing
t - original casing thickness
The adjusted or "necked-down" thickness is:
t -0.75(d, + 2tc ) - 0.5d' 2-50
where:
t ' - adjusted casing thickness

C
Ass~ning a circular cross-section, the length of the fragment is: _
<
Lf - 2 cyl 2-51
1Tp (t')
where:
Lf = length of the fragment
Wf - weight of the fragment from Section 2-17.3
Pc = density of casing material
L - length of the cylinder or equivalent cylinder

c yl
If assuming a circular cross-section, the length Lf calculated is longer than

the length of the cylinder, then a rectangular cross-section is assumed where
the width Is equal to:
Wf
f- Wc 2-52
where:
b = width of the fragment
-314-
A
2-17.5.3 Caliber Density. The influence of the fragment weight to fragment
diameter ratio is expressed in terms of the caliber density of the fragment
which is defined as:
D - Wf/d 3 2-53
where:
D - caliber density
d = fragment diameter
2.17,5.4 Nose Shape Factor. The nose shape factor expresses the influence
of the shape of the primary fragment and is defined as:
""4 For flat-nosed, solid fragments:
N = 0.72 2-54
For fragments with special nose shapes:
N - 0.72 + 0.25 (n - 0.2)1/2< 1.17 2-55
where:
N = nose shape factor
n = caliber radius of the tangent ogive of the assumed fragment nose
2-17.5.5 Impact Angle. The angle of obliquity refers to the angle between
the path of the fragment and a normal to the surface; thus, a normal impact
corresponds to an angle of obliquity of zero degrees. A normal impact is
usually assumed in penetration calculations in order to conservatively design
for the worst case condition.
2-18 Secondary Fragments
2-18.1 General
The explosion of HE during some manufacturing or forming process (i.e., nitra-

tion, centrifuging, pressing, machining on lathe, etc.) can result in a large
number of secondary fragments which vary greatly in size, shape, initial
velocity and range. Each of these parameters affects the damage potential of
an accidental explosion and, therefore, should be considered in the design of
protective structures.
The current staue-of-the-art for assessing damage potential requires that the
design engineer estimate the conditions which are likely to exist at the tifne
of the accident, and perform a structural assessment of any equipment which
will be involved. Some of the initial factors to consider are:
3i
I
1. Type and amount of HE.
2. Configuration of HE (i.e., sphere, cylinder, cased, uncased, etc.).
3. Location of HE (i.e., attached to lathe, resting on support table,

contained in centrifuge, proximity to walls and other equipment).
4. Type of propagation after initiation (i.e., high order, burning,

partial detonation, etc.).
If the fragmentation pattern varies with the initial conditions, the Architec-
tural Engineer must examine several likely scenarios to evaluate the damage
potential.
To estimate the weight, shape, and velocity of fragments which result from
detonation of an HE during a manufacturing or forming process, one would per-
form the following steps:
1. Determine distance (R i ) from the center of the explosive to the ith

point of interest (refer to structural details of the machine
and/or architectural drawings).
2. Determine the size and shape of the expected fragment (refer to

structural details of the machine).
3. Drtermine the fragment velocity (refer, to sections 2-18.2 and 2-

'", ). 'S-
2-18.2 Velocity of Unconstrained Secondary Fragments
To predict velocities of objects accelerated by an explosion, the interaction

of blast waves with solid objects must first be considered. Figure 2-246
shows the interaction of a blast wave with an irregular object. The interac-
tion is shown in three phases as the wave passes over the object. As the wave
first strikes the object, a portion is reflected from the front face, and the
remainder diffracts around the object. In the diffraction process, the inci-
dent wave front closes in behind the object, greatly weakened locally, and a
pair of trailing vortices is formed. Rarefaction waves sweep across the front
face, attenuating the intitial reflected b.ast pressure. After pa3sage of the
front, the object is immersed in a time-varying flow field. Maximum pressure
on the front face during this "drag" phase of loading is the stagnation pres-
sure.
To predict the effect of a blast wave on the object, it is necessary to ex-

amine the net transverse pressure on the object as a function of time. This
loading, somewhat idealized, is shown in figure 2-247. After the time arrival
tag the net transverse pressure rises from zero to a maximum peak reflected
pressure Pr in time (T, - ta). For an object with a flat face nearest the
approaching blast wave, this time interval is zero. Pressure then falls line-
arly to drag pressure in time (T2 - T1 ) and decays more slowly to zero in time
3 - T2 ).
-316-
.
. .
wig A .A
OBJECT EXPOSED -:
TO BLAST WAVE
REFLECTED
BLAST WAVE VORTICES
INCIDENT
BLAST WAVE 2
DIFFRACTION
OF BLAST WAVE REFORMED
BLAST WAVE
I.,
Figure 2-246 Interaction of blast wave with an irregular object
3:
-317- V"
Pressure
Pr
2
CDQ ft) C)q (t) = Co - Pu
T T2 Time
t.
Figure 2-247 Idealized pressure-time loading on an irregular fragent
-318-
The basic assumptions for unconstrained secondary fragments are: () the ob-
ject behaves as a rigid body, (2) none of the energy in the blast wave is ab-
sorbed in breaking the object loose from its moorings or deforming it elastic-
ally or plastically, and (3) gravity effects can be ignored during the accel-
eration phase of the motion. The equation of motion of the object is then:
A p(t) - Ma 2-56
where:
front
A - area of object presented to blast
p(t) - pressure-time history of blast wave acting on object
M - mass of object
a - acceleration of object
Rearranging terms and integrating:
TA T A
v(T ) - f ' adt - g t
- p(t)dt - i 2-57
3 ta ta M d
El
where:
v(T 3 ) - initial velocity of the object
id - total drag and diffraction impulse
U
The integral in equation 2-57 is the area under the curve of pressure-time
relationship. Equation 2-57 can be integrated explicitly if the pressure-time
history can be described by suitable mathematical functions or it can be eval--
uated graphically or numerically if p(t) cannot be easily written in function
form.
For intermediate strength shocks, the solution of equation 2-57 can be deter-
mined from a rather long equation. For computational purposes that equation
is presented here in graphical form as figure 2-248, where:
P - peak incident overpressure

so
p. - atmospheric pressure
CD - drag coefficient
i - incident specific impulse
a - velocity of sound in air
K - constant (4 if object is on the ground or' reflecting surface

and 2 If object is in the air)
- 319-
m
;Z
5 _a1
5 0.
2
5
2E
2
1000P(K2X
-30
H - minimum transverse dimension of the mean presented area
of object
X - distance from the front of the object to the location of its
largest cross-section normal to the plane of the shock front
M - mass of object
A - mean presented area of object
v - initial velocity of object
The peak incident pressure P. and the incident specific impulse is can be
determined from figure 2-7 knowing the scaled distance to the object. Values
for the drag coefficient CD for several common shapes are given in table 2-8. %
This analysis is appropriate for objects "far" from the explosi.,'e charge;
thus, the object is not in a high velocity flow field and CD is essentially a
constant. Figure 2-248 can be used in most cases where tht distance from the
object to the center of a spherical charge is greater than 20 charge radii,
which is normally considered to be "far" from the charge. For objects close -
to a charge, the initial velocity is a function of the impulse on the target, A
and the actual pressure-time variation across the object is unimportant. For
this close-in range the impulse acting on the object is equal to the applied
momentum.
I - L 2-5 8
Thus, the velocity in terms of the actual target shape is:

1000iBA
vo - 120- 2-59
wher e:
I - specific acquired impulse
0 - target shape factor from figure 2-249
A - area of the target
M - mass of the target
v . velocity of the target

o
To calculate the specific impulse imparted to a close-in target, the following

equations were developed based on experimental data:
-321 -
I
Table 2-8 Drag Coefficient, CD, for Various Shapes
SHAPE SKETCH CD
CIRCULAR CYLINDER
(LONG ROD), 1.20
SIDE-ON 2!
SPHERE L 0.47
ROD, END-ON 0.82
FLOW
DISC, FACE-ON 00- p 1.17
FLOWO
CUBE, FACE-ON 1.05
r
CUBE, EDGE-ON FLOW 0.80
LONG RECTANGULAR 2.05

MEMBER, FACE-ON
LONG RECTANGULAR FLOW 1.55

MEMBER, EDGE-ON
NARROW STRIP, FACE-ON FLOW 1.98
-322-
ZRO
CYLINDRICAL
EXPLOSIVE
---
(a) EXPOSED FLAT (b) EXPOSED CYLINDRICAL (c) EXPOSED SPHERICAL

FACE SURFACE SURFACE
--- H,.- -' 1,%

2 Re
SPHERICAL
2Rt EXPLOSIVE
A0 o
Figure 2-249 Tareet shave factor for uncenrtre.ined fragments
-323-
For spherical charges with R/Re < 5.07:
(Re ) 0.158 - 38,000 Re 1.4

OR eff Rt R
and:
Reff - Re 2-61
For cylindrical charges with R/Re < 5.25:

e
R 0.158 R
O R46,500
Re 2-62
eff t
For cylindrical charges with 5.25 < R/R e < 10:
Re 0.158 Re 1.75
_BReft 161,700 () 2-63
and:
Reff -0"909 ( ) 3 33 Re
2-64
eff R
where:
I = specific acquired impulse "
B - non-dimensional shape factor of the target from figure 2-249

Ref f - effective radius I
R - radius of the explosive
e
R - standoff distance
Rt - target radius
9
- length of cylindrical explosive
e
The effective radius Ref f is the radius of an equivalent sphere of explosive
which could be formed from a cylinder of radius Re and length .e"
The specific impulse imparted to a target, as given by equations 2-60, and 2-

62 and 2-63 for spherical and cylindrical charges respectively, is plotted in
figure 2-250. This experimentally derived data should not be used beyond the
distances shown on the figure. When these standoff distances are exceeded,
the specific acquired impulse may be approximated by using the normal re-
flected impulse obtained from figure 2-7.
- 324 -
II I I I I I I II I I I I II
100,000
~744
40,.4 4- -
TT
2
3ott
ow ~jf:
06R . .. .... ..
i 4!
2-18.3 Velocity of Constrained Secondary Fragments
The method used to predict initial velocities of a constrained secondary frag-

ments close to an explosion must first consider the amount of energy applied
to each fragment as well as the energy consumed in freeing the fragment from
its support. This relationship can be expressed using the conservaLon of
momentum and allowing the structural constraint to reduce the imparted
impulse, as follows:
I mV 2-65
where:
I - total impulse of the blast applied to the fragment
Ist impulse consumed by the fragment support connection
m - mass of the fragment
V = velocity of the fragment after break away
The value of Ist must be established experimentally. Based on tests, an em-

perical expression has been developed for cantilever beams subjected to close-
in effects:
ibr 2L 03
1000 [i]1/2 C1 + C 2 [ (f 1 [-] " 2-66
f A (pfT) 1 1 2 f
where:
T - toughness of material (area under the stress-strain curve)

from table 2-9
Pf = mass density of the fragment
i = unit impulse acting on The member
bf ' width of fragment exposed to the blast
Lf - length of fragment exposed to the blast
A r cross-sectional area in the plan perpendicular to the long

axis of the fragment
CI constant equal to -0.236
C 2 - constant equal to +0.3931
Equation 2-66 i. adequate for determining the fragment velocity, when:
-326 -
[_12
ibf ][2Lf]0.3
1 > o. 602 2-67
A (pfT)l 2 bf
When equation 2-67 is less the 0.602, the magnitude of the velocity is equal
to zero which indicates that disengagement of the fragment will not occur.
The constants in equation 2-66 were derived from experimental data and can
only be used for cantilevered beams of steel or aluminum.
An equation similar to that of equation 2-66 has been developed for clamped-
clamped fragments except that the value of C1 is equal to -0.6498 and C2 is
equal to 0.4358.
A plot of equation 2-66 for both cantilever and clamped-clamped fragments is

presented in figure 2-251.
Table 2-9 Steel Toughness
Steel Toughness in-lb/in3
ASTM A 36 12,000
ASTM A 441 15,000
ASTM A514 Grade F 19,000
2-19 Fragment Trajectories
Once primary fragments or secondary missiles have been formed and accelerated
by an explosion, they will move along a specific trajectory until they impact
a target (receiver), or the ground. The forces acting on the fragments and
affecting their trajectories are inertia, gravitation, and fluid dynamic
forces. The fluid dynamic forces are determined by the instantaneous velocity
of the fragment at each instant in time. Generally, fragments are quite
irregular in shape and may be tumbling, so a completely accurate description
of the fluid dynamics forces during flight is difficult, if not impossible.
In the trajectory analysis for fragment flight, one usually resorts to some
simplified description of the fluid dynamic forces, and uses the concepts from
aerodynamics of division of these forces into components called drag (along
the trajectory or normal to the gravity vector) and lift (normal to the tra-
jectory or opposing gravity). Then the force components are given at any in-
stant by:
FL - CL AL(1/2) pv2-68
and
2-69
FD - CDAD("/ 2 ) p v 2
where:
FL - lift force
-327-
0)I
TT.'
coo
-- J
4444
C.) .. ,
. 40
0
.1 -, .r
.1 . . .
* . . . 6J
Ir m I I
- I\- F II
F--ooo
Ar
1/u -
-328-1 T
FD - drag force
CL - lift coefficient
CD - drag coefficient
AL - lift area
A D - drag area
p - density of the medium through which the fragment Is traveling
v - velocity of the fragment
The lift and drag coefficients are determined empirically as a function of

shape and orientation with respect to the velocity vector, and the magnitude
of the velocity v. Fragments discussed in sections 2-17 and 2-18 are gener-
ally of chunky shape, so that CD >> CL for any flight orientation. Thus,
they are called drag-type fragments. The lift force on drag-type fragments is
very small and may be neglected.
In a simplified trajectory problem, where the fragment is considered to move

in one plane, equations of motion can be written for acceleration In the X and
Y directions.
The acceleration in the X direction (drag only) is:
AC2 2
a - AD CD Po (vx + V ) cosci 2-70
x 2
and for the Y direction (drag only):
+
ADCD PO (v2 V
ya - 1.2 X 10- 5g - 2 y sina 2-71
where:
ax , ay = acceleration in the X and Y directions, respectively
P - mass density of the medium through which the fragment travels
vx , vy - velocity in the X and Y directions, respectively

2
g - gravity force (32.2 ft./sec.
1 - mass of the fragment
a - trajectory angle
- 329 -
n: -.- .. ti r r I C-%"V%VV'W%
X- '. 1
fl ' -. '. 1U'N
N% L' A -xL
IIIIHIII I fll 1 111
Wh~l 1 Ii I IS
L it ia
1I I
q2:. IN -1- .1i I
.. I. Ii
f~~ ---- r
0 iv o
6 4'1
I'd SI.
Q)t
1144
-330- -4
Zp
00p
At t = 0:
v . v CosC O 2-72
v = v0 sina 2-73
where :
v 0 = initial velocity
a, - initial trajectory angle
The equations shown above can be solved simultaneously to eventually determine

the distance traveled by the fragment. These equations are valid for fragment
velocities up to Mach 1 for standard conditions. Figure 2-252 summarizes the
results of fragment range R for numerous sets of initial conditions for frag-
ments affected only by drag forces. It should be noted that, in this curve,
several initial trajectory angles were used in the analysis to obtain the max-
imum range R for the respective fragments. Thus, one need not know the ini-
tial trajectory angle of a fragment In order to use figure 2-252.
2-20 Introduction SHOCK WADS
The strong air blast waves and high speed fragments are the primary hazards of
accidental explosions. The exterior of a protective structure is designed
primarily for the blast pressures. In some situations, the fragments may be
just as important as the pressures in determining the configuration of a pro-
tective facility. While the contents of the structure are protected from the
direct effects of blast pressures and fragments by the structure's exterior,
the contents are subject to effects of the building's motion. These structure
motions can cause injury to personnel, damage to equipment as well as dis-
lodgement of the structure's interior components including interior parti-
tions, hung ceilings, light fixtures, ductwork, piping, electrical lines, etc.
Structure motions are caused by what is normally termed shock loads. These
are loads which cause transient or short-duration vibratory motions of the
ground surface and the structure. They do not cause significant structural
damage but instead induce motion which, as stated above, can damage the struc-
ture's interior contents.
There are two distinct types of shock loads: ground shock and air shock.
Ground shock results from the energy which is imparted to the ground by an
explosion. Some of this energy is transmitted through the ground as direct-
indiced ground shock. Both of these forms of ground shock when imparted to a
structure will cause the structure to move in both a vertical and horizontal
direction. Air shock results from the blast overpressures striking the build-
ing. Vertical, horizontal and overturning motions result from the shock Im-
pact. The vertical and overturning motions are usually not significant and
can be neglected while the horizontal motions must be considered. Large dis-
placements can result when a structure slides relative to the ground surface.
- 331 -
The net motion of the structure is a combination of the motions due to the air
induced ai direct-induced ground shock, and the air shock. Curves which de-
scribe the ground motion (acceleration versus time, velocity versus time, and
displacement versus time curves) are not readily calculated. However, these
relationships are not required since the design of protective structures to
resist shock loads is based on the peak values of the induced motion rather
than the actual motion-time relationships.
The procedures presented in this section are applicable for uniform motions.
The shock loads and resulting structure motions apply to rigid concrete struc-
tures located at the low- and intermediate-pressure design ranges. At dis-
tances corresponding to these pressures, the shock loads are uniform across
the structure. A rigid concrete structure acts as a rigid body, that is, all
components of the structure have essentially the same motion. The procedures
can be applied to structures located close to an explosion and to non-rigid
structures. However, the local effects associated with these conditions must
be accounted for in the analysis.
2-21 Ground Shock
2-21.1 Introduction
When an explosion occurs at or near the ground surface, ground shock results
from the energy imparted to the ground by the explosion. Some of this energy
is transmitted through the air in the form of air-induced ground shock and
some is transmitted through the ground as direct-induced ground shock.
Air-induced ground shock results when the air-blast shock wave compresses the
ground surface and sends a stress pulse into the underlying media. The magni-
tude and duration of the stress pulse in the ground depends on the character
of the alr-blast pulse and the ground media. Generally, the air-induced
ground motions are downward. They are maximum at the ground surface and at-
tenuate with depth. However, the presence of a shallow water table, a shallow
soil-rock interface, or other discontinuities can alter the normal attenuation
process. The properties of the incident overpressure pulse and the surface
soil layer usually determine the character of air-inauced ground shock on
aboveground structures.
Direct-induced ground shock results from the explosivt energy being transnii.-
ted directly through the ground. This motion includes both the true direct-
induced motions and cratering-induced motions. The latter generally have
longer durations and are generated by the crater formation process in crater-
ing explosions. The induced ground motion resulting from both types have a
longer duration than air-- blast-induced ground shock and the wavef -ms tend to
be sinusoidal.
The net ground shock experienced by a point on the ground surface is a combi-
nation of the air-blast-induced and direct-induced shock. The relative magni-
tudes and sequencing of the motions are functions of the media (air and soil)
through which the shock travels and the distance from the point of detonation.
At ranges close to the blast, the highly compressed air permits the air-blast-
shock front to propagate at speeds greater than the seismic velocity of the
ground. In this region, the super-selsmic region, the air blast arrives at a
given point before the direct-induced ground shock. As the air-bl.ast shock
-332-
front moves farther from the point of detonation, the shock front velocity
decreases, and the direct-induced ground shock catches and "outruns" the air
blast. This latter region is called the outrunning region. Waveforms in the
outrunning region are generally a complex combination of both types of induced
shock. The combined motion can be obtained from consideration of the arrival
time of each wave. The arrival time of the air blast is determined from the
data presented for unconfined explosions. Whereas, the arrival time of the
direct-induced ground shock can be estimated by assuming that the ground shock
travels at the seismic velocity of the ground media. The combined ground
motion in both the superseismic and outrunning region are illustrated in
figure 2-253.
2-21.2 Air Blast-Induced Ground Shock
One-dimensional wave propagation theory is used to estimate air blast-induced

ground shock. For surface structures located on ground media having uniform
properties, the expressions to define this motion take very simple forms.
Using this approach, the maximum vertical velocity at the ground surface, VV ,
can bt expressed as
P
-
V - -O 2-74
V PC~p
where
V - maximu:m vertical velocity of the ground surface
Ps0 , peak positive incident pressure (fig. 2-15)
p = mass density of the soil
C - compression wave seismic velocity in the soil

p
The mass density, p, for typical soils and rock are presented In table 2-10
while the seismic velocities are presented in table 2-11.
The maximum vertical displacement, DV, is obtained by integrating the above

expression with respect to time. The integral of the pressure with respect to
time is simply the total positive phase impulse, so that:
DV 3
1,000 pCp 2-75
where
D - maximum displacement of the ground surface
V
is - unit positive incident Impulse (fig. 2-15)
The maximum vertical acceleration, AV, is based on the assumption of a linear

velocity increase during a rise time equal. to one millisecond. The resulting
- 333 -
w,
VERTICAL VELOCITY HORIZONTAL VELOCITY
(a) SUPERSEISMIC GROUND SHOCK*
-j
U)
49
9LS-
t I
VERTICAL VELOCITY HORI ZONTAL VELOCITY
(b) OUTRUNNING GROUND SHOCK
Figure 2-253 Net ground motions produced by an explosion

at the ground surface
-334-
Table 2-10 Mass Density for Trpiol Soils and Rocks
Mass Density, p
MaterIal (
- 4 -
Loose, dry sand 1.412 x 10
4
Loose, saturated sand 1.79 x 10-
Dense, dry sand 1.65 x 10 - 4
Dense, saturated sand 2.02 x 10- 4

- 4
Dry clay 1.12 x 10
4
Saturated clay 1.65 x 10
4
Dry, sandy silt 1.57 x 10
4
Saturated, sandy silt 1.95 x 10 -
Basalt 2.56 x 10- 4
4
Granite 2.47 x 10 -
Limestone 2.25 x 10- 4

4
Sandstone 2.10 x 10 -
4
Shale 2.17 x 10 -
4
Concrete 2.25 x 10-
-335-
U
JI
Table 2-11 Typical Seits!. Veloitie for Soils and Rocks
Seismic Velocity
Naterlal
in./see
Loose and dry soils 7,200 to 39,600

Clay and wet soils 30,000 to 75,600
Coarse and compact soils 36,000 to 102,000
Sandstone and cemented soils 36,000 to 168,000
Shale and marl 72,000 to 210,000

Limestone-chalk 84,000 to 252,000
Metamorphic rocks 120,000 to 252,000
Volcanic rocks 120,000 to 270,000
Sound plutonic rocks 156,000 to 300,000
Jointed g'anite 9,600 to 180,000
Weathered rocks 24,000 to 120,000
IN
-336-
acceleration is increased by 20 percent to account for nonlinearity during the
rise time. Accelerations are expressed in multiples of the gravitational con-
stant, so that.
100 P
AV - pC 2-76
where
AV - maximum vertical acceleration of the ground surface
g gravitational constant equal to 32.2 ft/sec
The above equation is adequate for predicting the acceleration in dry soil.
However, the equation underestimates the acceleration in saturated soils and
rock. To approximate the acceleration of saturated soils and rock, it is rec-
ommended that the value of the acceleration obtained from the equation 2-76 be
doubled.
The maximum horizontal ground motions are expressed in terms of the maximum
vertical motions as a function of the seismic velocity of the soil and the
shock wave velocity, so that
DH = DV tan [sin- I (Cp/12,000 U)] 2-77
- V tan [sin- 1 (Cp

VH V p/12,000 U)] 2-78
AAH - AVptan [sin - 1 (Cp/12,000 U)] 2-79
where U - shock front velocity (fig. 2-15).
For (Cp/12,000 U) greater than one, horizontal and vertical motions are
approximately equal. Therefore, it is recommended that for all values of the
above function greater than one, the horizontal motion is set equal to the
calculated vertical motion.
The equations which describe the air-induced ground shock are a function of
the density and seismic velocity of the soil. However, a wide range of seis-
mic velocities is given in table 2-11 for each of the soils listed. In a
final design, soil tests are required to accurately determine the density and
seismic velocity of the particular soil at the site. In lieu of tests, the
mass density given in table 2-10 may be used. However, since the range of
seismic velocities given table 2-11 is so large, it Is recommended that the
lower bound value of the velocity be used to produce a conservative estimate
of the induced motion.
- 337 -
I
2-21.3 Direct-Induced Ground NoIon
Empirical equations have been developed to predict direct-induced ground mo-

tions. The equations apply for TNT detonations at or near the ground surface.
Three types of ground media have been considered; dry soil, saturated soil and
rock. The ground shock parameters are expressed in terms of the charge weight
and distance from the explosion.
The maximum vertical displacement, Dv , of the ground surface for a rock media
i given ny
1 3 1
0.025 RG / W /3
DV . 3 2-80
in which
ZG - W 2-81
where
RG - ground distance from the explosion
W - weight of TNT charge
Z = scaled distance from the axplosL-:.
and the maximum horizontal displacement, DH of the ground surface is equal to

one-half of the maximum vertical displacement or
D - 0.5 D 2-82
H V
When the ground media consists of either dry or saturated soil, the maximum
vertical displacement is given by
0.17 RG
DV " 2.3 2-83
ZG
while the maximum horizontal displacement DH is equal to the maximum vertical
displacement or,
D a D 2-84
H V
The maximum vertical velocity, VV , for all ground media is given by
VV V= 1.5
150 2-85
G1
- 338-
I I.
14
Id
and the maximum horizontal velocity, VH, is equal to the maximum vertical
velocity for all ground media or
vH - v V 2-86
Finally, the maximum vertical acceleration, AV' of the ground surface ror all
media is given by
10,000
-1W/3 ZG2 2-87
V
while for dry soll, the maximum horizontal acceleration, AH, is equal to one-
half of the maximum vertical acceleration, or
AM -0.5 AV 2-88
however, for a wet soil or a rock media, the horizontal and vertical accelera-
tion is equal, or
A - A 2-89
H V
2-22 Air Shock
2-22.1 Introduction
When an air blast strikes an above. ound protective structure, motions are im-
parted to the building. The most jevere motion is due to the response of the
individual elements which make up the exterior shell of the structure. Proce-
dures for the design of these elements are presented in subsequent volumes of
this manual. This section is concerned with the gross motion of the structure
on its supporting soil due to the impact of the air blast. This gross motion
is in addition to the ground induced motions.
Vertical, horizontal and overturning motions are imparted to the structure by

the air blast. However, since the vertical motion of the structure Is re-
stricted by the ground which is already compressed due to the dead load of the
structure and its contents, vertical motions must necessarily be small and can
be safely neglected. Overturning motions are also neglected in this section.
These motions are most significant in tall structures with small plan dimen-
sions which are not comTmon in protective construction. This section is con-
cerned solely with horizontal sliding motions which can be quite significant.
Horizontal motion results from an unbalanced blast load acting on the struc-
ture. The tendency of the structure to slide is resisted by the friction
forces developed tetween the foundation and the underlying soil. For struc-
tures with deep foundations, additional resistance to sliding is afforded by
active ana passive soil pressures developed at the leeward side of the struc-
tur e.
- 339 -
I
2-22.2 Method of Analysis
The gross horizontal motion of a structure Is computed in this manual using a

method of numerical integration, namely, the acceleration-impulse extrapola-
tion method. This method of dynamic analysis is comprehensively presented in
Volume III. Briefly, the equation of motion for a single-degree-of-freedom
system is given as
F - R - D a Ma 2-90
where
F applied blast load as a function of time
R = resistance of the system to motion as a function of displacement
D : damping force as a function of velocity
M mass of the sngle-degree-of-.freedom system
a acceleration of the system
The num,erical method of solving the equation c- -otion involves a step-by-step

integration procedure. The integration is . v-i I at time zero where the dis-
placement and velocity are known to be zero. .he time scale is divided into
smli intervals. The values of F, R and M () is not included) are calculated
for each time step. The integration is started by first approximating the
acceleration for the first time interval and progresses by successively calcu-
lating the acceleration at each time step. The change in velocity and dis-
placement associated with each incremental acceleration is calculated. The
accumulated velocity and displacement is obtained for each time step until the
maximunm values have been obtained. %
The first step in the analysis is to describe the blast loads acting on the b.
structure. The pressure-time variation of the blast load is computed as the I,
shock front sweeps across the structure. The unbalanced load In the horn-
ital direction is computed as a function of the blast loads acting on the
,'ont and back walls (windward and leeward walls), respectively. The average
blast loaa action of the roof of the structure is computed as the shock front
traverses the building. The procedure used to describe these loading condi-
tions have been presented in previous sections of this volume.
The second step in the problem is the determination of the resistance of the
building to horizontal motion. The tendency of the base of the structure to
slide is resisted by friction forces on the foundation and earth pressure at
the rear (leeward side) of the structure. For structures with sh-illow founda-
tions, the resistance to sliding is afforded primarily by friction between the %
horizontal surfaces of the concrete foundation and underlying soil. The earth
pressure resistance at the rear of the structure Is small and can be conserva-
tively neglected. For structures with deep foundations, the passive pressure
at the rear of the structure is significant and greatly reduces the displace-
ment of the building. P
Trie friction force developed between the horizontal surfaces of the concrete "I
foundation ,nd underlying soil is given by
- 340 -
/.e.
Ff - pF 2-91
where
Ff - frictional force resisting horizontal motion
- coefficient of friction between concrete and type of
supporting soil
FN - vertical load supported by the foundation
The coefficient of friction, 1, for the horizontal surface between the con-
crete foundation aid the underlying soil is given in Table 2-12 for various
types of soil. The coefficient Is not a function of time or displacement.
However, the structure must slide a finite amount before the frictional force
is generated. The structure should slide approximately one-quarter of an inch
before the frictional force is taken into account.
Tne vertical load, FN supported by the foundation consists of the dead weight
of the structure, the weight of the building's interior contents, and the
blast load acting on the roof of the structure. Since the blast load is a
function of time, the building's resistance to sliding (frictional force Ff)
is also a function of time. In addition, the blast load acting on the roof
greatly increases the foundation loads, and consequently, significantly in-
creases the building's resistance to sliding.
2-23 Strueture Motions
2-23.1 Introduction
The net motion of a structure is a combination of the motions due to the air-
induced and direct-induced ground shgck, and the air shock. Since the methods
of analysis described in this section are applicable to rigid concrete struc-
tures located at comparatively large distances from an explosion, the struc-
ture motions are taken equal to the ground motions in the vicinity of the
building. In the case of air shock, the structure motions are computed
directly.
The motion of structures located at comparatively close distances to an ex-

plosion as well as the motion of non-rigid s.ructures may be determined. How-
ever, the local effects associated with these conditions such as motions due
to cratering, fragment impact, etc. must be accounted for in the dtermination
of the structure motions.
2-23.2 Net Ground Shock
The net ground shock associated with an accidental explosion is a combination

of the air-induced and direct-induced ground shock. The time at which the
shock Is felt at adjacent structures and the magnitude and duration of the mo-
tion is a function of the quantity of explosives detonating, the absolute dis-
tance between the detonation and adjacent structure and the soil media at the
site.
- 341 -
The air-induced ground shock is a function of the air blast. Consequently,
the arrival time and duration of the ground shock may be taken equal to the
arrival time tA and duration t o of the air blast. For an explosion occurring
at or near the ground surface, the arrival time and duration are obtained from
figure 2-15 for the scaled ground distance ZG between the explosion and the
structure. Figure 2-15 provides the blast parameters associated with the det-
onation of hemispherical TNT charge located on the ground surface.
The direct-Induced ground shock is a function of the soil media. The arrival
time of the shock load at the structure is a function of the seismic velocity
in the soil and the distance from the explosion. The arrival time is ex-
pressed as
t 12,OOOR G 2-92
AG C
p
where t = arrival time of the ground shock
R - ground distance from the explosion
Cp - compression wave seismic velocity in the soll (table 2-il)
As previously explained, the seismic velocity of the soil should be obtained

from soil tests for a final design. In lieu of tests, it Js recommended that
the entire range of velocities given in table 2-11 be investigated to deter-
mine if the direct-induced ground shock can be in phase with the air-induced
ground shock.
The actual duration of the shock load is not readily available. However, it
is sufficient to realize that the duration is long, that is, many times larger
than the duration of the air-induced shock.
The net ground shock is obtained from consideration of the arrival time and
duration of each type of induced shock. If tA + t is less than tAG, the
structure is subjected to superseismic ground shock (fig. 2-253). The air
induced ground shock arrives at the structure first and is dissipated by tne
time that the direct-induced ground shock arrives. The structure feels the
effect of each shock separately. If tA is greater than tAG, the structure is
subjected to outrunning ground shock (fig. 2-253). The direct-induced ground ,p
shock arrives at the structure first and, since its duration is long, the air-
induced ground shock will arrive at the structure while the direct-induced
ground shock is still acting. The structure feels the combined effects of the
induced shocks. If t is slightly less than tAG and tA + to is greater
than tAG, -he air-induced ground shock will still be acting when the direct-
induced ground shock arrives. For design purposes, this latter case should be
treated as an outrunning ground shock.
- 342-
7,
Table 2-12 Coefficient or Friction for Concrete Foundation
and Underlying Soils
Soil Material Coefficient of

Friction, p
Clean sound rock 0.70
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, coarse sand 0.55 to 0.60
Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse

sand, silty or clayey gravel 0.45 to 0.55
Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 0.35 to 0.45
Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.30 to 0.35
Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 0.40 to 0.50
Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 0.30 to 0.35
- 343 -
2-23.3 Maximum Structure Motion
The design of protective structures to resist the effect of shock loads is

based on the peak values of the Induced motion rather than the actual motion-
Itime relationships. In fact, the actual time history of the motion is not
known nor can it be approximated with any degree of accuracy. Consequently,
the phasing ofpL the various shocks cannot be accomplished accurately. There-
fore, for design purposes the peak values of the in-phase motions are added.
For the case of air-induced ground shock and air shock, the maximum values of
horizontal displacement, velocity and acceleration are always added. These
shock motions must be in phase since they are caused by the same source,
namely, the air blast.
In the case of superseismic ground shock where the air-induced and direct-
induced ground shock are completely separated, the maximum motion may be due
to either source. The maximum value of displacement, velocity or acceleration
is the numerically larger value regardless of its source.
b In the case of outrunning ground, the structure motion results from the com-
bined effect of the air-induced and direct-induced ground shock as well as the
air shock. The maximum motions in the vertical and horizontal direction is
the algebraic sum of the maximum value of displacement, velocity and accelera-
tion from each source of motion in the vertical and horizontal directions.
2-24 Shock Response Spectra
2-24.1 Introduction
For the purposes of assessing the effects of shock on structures, one of the
simplest interpretations of motion duta involves the concept of the response
spectrum. A response spectrum is a plot of the maximum response of a simple
linear oscillator subjected to a given input motion against frequency. Hence,
a response spectrum depicts only maximum response values, not a time-dependent
history of the motion of the oscillator. The use of these maximum values is
sufricient to insure a reasonable and safe design for shock loads.
2-214.2 Definition of Shock Spectra Grid
Response spectra are constructed from consideration of the response of a

Iimple linear oscillator. For a protective structure subjected to shock
loads, a piece of equiment or any interior component can be considered as the
mass of a simple oscillator. The load-deflection properties of the structural
system which connects the component to the protective structure determines the
spring constant of the
a responsespectrum oscillator.
dpicts onl maximu repnevlent- iedpnet
The maximum displacement of the nass (building component) relative to the base
(prttective structure) is called the spectrum displacement, D, and the maximum
acceleration of the mass is called the spectrum acceleration, A. The maximum
velocity of the mass s approximately equal to the more useful quantity called
the spectrum pseudo-velocity, V, which is given byp
V =2 !fD 2-93
34a'
where V - velocity of the mass
f - natural frequency of vibration of the oscillator
D - displacement of the mass
For an undamped system, the displacement and acceleration are related by
A - 387 2Dg
(21f) 29
2- 9 4
where A - acceleration of the mass in g's

g - gravitational constant
When damping is present, the above relationship between acceleration and dis-
placement is approximate. However, the relationship may still be used to
develop shock spectra.
Plots of the three quantities, displacement D, velocity V, and acceleration A,

against frequency f, are then shock spectra. They may be plotted individually
or, more conveniently, on a single plot by means of the type of chart shown in
figure 2-254. Any point on this logarithmic grid represents a simultaneous
solution to equations 2-93 and 2-94. The log-log grid must be proportioned to
satisfy the solution of the equations. The grid is constructed from standard
log-log paper on which a second log-log grid is superimposed and rotated 45
degrees. The width of a log cycle on this rotated grid is 0.707 times the
width of a cycle on the standard grid.
2-24.3 Response Spectra
A response spectrum is a plot of the maximum response of a single-degree-of-

freedom system to a given input motion. The given input motion is the air
shock, and the air-induced and direct-induced ground shocks. Since the maxi-
mum values of the free-field displacement, velocity and acceleration (input
motion) are used to construct the spectra, a response spectrum envelope is
produced. The spectrum takes a trapezoidal shape and is shown on figure 2-254
by the lines labeled D, V and A. The three sides of this trapezoid can be re-
lated to the maximum free-field input motion parameters of displacement,
velocity and acceleration.
Relationships between the spectrum envelope bounds and the characteristics of

the time dependent free-field input motions (displacements, velocities, and
accelerations) clearly indicate that as the variation of the free-field motion
parameters versus time is defined, the definition of the corresponding spec-
trum envelope can be refined. However, in the general case of blast-induced
motions, the variation of the input motions with time cannot visually be de-
scribed in significant detail. Consequently, it is recomended that for the
elastic response of sysLems, the spectrum be defined by the following three
straight lines as illustrated in figure 2-254.
- 345-
'r.-I C V-\ -L
,x)
W\ IN vVILN 1
N, N,
W <
0 N
IL -i
x w X
> 14 L
puo~c ~a SJ~U!A11013AflfI~iIVCc
-346-
(1) Line "D" is drawn parallel to lines of constant displacement
with a magnitude equal to the maximum free-field (building)
displacement.
(2) Line "V" is drawn parallel to lines of constant velocity

(actually pseudo velocity) with a magnitude equal to one and
one-half (1.5) times the maximum free-field (building) veloc-
ity.
(3) Line "A" is drawn parallel to lines of constant acceleration

with a magnitude equal to two (2) times the maximum free-field
(building) acceleration.
A spectrum defined in this manner is clearly an approximation, however, its

accuracy is considered to be consistent with the accuracy of the input free-
field (building) motions on which it is based. In those cases where the input
" - motion3 can be defined with greater confidence, the spectrum identified above
*. can be defined to reflect the greater accuracy.
In most cases, interior components of the structure and/or equipment and

equipment supports are designed elastically. Therefore, the shock spectra
described above will suffice. However, when a very large explosion causes
large structure motions, interior systems may require inelastic designs.
These conditions will usually not arise for the charge capacities considered
in this report. Therefore, methods for calculating inelastic shock spectra
have not been presented. It is recommended that the bibliography given at the
end of this volume be con3ulted for further data on this subject.
347 -
APPENMX 2A. EXPLOSIVE EFFECTS-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Problem 2A-I. Free-Air Burst
Problem: Determine incident blast wave parameters for a point of interest

in the air for a free air burst.
Procedure:
Step 1. Determine the charge weight and height of burst He . Select point
of interest in the air relative to the charge.
Step 2. Apply a 20% safety factor to the charge weight.
Step 3. For the point of interest,

slant distance Z:
11 3
calculate slant distance R and seailed
IW
Z =
Step 4. Determine incident blast wave parameters from figures 2-7 and 2-8
for the calculated value of the scaled slant distance Z.
From figure 2-7 read:
Peak positive incident pressure Pso
Shock front velocity U
Scaled unitScaled
positive incident impulse i /W1 /3
Scaled positive phase duration t /W 1 /3

0
1 3
Scaled arrival time t/W
Scaled wave length of positive phase L /W I I' 3

W
From figure 2-8 Read: I'.
Peak negative incident pressure Ps

I1 3
Scaled unit negative incident impulse i-/W
Scaled negative phase duration t-IWl / 3

0
/
Scaled wave length of negative phase L-
W /W
Multiply scaled values by to obtain absolute value s.
344
Example 2A-1. Free-Air BurstI
Required: Incident blast wa ve parameters P30 . P33, U, is

i- t0* t-, at a point 30 ft. below and 4J5 ft. away in
L-
8 0 APw
the air from an air burst of 290 lbs. at a height of burst of 60
ft. above the ground.
350 lbs
00
46- 0"POINT OF
X 5~O INTEREST
Figure 2A-1
Solution:
Step 1. Given: Charge weight - 290 lbs., HC 60 ft.

Step 2. W - 1.2 (290) - 350 lbs.
Step 3. For the point of interest:

R - (4(5)
2 (30) )12 - 54J.1 ft.
.5.1
R -7.67 ft./lb. 1/3
W1/3 (350)1/3
Step J4. Determine incident blast wave parameters for
Z -7.67 ft./lbl1/3
350j
From figure 2-7:
P 11.2 psi
U - 1.34 ft./ms
,' 1/ 3 1/3 3 - 49.3 psi-ms
1/3/ * 7.0 psi-ms/lb.
1/ Is 70(51/o
Is3.145
0
t 0W -. 2.05 ms/lb.1" 3 , t 0- 2.05 (350)1/3 - 14,45 ms.
t 1/wl3 1/ 1'3 2.2m

t WA/ 1/3 3.15 ms /l b. / 3 t 3. 15 (350 ) ' 31 22.2 ms
3 - 1 3 14.09 ft
Lw/ W1/ 2.0 ft/lb. , Lw -
From figure 2-8:

P - - i.E3 psi
so
/313
i-/W / 3 - 7.2 psi-ms/lb. /3, 1 - 7.2 (350) 1/3 50.74 psi-ms

s 3
to/WI / 3 - 8.4 ms/1b W 3, t- - 8.4 (350)1/3 . 59.20 ms

o 0
L-/W - 5.8 ft/lb 1"3 , L-w - 5.8 (350) /3= 40.87 ft.
w
Problem 2A-2. Air Burst
parameters at a point on the IN

Problem: Determine free-field blast wave
ground for an air burst.
Procedure:
to the charge.
Step 1. Select point of interest on the ground relative
H., and ground
Determine the charge weight, height of burst
distance RG.
a:
Step 3. Calculate scaled height of burst and angle of incidence
Hc/W1/3
---- ---- --- ---- ---

---- --- ---
a- tan- 1 ( G/Hc) ,R
Step 4. Determine peak reflected pressure Pra and scaled unit positive
reflected impulse irc /Wi1/3 in Mach front from figures 2-9 and 2-
10, respectively, for corresponding scaled height of burst and
angle of incidence o:
3
Read Pr and Ir /W I /
Multiply scaled value by W 1/ 3 to obtain absolute value.
Step 5. Read scaled distance Z from figure 2-7 for corresponding peak
incident pressure P " P in the Mach front.
Step 6. Determine shock front velocity U and scaled time of arrival of

1 3
blast wave tA/W / from figure 2-7 for value Z from step 5.
Multiply scaled value of W 1 / 3 to obtain absolute value.
Step 7. Read scaled dibtlance Z from figure 2-7 for corresponding scaled
unit positive 1'.:dunt 13 I1 3
Impulse i 1WI I /W in the Mach
front.
Step 8. Determine scaled positive duration of positive phase from figure

2-7 for the value of Z from step 7.
Multiply scaled value of W 1/ 3 to obtain absolute value.
Example 2A-2. Air Burst
Required: Free-field blast wave parameters Pso' U, i , to, tA for an air

burst of 20,800 lbs. at a ground distance of 300 ft. and a height
of burst of 90 ft.
Solution :
Step 1. Given: Charge weight - 20,800 lb. R - 300 ft, H - 90 ft.
Step 2. W - 1.20 (20,800) - 25,000 lbs.
352
w 25,000 P
Raz550'
Figure 2A-2
Step 3. For point of interest

/3
/3 90/(25,00)/3- 3.08 ft/lb1
1 RG -
an [] - tan1 [10-0] - 7330
Step 4. Determine reflected pressure P and reflected impulse in the

Mach front from figure 2-9 and 2-10.
H /W1/3 - 3.08 ft/lb.1
/3 and a - 7330
P - 10.1 psi
ira _ 9.2 psi-ms/lb. 1 /3 , i _ 9.2 (25,000)1/3 29 p-269.0

p-ms
W 1/3
distance Z from figure 2-7 corresponding to

Step 5. Read scaled
Pso Pr " 10.1 psi
11 3
Z = 7.8 ft/lb
7.8
Step 6. Determine
ft/lb. U and tA/W /3 from figure 2-7 corresponding to Z -
U = 1.38 ft/ms
1
W/3 13
- 300 Ms/lb
1 1 3 tA 300 (25,000)1 8772.05 ms.
tW
353
Step 7. Read scaled distance Z from Fig. 2-7 corresponding to
1 3 1/3
13
i /W I i rIW / . 9.2 psi-mslb
1/ 3
Z = 5.7 ft/lb
Step 8. Determine t 0 /W 1 / 3
from Figure 2-7 corresponding to
113
Z = 5.7 ft/lb
1 3 / 3
tW / 155ml I / 3 0O)
- 155 , to -
,s/lb 155(25,000)1 - 4532.23 ms
Problem 2A-3. Surface Burst
Problem: Determine free-field blast wave parameters for a surface burst.
Procedure:
Step 1. Select point of interest on the ground relative to the charge.

Determine the charge weight, and ground distance RG
Step 3. Calculate scaled ground distance ZG

RG '-
G 1
1/3
Step 4. Determine free-field blast wave parameters from figure 2-15 for
corresponding scaled ground distance ZG:
Read:
Peak positive incident, pressure Pso

so
Shock front velocity U

I/ 3 .
Scaled unit positive incident impulse is/W
Scaled positive phrase duration t /W I/ 3
Scaled arrival time t A/W 1 /3
Multiply scaled values by W1 / 3 to obcain absolute values.
354 1.
.5
I I I 1
Exanple 2A-3. Surface Burst
Required: Free-field blast wave parameters P8 o, U, is, t tA for a sur-

face burst of 20,600 lbs at a distance of 530 ft.
Solution:
Step 1: Given: Charge weight - 20,800 lb. RG - 530 ft.
'7.ep 2. W - 1.20 (20,800) - 25,000 Ibs.
Step 3. For poinc of interest:
I / 3
ZG - 530 - 18.1 ft/lb
Wl/3 (25,000)1/3
StE 4. Determine blast wave parameters from figure 2-15 for

/ 3
7.G 18.1 ft/lbl
G
P o 3.45 psi
U - 1.22 ft/ms
3
- 4.7 psi-ms/lb, i o4.7(25,000)1/3 -1 37 . 4 psi-ms
t
1/3 0 - 3.3(25,000'1/3 96.5 ms
W A_-3 - 10.6 msllbl, 3 tA - 10.6(25,000)1/3 - 310 ms
Problem 2.A-4 Shook Loads on Cubicle Walls
rober: Determine the aAerage peak reflected pressur- and average scaled
rfflected impulse acting on the wall of a cubicle from an internal
explosion. The cubice is fully vented.
355
Procedure:
Step 1. Select from figure 2-51 the structural configuration which will
define the number N and location of effective reflecting surfaces
for the wall of the structure In question. Determine the charge
weight, and, as defined by the structural configurat:c.n choser
above, the charge location parameters RA, h, 9 and the structural
parameL..rs L, H.

h i L N7
Step 3. Calculate the chart parameters , and
I the scaled distance
ZA " A
Note:
Use of the average pressure and impulse charts may require inter-
polation in many cases. Interpolation may be achieved by inspec-
tion for the scaled distance ZA and by a graphical procedure for
the chart parameters L/H, k/L, and h/H -z'.g 2 cycle x 2 cycle
logarithmic graph paper. The following procedure will illustrate
the interpolation of all three chart .;ameters.
Step 4. From table 2-3 determine the appropV iace pressure and impulse Z
charts for the number of adjacent reflecting surfaces N. Deter- %
mine and tabulate the values of the average pressure Pr and
average scaled impulse i /W 1 / 3 from these charts for the required

L/RA and ZA and the following variables:
L/H - 0.625, 1.25, 2.50, and 5.00
E/L = 0.1", 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75
h/H - 0.10, 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75
Step 5. a. Prepare four 2-cycle log-log charts with - as the lower ab-
H
scissa, i as the upper abscissa, and Pr as the ordinate (one
h
chart for each of the H ratios). On each chart for constant
h L.
and ZA, plot ib versus H-for all 1 values. Repeat with
the ordinate labeled as I /W 1 / 3
r
b. Using chart for h 0.10, read values of P and i /W1/
z r r"
versus E for required H . Tabulate results.
356
h
o. Repeat step 3b for charts H- 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75.
Tabulate results.
h 9.
d. On each h chart, plct P and 1 /W 1 / 3
versus - from steps 5b
r r L
and 5c. H
e. On each - chart, read P and I /W 1/ 3 for required ratio. -

H r r L
f On a 11
/3
fifth chart, plot P and i r from step 5e versus
h r r
Step 6. For required h

q ratio, read P and I /W1/3 from chart of step 5f.
Step 7. Calculate duration of load on element from equation 2-2.
Example 2A-I (A) Shock Loada on Cubicle Walls
Required: Average peak reflected pressure and average scaled refleoted im-
pulse on the side wall of a three-wall cubicle from an explosive
charge of 205 lbs. The cubicle is fully vented.
'2
SIDE WALL E
W: 245 ,bs. - I-
L2 -
%
SECTION
V PLAN
Figure 2A-3
Solut ion:
Step 1. H - 16 ft. L - 32 ft. Charge Weight - 205 lbs.

h - 6 ft. i.- 12 ft. R - 5.33 ft.
I'.!
357
Note:
For definition of terms, see figure 2-51 (side wall of three wall
cubicle, N - 2).
Step 2. W - 1.20 (205) - 245 lbs.

h i L L
Step3. -0.375 E=0. 3 7 5 RA - 6.00 2.00
5_33 0.85 ft/lb 1/3

wRA
_ _
(245)1/ 3
Interpolation is required for ZA, j, j, and
Step 4. Determine and tabulate the values of Pr and i r lW1 / 3 from pressure
and impulse charts (see table 2-3 for N - 2) for:
LIRA a 6.00, ZA - 0.85
(interpolate by inspection) and for values given for L/H, /L and

h/H. The results are tabulated in tables 2A-1 and 2A-2.
Step 5. a. Plot Prarid I r/W versus for the values of /L and con-
stant h/H (fig. 2A-4 and 2A-5).
1/ 3 orL hI
b. Determine P and
k I1W for - 2.00, - 0.10, and
L various
-L ratios by entering figure 2A-4a and 2A.-Sa with H 20
2.00
C. Repeat above step fo, - 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 by entering

figures 2A-4b through d and 2A-5b through d with - 2.00
(tabulation of results not shown). H
d. On eaci h/h chart, P and I /W 1/3 (steps 5b and 5c)

plot
r r
versus E/L (upper abscissa of rigurez 2A-4a through d and
2A-5a through d).
e. Determine P and i /W1/3 r') 0.375 on each h/ chart OfV

%X
r r
figures 2A-4 and 2A-5 wit - 0.375 anC reading curve-3
plotted in step 5d.
M
3511
,P
* ~ t 0Y . t0
m -7 CY) N
- - 'o LN
K-'
N~ C Cf' ' D' -

(D L' - M !C-L
"
o -
t0 co 0
CoC V u No '
C--- 00 % N'
It-'
K-i - 3 %1) '. --r I\
'0 M (NC\1 . cX
o 'O C',
I
%0' OCoC -
P
- CO Co N j '. o
U-N 0, tn
c- C\. 0 C C-n
0 U'C ) 0'
L0 C
- C) N
C'.j
N if.-~ - C.-
*35 X. 0 w
LA co
t.- 0, 0 LA a, (\
0-
o. G
MA 0
'70 0'. m
-LA t-- 0 Lr
o - - AN
0-
N L- C
0% m 0 - N
in C 0%
* ~r
.L--- ,L
00 o% M~
'D CO = -%
00LA
C N '
Q-0
-- 1
NN o" 0
01360
4.1r
614 I II
_00
00
00.
4K4
ok!..
T Iv
*~ V ~'3 nI~nS
SW l
It nU p
IQI
L 0J
Sc '3unfSSUd ISd '3wnfSS3Nd

COd
d
Iq H . . I d I11t
El'0
if.:;
iii.h
1%4
..
1 11: -t'--.
.... I.....
-P ..- -i-
21..-.-
-i H
Lfl7VJ'2 .
8I
II p
vH1
;
in In~ 0I
....
.... LL W~4. ih P
i :4 --
61 Vwx 1'
e) in
0 U~o3I2
h/H Pr !r/Wl 3
0.10 1550 109

0.25 1660 119
0.50 1860 108
0.75 1880 95
h
f. Plot P and i /W 1/ 3
(step 5e) versus - (fig. 2A-7).
r r H
Step 6. For = 0.375 read P = 1800 psi on figure 2A-7'and read
H r
ir/W1 /3 _ 115 psi-ms/lb I/ 3
on figure 2A-7
Step 7. Calculate duration of load on wall.
3
t - 2(ir /Wl )(W) /3 /Pr - 2 (115) (245)I/3/1800 - 0.80 ms
Example 2A-'(b). Shock IAoads on Cubicle Walls
Required: Average peak reflected pressure and average scaled reflected im-
pulse on the back wall of a three-wall cubicle from an explosive
charge of 3,750 lbs. The cubicle is fully vented and shown in
figure 2A-6.
Solution:
Step 1. H 16 ft. L - 36 ft.. Charge weight - 3,750 ls.

h - 4 ft. i - 9 ft. RA 16.5 ft.
Note:
For definition of terms, see figure 2-51 (back wall of three-wall
cubicle, N = 3).
Step 2. W - 1.20 (3,750) 4,500 lbs.
N
Ste 3.
h tL L .
SteP 3 0.25 L 0.25 - - 2.18 - . 2.25
HL RA H
363
VI
!
BACKWALL
W5 3750Olb& 9
36' 1
PLAN SECTION
II
FIGURE 2A-6
34
,2I
*7 7
I 000- -T
700.2 3 l 1 . LL
1 . .3 .375 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8.9
h/H
(a)
200 N
157.
_ _ _... .....
- 1 ~
70 .3 .37
h/H p
(b)
R /A 4. 0 L/H =2.0
L/R 6.a P/L =0.375
Z/A z0.85 h/H : 0.375
FIGURE 2A-7
365
RA ----- 16.5 1 ft/lb /3
1 -
ZA w /3 (4,500)1/3
Interpolation is required for
3
Step 4. Determine the values of Pr and ir/Wl/ from figures 2-84 and 2-133
(determined from table 2-3 for N - 3, h/H - 0.25, t/L - 0.25) for
L ratios of 0.625, 1.25, 2.50
and 5.00.
3
Step 5. Plot Pr and Ir/W1/ versus (fig. 2A-8).
psi-ms/lb1 /
1 3 3
Step 6. For L - 2.25 read, P - 3700 psi and i /W / - 295
H r r
and on figure 2A-8.
Step 7. Calculate duration of load on wall (equation 2-2).
t - 2(i r/W1/3) W 1/ 3 /Pr - 2 (295) (4500)1/3/3700 - 2.63 ms
Problem 2A-5 Effect of Frangibility on Shock Loads
Problem: Determine average p ik reflected pressure and average reflected

Impulse acting on t., wall of a cubicle due to an internal ex-
plosion. One of t' ,eflection surfaces is a frangible wall.
Procedure:
Step 1. Determine the average peak reflected pressure Pr and the average
reflected impulse acting on the element in question according to
the procedure in problem 2A-4 assuming that the adjoining fran-
gible element will remain In n 1ace and provide full reflection.
Step 2. Determine the average reflected impulse acting on the element in

question according to the procedure in problem 2A-4 assuming that
the adjoining frangible element is not in place.
Step 3. Subtract the average impulse determined in step 2 from the one in
step 1.
366
0 ,0
Pbb
.. .......
.... . . .. . .
56?
I....
....
14
1,000
E/ 02
TOO .11
500~~Z ....... 0
FIGURE- A----I
367b
300 ...
Step 4. Calculate unit weight of the frangible element WF and divide by
the sixth root of the charge weight (apply a 20% factor of safety
to the charge weight).
Step 5. Calculate the normal scaled distance Z between the center of the
charge and the surface of the frangible element.
Step 6. Determine the reflection factor fr from figure 2-150 for the val-
ues of WF/W1/ 6 from step 4 and Z from step 5. Interpolate for
value of Z If required.
Step 7. Determine the magnitude of the impulse load reflected frcm the
frangible element to the element in question by multiplying the
value of the average impulse from step 3 and fr from step 6.
Step 8. a. Determine the total impulse load acting on the element in

question by adding the impulse values from steps 2 and 7.
b. The peak average reflected pressure of the shock load is

equal to the value of Pr in step 1.
c. Determine the duration of the load from equation 2-2.
Example 2A-5 Effect or Frangibility on Shock Loads
Required: Average peak reflected pressure and average reflected impulse on

the back wall of the cubicle described in example 2A-4B except the
left side wall is a 10 psf frangible element. The charge weight
is 3,750 lbs (see figure 2A-6).
Solution
Step I. Assuming the frangible side wall provides full reflection of the
blast wave, Pr and ir for the back wall according to the procedure
probl)r;, 2A-4 are:
.,in
Pr - 3700.0 p.i
ir = 4870.3 psi.-ms
Step 2. Assuming no left 3ide wall, the average reflectea impulse on the
back wall, according to procedure in problem 2A--4 is:
r -3962.3 psi-me
Step 3. Calculate the reflected impulse contributed by the le"'t side wall
by subtracting tre Impulse value of step 2 from step 1.
.l r - 4870.3- 3962,3 908.0 psi-ms

r
368
Step 4. 2
a. WF - 10 lb/ft (given)
b. W - 3,750 x 1.20 - 4,500 lbs
c. Calculate WF/W1/1/6 ratio:
WF/W/ 6 - 10/(4500)I1/6 - 2.46
Step 5. a. R - 9.0 feet

I (see figure 2A-6)
b. Calculate normal scale distance Z:
R 91/
z R
W 1/3.
0)
(4500)1/
0.545 ft/lbs
6
Step 6. From figure 2-150 where WF/W1/ - 2.46 and Z - 0.545 read:
fr - 0.68
Step 7. Determine the magnitude of the impulse reflected from the fran-
gible left side wall, using fr - 0.68 and the impulse from step 3.
ir (left side wall) - 908 (0.68) - 617.4 psi-ms
Step 8. a. Calculate total reflected impulse on the back wall by adding

impulse values from steps 2 and 7.
ir (back wall) - 3962.3 + 617.4 - 4579.7 PsI-ms
b. Peak reflected pressure from step 1:
- 3700 psi
C. Calculate duration of load on wall:

21
Sr -2 (4579.7) 2.48 ms
o " r 3700
I
Problem 2A-6 Shock Loads on Frangible Elements
Problem: Determine the average peak reflected pressure and average re-
flected impulse acting on the frangible wall of a cubicle due to
an internal explosion.
369
C.
I
Procedure:
Step 1. Determine the average peak reflected pressure Pr and the average
reflected impulse acting on the element in question according to
the procedure in problem 2A-4, assuming that the wall will remain
intact.
Step 2. Calculate the unit weight of the frangible element WF and divide
by the sixth root of the charge weight (apply a 20% factor of
safety to the charge weight).
Step 3. From figure 2-7 determine the fictitious scaled distance Z which
corresponds to the average scaled impulse determined in step 1.
Step 4. Using the value of W /W1 / 6 from step 2 and the Z from step 3, de-
F
termine the reflection factor fr from figure 2-150. Interpolate
for value of Z if required.
Step 5. a. Calculate the value of the average impulse contributinig to

the translation of the frangible element by multiplying the
values of ir and fr of steps I and 4 respectively.
b. The peak average reflected pressure of the shock load is

equal to the value of Pr in step 1.
c. Determine the duration of the load from equation 2-2.
Example 2A-6 Shook Loads on Frangible Elements
Required: Average peak reflected pressure and average scaled reflected im-
pulse on the back wall of the cubicle described in example 2A-4
except the back wall is a 10 psf frangible wall. The charge
weight is 3,750 lbs (see figure 2A-6).
Solution:
Step 1. P and ir for the back wall, assuming it is a rigid element,

according to procedure in problem 2A-4 are:
P = 3700.0 psi
r
1 1 3
i /W 1/- 295.0 psi-ms/lb
r
ir - 4870.3 psi-ms
370
2
Step 2. a. WF - 10.0 lb/ft (given)
b. W - 3,750 x 1.20 - 4,500 lbs
c. Calculate WF/W1/6 ratio:
W / 6 - (14500)1/6
= 2.46
i/3
Step 3. Read the fictitious scaled-distance Z corresponding to ir/W =
295 from figure 2-7.
11 3
Z - 0.82 ft/lb
Step 4. From figure 2-150 where WF/W1/ 6 . 2.46 and Z - 0.82 read:
f - 0.74
r
Step 5. a. Calculate reflected impulse on the frangible back wall by
multiplying the value of impulse from step 1 and fr = 0.74
ir (frangible back wall) - 4870.3 (0.74) - 3604.0 psi-ms
b. Peak reflected pressure from step 1.
P - 3700 psi
c. Calculate duration of load on wall.
21
t 0 . Pr r = 2 (3604.0)
3700 1.95 ms
r
Problem 2A-7 Gas Pressure
Problem: Determine the gas pre3sure-time loading inside a cubicle, with a

small vent opening, due to an internal explosion. The vent open-
ing may be sealed or unsealed with a frangible panel or cover.
Procedure:
Step 1. Apply a 20% factor of safety to the charge weight.
371
II
Step 2. Calculate the free volume inside the cubicle Vf.
Step 3. Determine the charge weight to free volume ratio W/Vf. i

Step 4. Determine the peak gas pressure P from figure 2-152 using the
value of W/Vf from step 3. -
Step 5. Determine vent area A.

2 /3
Step 6. Determine scaled value of the vent area A/V .
Step 7. a. Calculate the unit weight of the frangible panel WF, if any.
4L
b. Calculate the scaled unit weight of the frangible panel or
cover WF/W 1 / 3 . Use WF/W 1 / 3 - 0 for no cover.
Step 8. Determine the scaled average reflected impulse on the element con- I
taining the vent opening with no cover according to the procedure
outlined in Problem 2A-4 or on the frangible panel (cover) using
the procedure of Problem 2A-6.
Step 9. Determine the scaled gas Impulse from figtv-es 2-153 to 2-164. Use
the values of W/Vf from step 3, WF/W1 / 3 from step 7, A/V 2 / 3 from
/ 3
step 6 and ir/WI from step 8. Interpolate for values of W/Vf
and ir/W 1/3

if required. Multiply by W1/ 3 to calculate gas
impulse.
Step 10. Calculate the fictitious gas duration using equation 2--4 and val-
ues of P and ig from steps 4 and 9 respectively.
JS
Example 2A-l (A) Gas Pressure (Small Vent Opening)
Required: Gas pressure-time loading inside a 10' x lOt x 10' cubicle with a
2' x 2' vent opening on the rear wall. The charge weight is 833.3
pounds.
Solution:
Step 1. Charge weight:
W = 833.3 x 1.20 - 1,000 lbs
Step 2. Free volume Inside the structure:

3
Vf = 10' x 10' x 10' - 1,000 ft
372
IT;. -I WNTFU P m-iPCj PCT. -T7-7 I X.
"~ T1 Ty JI~
M- .-. T-IM -Tj
K Tx X~I Z I) In"
Step 3. Charge weight to free volume ratio;
H/V~f 1000.0/1000.0 -1.0
Step 4. Read P from fig. 2-152 for W/Vf 1.0.
P9 2,650 psi
Step 5. Vent area of 2' x 2' opening:

2
A - 2' x 2' - 4 ft
Step 6. Calculate scaled vent area:
2/3 2/3 2 2 I
A/V 4/1000 .04 ft /ft
Step 7. a. Vent has no cover.
b. Scaled weight of tal cover:
WF/W 1/3 = 0
Step 8. Scaled average reflected impulse of the rear wall from procedure
outlined in problem 2A-4:
11 3
r/W 1/3 . 1225 psi-ms/lb
2/ 3
Step 9. Read scaled gas impulse from figures 2-162 to 2-164 for A/V
I/3
0.04 and WF/W 1 / 3 - 0.0. Interpolate for scaled impulse of triW
- 1225.
i /W 1 3 7500 psi-ms/lb
i. 7,500 x 1,00071/3 . 75,000.0 psi-ms
Step 10. Calculate fictitious duration of gas load from equation 2-4.
21m
t 2 x 75,000.0 =56.6 ms
P
g 2,650
373 44
L:.
E ample 2A-7 (B) Gas Pressure (Frangible Wall)
Required: Gas pressure-time loading inside a 10' x 10' x 10' cubicle with a
frangible wall of 10 psf as the rear wall. The charge weight is
833.3 pounds.
Solution:
W - 833.3 x 1.2 = 1,000 lbs
Step 2. Free volume Inside the structure:
V 10'
1 x 10' x 10' - 1,000 ft 3 3U
f
Step 3. Charge weight to free volume ratio:
W/Vf 1000/1000 - 1.0

1
Step 4. Read P from fig. 2-152 for W/Vf = 1.0.
P - 2650 psi
g
Step 5. Vent area of frangible wall:
2
A - 10' x 10' - 100 ft
Step 6. Calculate scaled vent area:
A/V2 / 3 232/3
= 100/1000 = 1.0 ft 2/ft2
Step 7. a. Unit density of the frangible wall:

p
2
WF - 10.0 lbs/ft (given)
b. Scaled weight of the frangible wall:
WF/W1/3 - 10/1000I / 3 _ 1.0
Step 8. Scaled average reflected impulse of the rear frangible wall from
procedure outlined in problem 2A-6:
3 /3
irlW/ 7 84 psi-ms/lbl
374
Step 9. a. Read scaled gas impulse from figures 2-162 to 2-164 for
A/V2 / 3 - 1.0 and WF/W 1 /3 - 1.0. Interpolate for scaled im-
1/ 3
pulse of ir/W . 784.
/3
i /W1/ 3 . 400.0 psi-ms/lbl
.' i - 400.0 x i000 1/ 3 . 4000 psi-ms
Step 10. Calculate fictitious duration of gas load from equation 2-4.
2 2 x 4000
tg P -2-6--- 3.02 ms
9.
Problem 2A-8 Leakage Pressures from Fully Vented

Three Wall Cubicle
Problem: Determine free-field blast wave parameters at a distance from a

fully vented explosion inside a three wall cubicle.
Procedure:
Step I. Determine charge weight, distance in the desired direction and

volume of structure.
Step 3. Calculate scaled distance and W/V ratio.
Step 4. Determine peak positive pressures using figures 2-168 or 2-169.
Step 5. Determine maximum peak pressure for side and back directions from
figure 2-170 using W/V ratio.
step 6. For W/V ratio determine scaled positive impulses using figures 2-
171 to 2-182. Multiply by W1/ 3 to calculate actual value of im-
pulses.
Step 7. Determine shock parameters from Figure 2-15 corresponding to the

peak pressure from step 4, except for the normal reflected impulse
where the scaled impulse from step 6 should be used.
. .
..',
37-5----
- ~ ~~~ - - - - - - - - -
~~~*~7r . 'r2
Jr~~ 1V W . WV . r -~. 1W. W'N "
Wk . 11 . .. d .. K -
Example 2A-8 Leakage Pressures from Fully Vented Three Wall Cubicle
Required: Blast wave parameters at a distance of 200 ft. from an explosion

located at the center of a three wall cubicle with no roof. The
charge weight is 833.3 lbs. and the interior dimensions of the
cubicle are 17.5 ft. x 17.5 ft. x 13 ft. high. Calculate the
parameters at the front, side and back of the cubicle.
Solution:
Step 1. Given:
a. Charge weight - 833.3 lbs.
b. R = 200 ft. in all directions.
c. V = 17.5 x 17.5 x 13 - 3.980 ft. 3

.
Step 2. Calculate W:
W = 1.20 x Charge Weight - 1.20 x 833.3 - 1000 lbs.
Step 3. Calculate:
a. Scaled distance Z,
Z 200 -20 ft/lbs1 / 3

w1 /3 (1000)1/3
b. W/V ratio,
3
W/V = 1000/3,980 - 0.25 lbs/ft
Step 4. Determine peak incident pressure from figure 2--168:
Pso (front) - 5.5 psi
Pso (side) - 4.0 psi
Pso (back) - 2.8 psi
Step 5. For W/V = 0.25, read the maximum peak incident pressures from
figure 2-170:
(Pso) max (back and side) - 47.0 psi > 4.0 > 2.8
Step 6. Scaled positive impulse, for Z - 20 ft/lbs1 / 3 and W/V - 0.25

3
lbs/ft
376
* %.-~ . ~ * v*...5 -
I IWI1 3 (front) - 5.5 psi-ms/lb 1 3 figure 2-171
s
/ 3 . 55 psi-ms
1 (front) - 5.5 x 1000I1
is/WlI3 (side) - 4.5 psi-ms/lb 1 3 figure 2-173
is (side) - 4.5 x 1000I/3 . B5 psi-ms
3
i W I1 3 (back) - 3.8 psi-ms/lb 1 figure 2-175
i (back) = 3.8 x 1000I 1 3 38 psi-ms
Step 7. For peak positive pressures (P5 o) read shock parameters from
figure 2-15 at front, side and back directions.
a. For Pso (front) - 5.5 psi (Step 4)
U - 1.28 ft/ms
1/ 3
/w1/ 3 . 2.95 ms/lb
to = 2.95 x 1000113 - 29.5 ms
tA/W
/ /3 7.00 ms/lb 1 / 3
A tA = 7.00 x IOOO i 13 = 70.0 ms ,-
b. For P., (side) - 4.0 psi (Step 4)
Ile
377,
Iv
T - 1.24 ft/ms
t W I1 3 . .0M/bl/3
to - 3.2 x 10001/3 . 32.0 ms
tA/WII3 - 9.30 ms/lb 1 / 3
tA = 9.3 x 1ooo 1/3 . 93.0 ms
e, For Pso (back) - 2.8 psi
U - 1.20 ft/ms
t0 W I1 3 . 3.45 m/lb I1 3
to - 3.45 x 10001/3 34.5 ms
tA/W/3- 12.90 ms/lb 1 1 3

A - 12.9 x 10001/3 129.0 msnt
Problem 2A-9 Leakage Pressure fro Partially Vented

Four"Wall Cubicle '
Problem: Determine free-field blast wave parameters at a distance from a ,
partially vented explosion inside a four wall cubicle.
Procedure :
Step 1. Determine charge weight, distance to point in question,

vent area
and volume of structure.
Step 2. Apply a 203 safety factor to the charge weight.

I
Step 3. Calculate distance Z, ratio and AW1/3/V ratio.
Step 4. Determine peak positive pressure using figure
2-184.
Step 5. Determine scaled positive impulses using figure
2-185. Multiply
3
378
...
.,. ,, .,.,. ,...
_..
: .-.:. -,._ .v .,.w,
,,....;. .,...
by W1 / 3 to calculate actual value of impulses.
Step 6. Determine shock parameters from figure 2-15. Use the peak
pressure from step 4, except for normal reflected impulse where
the scaled impulse(s) from step 5 should be used.
Example 2A-9 Leakage Pressure from Partially Vented

Four Vall Cubicle
Required: Blast wave parameters at distance of 200 ft. from a charge located
in an above ground four wall cubicle. The circular vent is lo-
cated at the center of the roof and has a diameter of 4 ft. The
charge is 833.3 lbs and located at the center of 17.5' x 17.5' x
13' cubicle. Top of the roof is 15 feet -Love the ground level.
Solution: L
Step 1. Given (see figure 2-183b for parameters):
a. Charg weight - 833.3 lbs.
b. R - 200 't., h - 15 ft.

)'2 212ft.
2-
(
I! + (15 -13/2) - 8.73 ft.
d2 - (17.5 - 4)/2 - 6.75 ft.
2 11
d 3 a [(15) + (200 - 4/2 - 6.75 - 15) 2] - 176.89 ft.
R' - d, + d + h + d - 8.73 + 6.75 + 15 + 176.89 - 207.37 ft.

1 2 3
2 2
c. A - ir(2) - 12.57 ft
d. V - 17.5 x 17.5 x 13- 3,980 ft 3
Step 2. Calculate W:
W - 1.20 x charge weight - 1.20 x 833.3 - 1000 lbs. 3

Step 3. Calculate:
a. Scaled distance Z.
Z.R' .207.37 07flb 1/ 3 I
Z Wi/ - -20-3 20.7 ft/'lb 11
W 1000f/3
379
M
b. A/V 2 1 3 - 12.57/(3980) 2 1/ 0.05
C. AW1 3/v = 12.57 (1000)I"3/3,980 - 0.0316 1b3 1 3

/ft
Step 4. Peak positive pressure from figure 2-184 for Z - 20.7 and A/V 2 / 3
.050.
P 0.95
- psi
Step 5. Peak positive presure Impulse from figure 2-185 for Z pa20.7 and
1 1 0316.
AW /V -.
1
I / 1 .80 psi-m3/lb "
Is - 1.8 X 1000/3 18.0 psi-ms
from figure 2-15.
U = 1.12 ft/ms
'IP.
I/ 3
t /W1 /3 =4.5 ms/lb
0
t - 4.5 x 10001/3 45.0 ms -
1/ 3
tA /W 1/ 3 . 35.0 ms/lb
tA = 35.0 x 1000 1/3 = 350.0 ms
Problem 2A-10 External Blast Loads on Structures
Problem: Determine the pressure-time blast loading curves on a rect3ngular

structure from an external explosion.
380
U
Procedure:
Step 1 Determine the charge weight, ground distance RG, height of burst
H e (for air burst) and structure dimensions.
Step 3. Select several points on the structure (front wall, roof, rear
wall, etc.) and determine free-field blast wave parameters for
each point. For air burst, follow the procedure outlined in prob-
lem 2A-2; a surface burst, problem 2A-3; and leakage pressures,
problem 2A-8 or 2A-9.
_ Step 4. For the front wall:
a. Calculate peak positive reflected pressure Pra = Cra X Pso"

Read value of Cra for Pso and a from figure 2-193.
3
b. Read scaled unit positive reflected impulse ira/W1/ from
I/
figure 2-194 for pso and a. Multiply scaled value by W 3 to
Obtain absolute value.
Note; If wave front is not plane, une average values.
Step 5. Determine positive phase of front wall loading.
a. Determine sound velocity in reflected overpressure region Cr

from figure 2-192 for peak-incident pressure P
. 0
b. Calculate clearing time tc
t (nms) (eq. 2-3)

r
where:
S - height of front wall or one-half its width, whichever is

smaller.
,1
*G - maximum of wall height or one-half its width
R - S/G
c. Calculate fictitious positive phase duratioi) tof:
* 21
o (,-q. 2-6)
so
d. Determine peak dynamic pressure qo from figure 2-3 for- P."
*381
e. Calculate Pso + CDqo. Obtain CD from paragraph 2-15.3.2.
f. Calculate fictitious duration trf of the reflected pressure.
21
trf - r- (eq. 2-11)
ra
g. Construct the positive pressure-time curve of the front wall

similar to figure 2-191. The actual loading is the smaller
of the impulse (area under curve) due to reflected pressure
or cleared reflected pressure plus incident pressure.
Step 6. Determine negative phase of the front wall loading.
a. Read the values of Z from figure 2-15 for the value of Pra
1 /3
from step 4a and J /W from step 4b.
1/3
b. Determine P- and i- 1W from figure 2-16 for the corres-
ra ra
ponding values of Z frcm step 6a. Multiply scaled value of
/3
the negative impulse by W1 to obtain absolute value.
c. Calculate the fictitious duration of the negative reflected

pressure.
- 21 /P- ( eq. 2-7)

rf ra ra
d. Calculate rise time of the negative pressure by multiplying

t- by 0.27 (Section 2-15.3.2).
rf
e. Construct the nega* )ressure-time curve similar to figure
2-191.
Step 7. Determine positive phase of side wall loading.
a. Calculate the wave length t. span length ratio Lwf/L at front

of the span.
1
b. Read values of CE, td/W1/3 and to/W / 3 from figures 2-196,
2-197 and 2-198 respectively.
c. Calculate PR' tr and to.
d. Determine dynamic pressure q. from figure 2-3 for PR"
e. Calculate P. CEPsof + CDq o (eq. 2-12). Obtain CD from

paragraph
f. Construct positive phase pressure-time curve similar to fig-

ure 2-195.
382
?A
Step 8. Determine negative phase of side wall loading.
a. Determine value of Ci and to /W1/ 3 for the value of Lwf/L

from step 7a from figures 2-196 and 2-198 respectively.
b. Calculate P- - c x Po and tof
C. Calculate rise time of negative phase equal to 0.27 tof

(section 2-15.3.2).
d. Construct the negative pressure-time curve similar to figure

2-195.
Step 9. Determine roof loading. Follow procedure outlined for side wall
loading.
Step 10. Determine rear wall loading. Follow procedure outlined for side
wall loading. For the purpose of calculations, assume that the
back wall is rotated to a horizontal position (see figure 2-199).
Example 2A-10 External Blast Loads on Structures
Required: Determine pressure-time blast loading curves for the front wall,
roof, rear half of the side walls and rear wall of the structure
shown in figure 2A-9 for a surface burst of 5,000 lbs. at a dis-
tance from the front wall of 155 ft. Structure width is 30 ft.
and the shock front is plane.
Step 1. Given: Charge weight - 5,000 lbs., RG - 155 ft.
Step 2. W - 1.2 (5,000)- 6,000 lbs.
Step 3. Determine free-field blast wave parameters Pso, tA' Lw and to at

points 1 through 3 and i5 at point 1.
For point 1:
a. Z RG 3 155 -8.53 ft/lbl / 3

. G U/ 60001/3
b. Determine free-field blast wave parameterd from figure 2-15

for Z- 8.53 ft/lb 1 1 3
P 12.8 pai
so "
tA/W - 3.35 ms/lb 1 / 3 .' tI - 3.35 (6000) 1/ 3 - 60.9 ms
33.
383
N
30,
A4l
SOURCEWII
R 155 -
A*N
PLAN
30 #
SECTION A-A
N
W
lb 500
AMC__ _ __ _ __
FIGURE 2A-9
384
L /W1 3. _ 2.10 ft/ib 1/ 3 .. - 2.10 (6000)1/3 38.2 ft
/3 /3
t /W - 2.35 ms/.b to - 2.35 (6000)1/3 - 42.7 ms
c. Determine incident impulse from figure 2-15 for ZG - 8.53

3
ft/ibl/ .
13 -m/b1/3
9.0 (6000) 11/3
.
WT3- 9.0 psi-ms/lb .'. is - - 163.5 psi-ms
d. Repeat steps 3a and 3b for points 2 and 3. Results are tabu-

lated below.
P 3 tA
Point R Z 0 tA/W1
NO. (ft) (ft (Psi) (ms/1b 1 / 3) (us)
1 155.0 8.53 12.8 3.35 60.9

2 170.0 9.35 10.8 3.90 70.9
3 185.0 10.18 9.0 4.60 83.6
L/W 11/3 to is/W1/3 1e

(ftlb 1 1 3 ) 1/ 3
(ft) (w/lb ) (W) (psi--s/lb1 / 3
) (psi.-s)
2.10 38.2 2.35 12.7 9.00 163.5

2.24 40.7 2.48 45.1 - -
2.35 42.7 2.62 47.6
Step 4. Determine front wall reflected pressure and impulse.
a. Read Cra for P., 0 12.8 psi and a - 00 from figure 2-193 for
point 1.
C - 2.70 then P - C x P 0 = 2.70 x 12.8 - 34.6 psi
/3
b. Read ir IW for P30 = 12.8 psi and a - 00 from figure 2-194 r.
for point 1.
I 17.0 then i - 17.0 (6,000)1/3 308.9 psi-ms
385
r-
I
Step 5. Front wall loading, positive phase.

a. Calculate sound velocity in reflected overpressure r.gion Cr
from figure 2-192 for Pso - 12.8 psi.
Cr - 1.325 ft/ms
b. Calculate clearing time t from eq.
te (1 L C (eq. 2-3)
0+ R)C
r
where:
S 12.0 ft < 30.-
2
30. '
G-- - 15.0 ft > 12.0 ft.
2
R - S/G - 12./15. = .80
then:
4 x 12
tc"(1 *0.80) 1.325 - 20.1 ms
C. Calculate tof from eq. 2-11. Use impulse from step 3c.
21s 2x1635
t " _ 2 12.8 - 25.5 ms
of Pso 1.
d. Determine q. from figure 2-3 for Pso a 12.8 psi.
qO - 3.5 psi
e. Calculate Pso + CDqo:
C - 1.0 from section 2-15.3.2

D
then,
Pso + C qo . 12.8 + (1.0 x 3.5) " 16.3 Psi
f. Calculate trf from eq. 2-11 and results of step 4.
21
- 2 - 2 x 308.9 . 17.9 ma
r r 34.6
386
g. Construct the pressure time curve. See figure 2A-10.
Note: The reflected pressure-time curve ib used for design

since the reflected impulse is less than the impulse produced
hy the clearing time.
Step 6. Negative phase loading, front wall.
a. Read the values of Z corresponding to Prc - 34.6 (step 4a)

3
and ira/Wll - 17.0 (step 4b) from figure 2-15.
P 34.6 then, Z (P 8.5

.r --
1/ /3),.
I /W1 /' 17.0 then, Z (ir1W 10.4.
roa ro
b. Using the Z values from step 6a and figure 2-16 determine A

values of P- and i- (Peak pressure and impulse in negative
phase). ra ra
Z(Pr) - 8.5 then, P- 3.25 psi r.

ra r
Z(i /W1 /3 )= 10.4 then, I- /W11 3 - 14.6 psi-ms/lb1 / 3

'4
and
-- 14.6 x (6,000)1/3 - 265.3 psi-ms
c. Calculate fictitious duration t-

'rf'
2 ira
trf Pra
PPS
2x 265.3 163.3 ms
rf 3.25
d. Calculate negative phase rise time:
U
3 97
4..
-------------------------------------------------------------------..
I
K
a:L
40 L
P, 34.6
30
P+ Coq *16.3
I0
, 1 00 too
20
10 '
4-O
I- 4.
FIGURE 2A-10
- r
388
0.27 x t-, - .27 x 163.3 - 44.1 ms
e. Construct the negative pressure-time curve.
t 0- 42.7 ms (Point 1, step 3d)
t + 0.27 t- = 42.7 + 44.1 - 86.8 ms

o rf
t - t- = 42.7 + 163.3 - 206.0 ms
o rf
The negative pressure-time curve is plotted in figure 2A-10. V.
Step 7. Side wall loading, positive phase, calculate the loading on the
rear-half of the wall (Point 2 to 3, figure 2A-9).
a. Calculate Lwf/L ratio:
L - 15.0 ft (Point 2 to 3)
Lw2 - 40.7 ft (step 3d)
then,
S/L - . -
~40.7 2.71
3 3
b. Read CE, td/W1/ and tof/W1/ for Lwf/L- 2.71 and Psof
10.8 (step 3d, Point 2)
CE - .76 fig. 2-196
td/W - .66 fig. 2-197

Id
tofW 113 2.47 fig. 2-198
c. Calculate CEPSOf, td and tof using results of step 7b.
* . CEP 8 o f - .76 x 10.8 = 8.2
.;
389
.
.......
. ... . .. ..
t - .66 x (6,000) 1/3. 12.0 ms
" tof 2.47 x (6,000)1/3 . 44.9 ms
d. Determine qo from figure 2-3 for CEPsof = 8.2 psi.
qo - 1.55 psi
e. Calculate peak positive pressure from eq. 2-12.
C = -0.40 from section 2-15.3.2 L

D
CEPso f + CDq o - .76 x 10.8 + (-0.40 x 1.55) = 7.6 psi
f. Construct the pressure-time curve.
See figure 2A-11 below.
CE f+ CD%' T.S
100 too
0 TIME,ms
- 00
Figure 2A-11
Step 8. Negative phase loading on the rear-half of the 3ide wall.
390
3 of.
i.
i ia ii 5 ~ % ~ .u ~ - 5 4' '~*. . *5 ~.
a. Read C- and t- /W1/3 for L /L
values of - 2.71 (Step 7a)
E Of wf
from figures 2-196 and 2-198 respectively.
C- .28
13
t-f/W1/3 - 10.7 ms/lb 1
b. Calculate P- and t-
Pr - C- x P - 28 x 10.8 - 3.0 psi
tof - 10.7 x (6,000)1/ 3 - 194.4 ms
C. Negative phase rise time:
0.27 t - .27 x 194.4 - 52.5 ms
d. Construct the negative pressure-time curve.
0 - 45.1 ms (Point 2, step 3d)
to + 0.27 tot - 45.1 + 52.5 - 97.6 ms
t + t- 45.1 + 194.4 - 239.5 ms

o of
The negative pressure-time curve is plotted in figure 2A-11.
Step 9. Calculate roof loading. (Point 1 to 3, figure 2A-9)
L -30.0 ft (Point I to 3)
L 38.2 ft (step 3d) then,
38.2 :2 ,
L /L - -- .27
wf 30.0
391
VA
b. Read CE, td/WI / 3 and toflW/ 3 for Lwf/L - 1.27 and Psof =
12.8 psi (step 3d, Point 1) then,
CE - .52 fig. 2-196
td/W1 / 3
- 1.25 fig. 2-197
I/ 3
tf/W - 3.10 fig. 2-198 2-198
C. Calculate CEPsof, td and to using results of step 9b.
CEPsof - .52 x 12.8 - 6.66
td - 1.25 x (6,000)1/3 - 22.7 me
tof - 3.10 x (6,000)1/3 . 56.3 ms
d. Determine qo from figure 2-3 for CEPsof - 6.66 psi.
qo a 1.05 psi
e. Calculate maximum pressure from eq. 2-12:
CD - -0.40 From section 2-15.3.2
CEPso f + CDQ W .52 x 12.8 + (-0.40 x 1.05) -6.24 psi
C- and t- /W 1 / 3
for L
g. Read values of
E of' wf/L - 1.27 (step 9a)
from figures 2-i96 and 2-198 respectively.
C- - .26
tf/W1 11 .7 ms/lb1 / 3
392
- !~ *p'j',X i~PJJ~. ~*~ ' ~J~-.~ '

w~
.o/.
CLj
's.::
2A--1200
;I393 4
too
FIGURE 2A-12 .J
393
h. Calculate P- and t-
r Of:
P- w Ci x Pof - .26 x 12.8 - 3.33 psi
t-. - 11.7 x (6,000)1/3 - 212.6 ms
I. Negative phase rise time:
0.27 t- - .27 x 212.6 - 57.4 ms
J. Construct the negative pressure-time curve.
t = 42.7 ms (Point 1, step 3d)
o of
to + t- - 42.7 + 212.6 - 255.3 ms

o of
The negative pressure-time curve is plotted in figure 2A-12
Step 10. Calculate rear wall loading (Point 3 to 4, figure 2A-9). Assume
rear wall is rotated to a horizontal position.
L - 12.0 ft (Point 3 to 4 or height of the structure)
Lw =42.7 ft (step 3a), then,

w3
L IL.-427- 356
Wr 12.0
b. d/W
Read CEE, e 'tdW a/3
and Lof
1 /3
/3 for Lwf/L - 3.56 and Psob = 9.0
psi (step 3d, point 3).
C = .83 fig. 2-196

E
tdlW1/3 - .51 fig. 2-197
394
tOf ,W1/ . 2.4~5 iCig. 2-198
C. Calculate CEPS0b, tr and to using results of step 10b.
CEP sb- .83 x 9.0 -7.147 psi
td -51 x (6,000)1/3 . 9.3

. 1
tf
t = 2.45 x (6,000)1/3 _ 4 4. 5 m
d. Determine q.from figure 2-3 for CEPsob = 7.47 psi
qO= 1.30 psi
e. Calculate maximum pressure fromf eq. 2-12:
C1 -0.40 from section 2-15.3.2
Ersob + CD = .83 x 9.0 +(-0.40 x 1.30) -6.95 psi
'Jn
to
Cto 9 too+Cq8
0 TIME200
FiuejA1
3c)5
g. Read values of Cj and tu./W 1 / 3 for Lwf/L - 3.56 (step 10a)
from figures 2-196 and 2-198 respectively.
C- - .285
tf/W - 10.5 ms/lb1 / 3
h. Calculate P- and t-
r Of:
Pr" C- x Psb = .285 x 9.0 - 2.57 psi
t- 10.5 x (6,000)1/3 - 190.8 ms
i. Negative phase rise time: !
0.27 t . .27 x 190.8 - 51.5 mus
J. Construct the negative pressure-time curve.
to - 47.6 m3 (Point 3, step 3d) P^
t 4 .27 t-. '7.6 + 51.5 - 99.1 ms

4
0
to + t- 47.6 + 190.8 - 238.4 ms
The negative pressu-e-time curve is plotted in figure 2A-13.
Problem 2A-1 1 Blast Loads on a Structure with Front Wall Openings
Problem: Determine the pressure-time loads acting on the exterior front

wall and all interior surfaces of a rectangular structure with
front wall openings due to an external shock load.
a. Determine TNT equivalent charge weight, W;

b. Increase charge weight by 20% safety factor, W - 1.20 x W;
/3
c. Determine charge weight scaling factor. W1 .
396
ie
Step 2. Determine free field blast parameters:
a. For an air burst, use Problem 2A-2 procedure; for a sUrface

burst, use Problem 2A-3 procedure; for leakage pressures, use
Problem 2A-8 or 2A-9 procedures.
b. Evaluate the angle of incidence, a, as the angle between the

ground distance from the charge to the center of the front
wall, and the normal distance from the charge to the front
wall.
Stepr 3. Front wall idealized pressure-time blast loads:
A. Exterior Blast Load:
a. Determ .te peak positive reflected pressure, Pr' as a

function of Pso and a, using Figure 2-193.
b. Determine peak positive refelected scaled unit impulse,

Ira /(W1 /3 ), as a function of Pso and a, using Figure 2-
194.
c. Determine the absolute positive reflected impulse by

multiplying the scaled unit impulse by (W]/3).
d. Determine the sound velocity of the reflected pressure

wave, Cr , as a function of Pso using Figure 2-192.
e. Determine the reflected pressure clearing time, T', from

equation 2-14.
f. Construct the exterior blast pressure-time load. Follow

the procedure in Proolem 2A-10.
g. Determine the scaled wave length of the incident wave,

Lw/(W 1 / 3 ), as a function of Pso, using Figure 2-15,
irrespective of how the external incident wave was cre-
ated.
h. Determine the absolute wave length by multiplying the

scaled wave length by (W1 / 3 ). i.-.
B. Interior Blast Load:
U
a. Determine the following parameters: Lw/L, Lw/H, AolA.4,
W/H, and L/H, where A0 is the total area of openings in
the front wall, and Aw is the area H by W.
i
b. Determine the idealized factored average peak pressure,
(Pmax x (Lw/H)), as a function of W/H, Pso, Ao/Aw, and
Lw/H, using Figures 2-203 to 2-206. Calculate Pmax
(Pmax xLw/H)/(Lw/H).
c. Determine the arrival time, T1 , as a function of W/H,

Pso, and Ao/Aw, using Figures 2-207 and 2-208.
d. Determine the rise time, T 2 - T1 , as a function of W/H,

Pso, and, Lw/H, from Figures 2-209 and 2-210.
e. Determine the duration time, T3 - T], as a function of

W/H, PSO, and Lw/H, from Figures 2-211 and 2-212.
f. Using times T1 , T 2 - T 1 , T 3 - T1 , and Pmax' construct

the idealized pressure-time blast load. See Figure 2-
201A for general configuration of this blast load.
Step 4. Side Wall Idealized Interior Pressure-Time Blast Load:
a. Determine the maximum average sidewall pressure, Pmax'

from equation 2-15.
b. Determine the idealized times T1 and T2 for W/H, using
Figure 2-213.
c. Determine the idealized times T3 and T4 for W/H, using

Figures 2 -2 14 to 2-229.
d. Using times T, T2, T 3 , T, and max, construct the
idealized pressure-time load. See Figure 2-201b for

generAl configuration of this blast load.
Step 5: Back Wall Idealized Interior Pressure-Time Blast Load:
a Determine the maximum average positive reflected pres-

sure coefficient, PRIB/PsoP as a function of L/H, P
and Ao/Aw, using Figures 2-233 and 2-234.
b. Determine the maximum average pressure, PRIB, by multi-

plying the pressure coefficient, PRIB/Pso ,
by P30 ,
c. Determine the idealized time T, as a function of W/H,

Pso, L/H, and Ao/Aw, using Figure 2-230.
d. Determtne the idealized pressure duration, T 2 - T 1 , as a

function or Pso, and Ao/Aw, using Figure 2-232.
398
. . . . . - .
e. Using times T1 , T 2 and PRIB' construct the ideal-
- TI ,
ized pressure-time blast load. See Figure 2-201c fcr
general configuration of this blast load.
Step 6. Roof Idealized Interior Pressure-Time Blast Load:
a. Determine the W/H ratio for the roof as the inverse of

W/H ratio of the side wall.
b. Repeat Step 4 using the W/H ratio of the roof.
Example 2A-11 Blast Loads on a Structure with Front Vall Openings
Required: For the structure and charge as is shown in Figure 2A-14, deter-
mine the idealized positive external blast load on the front wall,
and the idealized positive internal blast loa d on the front wall,
side wall, roof and back wall.
Step 1. Charge weight
a. W - 5000 1 bs . TNT
b. W - 1.20 x 5000 - 6000 lbs. TNT
c. W1 / 3 - 18.1712 lbs. 1/3
Step 2. Free field blast parameters - surface burst
a. Procedure from Problem 2A-3.
Blast parameter3: P80 0 U, i S , to # t A , for W - 6000 lbs., RG

11 3 155/18.1712 8.53 (say 8.5)
= 155' ZG W RG/W - -
From Figure 2-15 for hemispherical surface burst

=
Ps0 fl(Z0 )
f 12.6 psi
U - f 2 (ZG) - 1.46 ft/ms
I / 3 , i - 163.54 psi-ms
i/W 1 / 3 - f 3(Z G) - 9.0 psi-ms/ib s
t 0 /W 1 3
. f4(ZG) - 2.40 ms/lbl / 3, to a 43.61 ms
3 ,
tA/W1/3 - f 5 (ZG) - 3.40 ms/lb 1 / tA - 61.78 ms
b. Charge to wbll center ground distance - 155.0'
Charge to wall normal distance - 155.0'

r
399
A
155,-0" ,i
PLAN
5000 TNT RECTANGULAR

HEMISPHERICAL
CHARGE SURFACE
_ STRUCTURE
lN
ELEVATION
C _'-o" A I'-ow
-0-0 300"
"' '0 0 1
"-1
PLAN L*SECTION A-A
I in
C A-
30,-0"
.10.
SECTION B-B ELEVATION C-C
FIGURE 2A-14
400
22'-0" i
5'-o " -" - "
I IS
0I
Ii II
I I
_ _ _ I
-I
S I I
I!
ELEVATION
~SUB-
DIVISION No.
-AREA TYPE n
WALL SUB-DIVISION
NOMENCLATURE
FIGURE 2A-15
401
-II
a = cos (155/155) - 00
Step 3. Front wall idealized pressure-time blast load
A. Exterior Blast Load
a. From Figure 2-193, for a - 00 and Pso = 12.6 psi, determine

ra Pra SO
Pso 10.0 12.6 20.0
Cra 2.40 ? 2.90
C - <(2.9 - 2.4) x (12.6 - 10.0)

120.0- 10.0)> + 2.40
- 0.130 + 2.40 - 2.53
Pra r- Pr -C ra x P so - 2.53
x 12.6 - 31.878 psi, say 31.9 psi
I/ 3
b. From Figure 2-194, for a - 00, read ira/W for Pso 10 and
3
20 psi and interpolate for irVlW11 at P'so- 12.6 psi
PSo irc/W1 /3
I/ 3
psi psi-ms/lb
10 15.2
12.6 ?
20 23
I 3
1/W _ <[23.0 - 15.2] x [12.6 - 10.01
ra
10.0]> - 15.2 - 2.028
[20.0 -
1/3
+ 15.2 - 17.228 psi-ms/lb
c. Determine absolute impulse,
i - (i /W1/3) x (W1 / 3 ) - 17.228 x 18.1712 = 313.1 psi-ms

ra r
d. For Ps 0 - 12.6 psi, Cr - 1.325 ft/ms from Figure 2-192.
402
" " "N- "I' V

% *'."
* t *I ,. , *'" -
" "-; "r ""-..', *," I ' ' " ' I" " , **" %" '*** ' % " . ' *,, N, * 'V,
e. Using Figure 2A-15 as the front wall sub-divisioning, deter-
mine hn , Wn, 6, h', An , 6nhA An, Af, S' S R and

T e '.
Subdivision Type an h' hn Wn An 6nhA
No. n - ft ft ft ft 2
ft 3
1 3 1.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 20.0 100.0

2 2 0.50 5.0 3.0 5.0 15.0 37.50
3 1 1.0 5.0 9.0 5.0 45.0 225.0
4 3 1.0 4.0 4.0 5.5 22.0 88.0
5 2 0.50 9.0 9.0 5.5 49.50 222.750
6 3 1.0 3.50 4.0 3.5 14.0 49.0
7 2 0.50 3.50 3.0 3.5 10.5 18.3750
8 3 1.0 9.0 9.0 3.5 31.5 283.50
9 2 0.50 9.0 9.0 3.0 27.0 121.50
10 2 0.50 5.0 7.0 3.0 35.0 87.50
11 1 1.0 5.0 9.0 3.0 45.0 225.0
n
X6nh'n An - 1458.1250
Af . (16 x 32) - (3 x 5.5) - (7.0 x 3.0)
- 512- 16.5- 21.0
- 512 - 37.5
- 474.5 ft2
S' - ( 6 nhWnA )/Af - 145b.1250/474.5 - 3.073 ft ,.,
H - 15.0'. W - 20.0', H < W . S - H - 15.0', So < S O.K.
W > H .'. G - W - 20.0'
R - SIG - 15.0/20.0 - 0.75; C - 1.325 ft/ms

r
to - 4S'/<(I + H) x Cr > = (4 x 3.073)/(1.75 x 1.325) - 5.301 ms

I
f. Following general procedure problem 2A-10, Step 5 required
previously determined values are:
Pso - 12.6 psi
1i - 163.5 psi-ms
4%0
403 F.'
_.
I I V
Pra - 31.9 psi
i - 313.1 psi-ms
Determine
tof - 21 /Pso - 2 x 163.5/12.6 - 26 ms, Eq. 2-b,
trf - 21 ra/P - 2 x 313.1/31.9 - 19.6 ms, eq. 2-11,
qo . f(Pso) - 3.4 psi, Fig. 2-3
CD 1.0, Paragraph 2-15.3.2,

P
Pso + CDqo = 16 psi, Paragraph 2-15.3.2
Construct infinite surface impulse and theoretic bi-linear

actual surface impulse. Minimum value is design Impulse.
Infinite surface fictitious impulse - ira - 313.1 psi-ms

Bi-linear theoretic actual surface impulse is area under
curve Pra to t' on line P 5 0 + C~qo to tof
+
Let P - (P Cq) < I - (t'/t )>
so Do0 c of
= 16.0 < 1 - (5.3/26) > - 12.7 psi
iBL - [<P - P><t'/2>] + <Pt'> + [<t - t'><P/2>]
- [(31.9 - 12.7)(5.3/2)) + (12.7 x 5.3)

+ [<26 - 5.3><12.7/2>] - 50.9 + 67.3 + 13 1.4
- 250 psi-ms
iBL < Irc, use bi-linear pressure-time as design

blast load.
See Figure 2A-16

g. For P - 12.6 psi, L /W 1 / 3
- 2.10 ft/1bl / 3 , Fig 2-15
so w
h. L - (L /W1 /3)(W I/ 3
) - 2.10 x 18.1712 - 38.16, say 38.2 ft.
B. Interior Blast Load
a. From previous steps: Lw - 38.; ft, L - 30 ft, H - 15 ft, W

20 ft.
404
_______FICTICIOUS INFINITE
SURFACE IMPULSE
_______THEORETIC ACTUAL
SURFACE IMPULSE
40p
PL
a-0
Pso
co I
(J20
w t illhJl l I I
u'=.N tfIG
0405
0 10 tofI
A - Door opening area + window opening area
2
- (7 x 3) + (3 x 5'5) - 375 ft
2
A w - H x W - 15 x 20 - 300 ft
Ao/A0 37'5/300 - 0'125
L W/L - 38'2/30 Z 1'27
L /H - 38'2/15 Z 2'54
W/H - 20/15 - 1"33
L/ll - 30/15 - 2'00
b- For W/H - 1"33< Pso 0 12'6 psi< A o/A - 0'125( and Lw/H = 2'54
summarize factored maximum average pressiure< Pmax x /H< for
W/H and Lw/H equal to '75< 1'5< 3 and 6'
Figure No' W/H Lw/H Pmax x Lw/H
2-203 0'75 0'75 15"0

1'50 38'5
3'0 58'
6'0 190"0
2-204 1"50 0'75 4'70

1'50 17"0
3'0 55"0
6"0 1,1"O
2-205 3'0 0'75 2'0

1'50 7'0
3'0 27'0
6'o 85"0
2-206 6'o 0'75 1,0

1"50 3"20
3-0 10"0
6'0 35-0
406
Plot Figure 2A-17 (a), and interpolate to determine Pmax X
LwIH at Lw/H - 2.54 for W/H - .75, 1.5, 3 and 6.
W/H .75 1.5 3 6
Pmax x /H 74 44 19 75
Plot Figure 2A-17 (b) from above values, and interpolate to
determine Pmax x Lw/H - 48 for W/H - 1 .33.
c.
Determine Pmax max
a (Pmax x LwlH)I(Lw/H) - 48/2.54 - 18.9 psi.
For Ps0 = 12.6 psi and Ao/Aw - 1/8, determine T, for W/H
.75, 1.5, and 3, from Figures 2-207 and 2-208
I
W/H .75 1.5 3
TI 1.25 1.70 2.26
Plot Figure 2A-18 with above values, and determine T I - 1.60

for W/H - 1.33.
=
d. For Pso 12.6 psi, determine T2 - T, for W/H and Lw/H - .75,
1.5, and 3, from Figures 2-209 and 2-210
W/H .75 1.5 3
bw/H .75 1.5 3 .75 1.5 3 .75 1.5 3
T - T 2.07 2.07 2.07 4.70 6.20 7.0 6.50 10.8 15.0
Plot Figure 2A-19 with above values, and interpolate to de-

termine T- at Lw/H - 2.54 for W/H - .75, 1.5 and 3, as
summarized below. K
WI/H .75 1.5 3

T2 - T1 2.07 6.75 14.0
Plot Figure 2A-19 with above values, and determine T - T

5.80 ms for W/H = 1.33.
e. For Pso -12.6 psi, determine T - T for W/H - .75, 1.5, and
3, and Lw/H - .75, 1.5, and 3, from Figures 2-211 and 2-212,
as summarized below.
407
,I
..... .... .. ..... N O T E:
...... 5 SEE EXAMPLE 2A-11,
STEP 3,PART B, ITEM b
FOR Lw/H=2.54 GRAPHIC
INTERPOLATION YIELDS
CL PmaX LW/H 2f (W/ H), AS5
ITT SUMMARIZED BELOW.
X 40-
-~0.75 -74
3 19
Lw! H
IT,, FOR LW /H: 2.54, AND

W /H' 1.33, GRAPHIC
80 INTERPOLATION YIELDS
Pmax Lw/H :48
-JT
W/H=-5
(b)
FIGURE 2A-17
40 R
1, H AI A . 25
II fI
77I
32
GRPI INEPOIO YILD T, 1.0
0 I 2 3 42A516
409
4. 0 SEE EXAMPLE 2A-11
I l STEP 3, PART B. ITEM d.
E II W-7 FOR LW/H =2.54,GRAPHIC
INCORPORATION YIELDS
6.75 .. T2 -T, SUMMARIZED
I IF 40
FO 14-0.3
LW H
(b)
4+0
iA~X 7~ Ws''r wV nj~.~FLAP %I"W~~~~U~WS~~. S ~* . ~ - - - -
W/H .75 1.5 3
Lw/H .75 1 .5 3 .75 1 .5 3 .75 1 .5 3

T3 - T1 5.2 8.2 14.5 10.0 13.5 19.5 18.6 24.8 34.8
Plot Figure 2A-20 with above values, and graphically interpo-

late to determine T - T I at Lw/H - 2.54 for W/H - .75, 1.5,
and 3, as summarlzeI below.
W/H .75 1.5 3
T3 - TI 12.8 17.5 31.7
Plot Figure 2A-20 with above values, and determine T3 - TI

16.3 ms at W/H - 1.33.
f. Determine times T2 and T 3 from T,, T 2 - TI, and T 3 - T 1 .
=1.60 ms
T 2 - T1 - 5.80 ms
T - T - 16.30 ms
3 1
T2 - 5.80 + 1.60 - 7.40 ms
1 - 16.30 + 1.60 - 17.9 ms

3
Plot Figure 2A-23 using above values and Pmax - 18.9 psi.
Step 4. Sidewall idealized interior pressure-time blast load.
a. Using equation 2-15, with P " 12.6 psi, A /Aw - 1/8, Lw/L -
1.27, L/H - 2.0, solve for max for W/H - .?5, 1 .5, and 3.
Equation 2-15: Pmax " K/(L w/L)

m H 0.9718w
For W/H - .75, K - A x B x C x F x Pso 9
H
, where:
A - [0.5422 (Lw/L)1.29 4 4 ] - 0.001829 - 0.7385
B - [0.654 + 2.616 (Ao/A w ) - 4.928 (Ao /A W)2
x [2.209 (L/H) - 0 "3 4 5 1 - 0.739] - 0.9040
C - [0.829 + 0.104 (L./L)1.6 + [0.00124 + 0.00414 (Lw/L)3.334
x [L/H] DD - 1.0338
D - 2.579- .0534 (Lw/L)3.891 - 2.4428
&tM
MI Jill
NOTE:
SEE EXAMPLE 2A-1I1
I # STEP 3,PART B, ITEM e,
30- ~FOR Lw /H = 2.54, GRAPHIC
U) INTERPOLATION YIELDS
E T-T SUMMARIZED BELOW
tT3
12W/H=075 0.75 12.8

1 .1.5 17.5
I I f l 3 31.7
F6 56.5
0 0.75123
L
II I
yl11NOTE
I I ill I IFOR W/H I.33
20. T3 - Tz 16.3 ms
W/+
,(b
I FIGURE 1A1-20
412l
5... . . * ..
i I(4+ d .5.
0.. * S -
E - 999 (A /A )9.964 . 0.000001002
F- 1.468 - 1.6627 (A /A W)0.7801 + [I .8692
1.1735 (A /Aw ) ] x [Lw/L] = 1.1592
G = 0.2979 (A0/Aw)-I'4872 - 0.8351 - 5.7286
H - (5.42 5 x 10- 4
) + (.001 x 10 - 3
) (L/H) 9 9 65
= 0.0005435
K - 0.7385 x 0.9040 x 1.03880.000001002 x 1.15920.0005435
x 12.6 0.9718 7.83
Pmax - 7.83/1.27 - 6.2 psi, for W/H - .75
For 1 .5
S W/H S 6, K - [A [B x (Lw/L)C]I x D x E x P so1.025 where,
A - 0.002 (W/H)1.4 467 - 0.0213
B - 2.2075 - < 1.902 < W/H >-0.085 >
C = 1.231 + < 0.0008 < W/H >2.678>
-0. j444
D - <2.573 <L/H > > -0.3911
E - 0.4221 + < .241 <A /A >0.367>
For W/H - 1 .5, 3, and 6, determine values for A to E, and K

and Pmax' ;s summarized below.
W/H A B C D E K Pmax
1.5 -0.0177 0.3700 1.2334 1.5003 1.0006 9.6743 7.60
3 -0.0115 0.4751 1.2462 1.5003 1.0006 12.690 9.98
413
Plot Figure 2A-21 with above values of P vs W/H =_.75,
1.5, and 3, and determine Pmax w 7.30 psi for W/H - 1.33.
b. For Pso - 12.6 psi, determine T, and T 2 for W/H - .75, 1.5,
and 3 from Figure 2-213, as summarized below.
W/H .75 1.5 3
TI 1.82 4.95 11.7

T2 3.20 6.50 12.5
Plot Figure 2A-21 using above values of W/H and T 1 and T 2 ,

and determine T- 4.4 ms and T2 - 5.9 ms for W/H - 1.33.
c. For P w 12.6 psi and L/H

-o - 2, determine T 3 and T 4 for W/H -
.75, 1.5 and 3 and Lw/L - .75, 1, 1.5, and 2, from figures 2-
218 to 2-221, as summarized below:
Plot figure 2A-21 with above values, and interpolate to de-

termine T 3 and T 4 , for Lw/L a 1.27 for W/H - .75, 1.5, and 3,
as summarized below.
W/H .75 1.5 3
T 35 18 24
3
T4 71 71 74.5
Plot figure 2A-21 with above values, and determine T 3 19 ms

and T 4 - 71 ms, for W/H - 1.33.
d. For Pmax ' 7.3 psi, T1 w 4.4 ms, T2 - 5.9 ms, T3 = 19 ms and
T 4 - 71 ms plot figure 2A-23.
Step 5. Back wall idealized interior pressure-time blast load.
a. For L/H - 2, Pso " 12.6 psi and Ao/Aw w 1/8, determine
PRIB/Pso = 0.575 from Figure 2-234.
b. PRIB " (P (, 1 /Pso) x Pso w 0.575 x 12.6 a 7.5 psi.
414
IFI
202
T,!
W/ H W/H
757
-to.
c. For Pso " 12.6 psi, L/H - 2, and AolAw = 1/8, determine T,
for W/H - .75, 1.5 and 3 from Figures 2-230 and 2-231, as is
shown below.
W/H .75 1.5 3
T1 19.0 21 .5 24.0
Plot figure 2A-22_using above values, and determine T I - 21.1

ms for W/H - 1.33.
d. For Pso " 12.6 psi and Ao/A w - 1/8, determine T 2 -T - 2.35
ms from figure 2-232.
Determine T2 - (T2 - T I ) 4 - 2.35 ms + 21.1 ms - 23.5 ms.
e. Plot figure 2A-23 using PRIB " 7.5 psi, T I - 21.1 ms and T2 -
23.5 ms.
Step 6. Roof idealized interior pressure-time blast load
a. Sidewall W/H - 1-1/3 - 4/3
Roof W/H - 1/(4/3) - 3/4
b. Repeat Step 4 with W/H - 3/4
For W/11 - 3/4, L/H - 2.0, Ao/A w = 1/8, Lw/L - 1.272 and P.0 "
12.6,
=
Pmax 6.2 psi
For W/H - 3/4 and Pso " 12.6 psi
T I - 1.82 and T 2 - 3.20 ms
For W/H - 3/4, Pso - 12.6 psi, and Lw/L - 1.27
T 3 - 35 and T 4 - 65 ms
Plot figure 2A-23 with above values.
416
4ft4
till.
I I,
0 25 2.5
W/H
FIGURE 2A-22
417
(a) EXTERIOR FRONT WAL L
a.
1444M4
*10
0.L
ms
(b) INTERIOR SIDETWALL
0
(d~~
BAC INTERIO
WAL
I il
T. T
(e)
NTEIF ROOF
10 f-, f
LuF
-4 + [[fill.
7.
.4.5.ID*. 3. 5 . . .- ~ .4 .. 80
Problem 2A-12, Interior Pressure Buildup in a Structure
Problem: Determine the interior pressure-time curve for a structure with an

opening in one of its walls and subjected to an applied blast
pressure.
Procedure:
Step 1. Determine the pressure-time history of the applied blast pressure

P acting on the wall surrounding the opening in the structure as
presented in problem 2A-10. Also the area of the opening Ao and
the volume of the structure V. must be known.
Step 2. Divide the duration to of the applied pressure into n equal

intervals At, each interval being approximately to/10 to t 0 /20,
and determine the pressures at the end of each interval.
Step 3. Compute the pressure differential P-Pi where Pi is the interior

pressure. Obtain the leakage pressure coefficient CL for each P-
Pi from figure 'i-235.
Step 4. Calculate AP i from
A
6P " (-!) At (eq. 2-31)
0
using the proper values for CL and At. Add AP i to Pi for the in-
terval being considered to obtain the new value of Pi for the next
interval.
Step 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each interval using the proper values of
P and Pi" Plot curve of pressure buildup.
Note:
When P-P 1 becomes negative, the value of CL must be taken as
negative also.
Example 2A-12, Interior Pressure Buildup in a Structure
Required: Interior pressure-time curve for a structure with an opening in

one of its walls and subjected to an applied blast pressure.
Solution:
Step 1. The curve of the applied blast pressure P for the wall in question
is shown in figure 2A-24. (Only the positive phase of the blast
wave is considered in this example.)
419
4
3U
APLE LS RESR NW
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
TIME (ins)
FIGURE 2A-2
420I
Area of opening A0 - 3' x 3' - 9 sq ft.
Volume of structure V - 10' x 10' x 10'

0
Vo =1,000 cu ft
Step 2. to -55 ms
Use n - 10 At - 5.5 ms
For the first interval, P - 3.5 psi at t - 0
Step 3. Pi 0 for the first interval
$"P - PiI 3.50 -0 -3.50 psi
CL - 8.75 (fig. 2-235)
A
step 4. APi - C 2 at (eq. 2-31)
0.
APi =8.75 (T' ') (5.5) - 0.433 psi

1 1000
new P1 0 + 0.433 - 0.433 psi
Step 5. The remainder of the analysis is presented in tabular form below

and the pressure buildup within the structure is plotted in figure
2A-24.
(I)
CL AP
(Ms) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi-ft/ms) (psi)
0. 3.50 0. 3.50 8.75 0.1433

5.5 3.15 0.1133 2.72 7.00 0.347
11.0 2.80 0.780 2.02 5.45 0.27C
16.5 2.45 1.05 1.40 3.78 0.187
22.0 2.10 1.24 0.86 2.32 0.115
27.5 1.75 1.36 0.39 1.05 0.052
33.0 1.140 1.141 -0.01 -0.027 -0.0013
38.5 1.05 1 .41 -0.36 -0.972 -0.048
44.0 0.70 1.36 -0.66 -1.78 -0.088
49.5 0.35 1.27 -0.92 -2.48 -0.123
55.0 0. 1.14 -1.14 -3.50 -.173
60.5 0. .97 -.97 -3.00 -.148
66.0 0. .82 -. 82 -2.50 -. 1240
71.5 0. .70 -.70 -2.25 - .11l
77.0 0. .59 -.59 -2.00 -.099
82.5 0. .49 -.49 -1.80 -.089
421
I I I II
t P Pi P-Pi CL APi
(ms) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi-ft/ms) (psi)
88.0 0. .40 -.40 -1.60 -.079

93.5 0. .32 - .32 -1..45 -. 071
99.0 0. .25 -.25 -1.30 -.064
104.5 0. .19 -.19 -1.15 -.056
110.C 0. .13 -.13 -1.0 -.050
115.5 0. .01 -. 08 -. 85 -. 042
121.0 O. .04 -. 04 -. 05 -. 025
126.5 0. .01 -. 01 -. 0 -. 01
132.0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
(1) Maximum Pi occurs between t - 27.5 and t - 33.0 ms
Problem 2A-13 Primary Fragments from Cased Cylindrical Charges
Problem: Determine the average fragment weight for a primary fragment

ejected from a uniform cylindrical steel casing; the total number
of fragments, the design fragment weight and the number of frag-
ments weighing more than the design 'ragment.
Procedure:
Step 1. Establish design parameters:
a. type of explosive.
b. average casing thickness, tc.
c. average inside diameter of casing, d,.
d. total casing weight, Wc
e. confidence level, CL.
Step 2. Determine the value of t~e explosive constant B for the given type
of explosive from table 2-6. With this value and the values of t.
and di from step 1, calculate the fragment distribution MA from
5/6 1/3
M
MAA Bttc d /3 [1
[ -1
c (e. 2-37)
Step 3. With the value o MA from step 2, calculate the average weight of
the fragments from
Wf - 2M2 (eq. 2-40)

f A
422
Step 4. Calculate the total number of fragments using the value of We from
step Id and MA from step 2 and equation 2-37.
2
N - 8W/M (eq. 2-39)
T c A
or: With the values of d i and t c from step 1, enter figure 2-241 and
determine B2 NT/W . From this value, the value of B from step 2 and
WC from step 1 find NT.
Step 5. Find the design fragment weight for the confidence level CL, given
in step 1, using the value of MA and
W M n (1 - CL) for CL < 0.9999 (eq. 2-42)

f A
or equation 2-43 if CL > 0.9999
Step 6. Using the value of W. from step 1. MA from step 2 and W froi step
5, determine the number of fragments which weigh more than the de-
sign fragment from
M
8W e -
[
(Wf) 12/ A]
Nf= c 2 (eq. 2-36)
or: Calculate the number of fragments which weigh more than the design
fragment using the confidence level of step 1, the total number of
fragments from step 4 and equation 2-244.
Example 2A-13 Primary Fragments from Cased Cylindrical Charges
Required: The average fragment weight, the total number of fragments, the
design fragment weight and the number of fragments weighing more
than the design fragment.
Solution:
Step 1. Given:
a. type of explosive: Comp B

b. average casing thickness: te - 0.50 inch
c. average inside diameter of casing: d, - 12.0 inche3
423
d. total easing weight: Wc - 65.0 lbs
e. confidence level: CL - 0.95
Step 2. For Comp B, B - 0.22 (table 2-7)
B5/6 1/ _te
MA - Bt di1/3 (I dC) (eq. 2-37)
- 0.22 (0.5) 5 / 6 (12) (1 0 2 12"

-5) 0.294
.9
Step 3. Average weight of fragments-
Wf - 2M2 - 2 X (0.294)2 0.17 oz (eq. 2-40)
Step 4. Total number of fragments.
N - 8W /M - 8 X 65/0.294 - 6016 fragments (eq. 2-39)
B2 NT
or: - - 0.28 (fig. 2-37)

e
N 0.28 X (65 X 16)/.222 6016 fragments

T Q.0
Step 5. Design fragment weight.
W M2 in2 (1 - CL) - 0.2942 r2 (1 0.95) - 0.78 oz

f A
(eq. 2-42)
Step 6. Number of fragments weighing more than Wf - 0.78 oz.
8W e "" (W 112/M A ]-(0.78) 12/0.294

Nf e A (8 X 65) e
2 2
MA (0.294)2
298 fragments (eq. 2-36)
42
424 "
im- . . ,...
-. . ,.., , , ,.W.. '' | l l -. l l ' r" *. . .i .. l
' "
't .
".. . . . . . .' ' ". . ... ,
or: CL - 1 - NflNT (eq. 2-44)
Nf - NT (0 - CL) - 6016 (1 - 0.95) - 301 fragments
I' T
Problem 2A-1JI Primary Fragment Velocity
Problem: Determine the initial velocity of a primary fragment and its

striking velocity.
Procedure:
Step 1. Establish design parameters.
a. shape of charge
b. dimensions of charge
c. type and density of explosive
d. type and density of casing
e. distance from center of charge to impact location
f. weight of fragment
Step 2. Calculate the total weight of the explosive W and increase it 20%.
Find the weight of the casing W.. Also calculate the ratio of the
explosive weight to the casing weight W/W e.
1/2
Step 3. Determine the Gurney Energy Constant (2E') for the explosive
charge from table 2-5. With this value and the value of W/We from
CI
step 2, calculate the initial vo of the primary fragments from the
equation chosen from table 2-6.
or: Calculate the casing to charge weight ratio Wo/W. With Wc/W, find
the initial velocity from figure 2-237, for proper shape.
Step 4. For the distance traveled by the fragment Rf, calculate the strik-
ing velocity v. using the initial velocity from step 3, the weight
of the fragment from step Ig and
S1/3
v8 vye . fff (eq. 2-48)
0
425
-. . 4 #.................
,4 ,. . . ,4 . - - ,- # " , t ,Q f f , W"
" . r ., "
or: With the fragment weight Wf and striking distance Rf from step 1,
enter figure 2-243 and find the ratio of the striking velocity to
initial velocity. Multiply the ratio by the initial velocity v.
from step 3 to find the striking velocity vs .
Kiample 2A-14 Primary Fralpent Velocity
Required: The initial velocity and striking veloci.y of a primary fragment.
Sol ut ion:
Step 1. Given;
a. spherical charge
b. Inner diameter of charge: di - 6 inches
average casing thickness: tc a 0.25 inches
c. type of explosive TNT
3
density of explosive - 0.0558 lb/in
d. mild steel casing 3
density of cas~ng - 0.283 lb/in
e. striking dtstanoe Rf - 35 ft.
f. weight of fragment, Wf - 2 oz
Step 2. a. weight of the explosive
W- w ( )3 X 0.0558 - b.31 lbs
b. Increase weight of explosive 20 percent
W - 1.20 X 6.31 - 7.57 lb
c. Weight of casing
14 3 3
2
Wo - i (3.5 - 3) X 0.283 - 18.82 lb
3
d. Explosive weight to casing weight ratio.
W/W - 7.57/1 8.82 - 0.402

C
Step 3. For TNT, (2E) 1/2 - 8000 (table 2-5)
Initial velocity from table 2-6
426
4 -0
-4 A4
-th-
P-
/2 W/ W
Vo+ , (2E,) 1/2 [ c
3W
1/2
5Wc
0.40 1/2
v - (8000) [I + 0.40 (3/5]3 4500 ft/sec
or: Wo /W - 18.82/7.57 - 2.49
from figure 2-237
112
v0 (2E') - 0.56
voS - 0.56 X 8000 = 4500 ft/sec
Step 4. Striking velocity
vs .v 0e - 0.004 RWf
f= 1/ 3 5 e
4500 - 0.004 x 35/21/3
(eq. 2-48)
vs - 4030 ft/sec
or: from figure 2-243
v so/v 0 . 0.895
v - 0.895 X 4500 = 4030 ft/sec
Problem 2A-15 Unootrained Seoondary Fragments "Close" to a Charge
Problem: Determine the velocity of an unconstrained object close to an ex-

plosive charge and its maximum range.
Procedure:
4%
427
Step 1. Establish design parameters
a. weight W and shape of TNT equivalent explosive

b. radius or explosive Re
c. shape, dimensions and weight of target
d. distance from the center of the explosive charge to the
surface of the target, R
e. orientation of target with respect to the explosive charge
f. mass density of air p0
Step 2. Calculate the ratio of standoff distance to radius of the explo-

sive R/Re using the values from step 1.
Step 3. From figure 2-249, determine target shape factor, B.
Step 4 a. If R/Re is less than or equal to 10 for cylindrical charges,

or less than equal to 5.0 for spherical charges, determine the
specific acquired impulse either from figure 2-250 or equa-
tions 2-60, or 2-61.
b. If 10 < R/Re < 20 for a cylindrical charge., or 5 < R/ e < 20

for a spherical charge, calculate the scaled standoff distance
1/ 3
ZA a R/W With that value of ZA, obtain the normal re-
.
flected impulse from figure 2-7. The normal reflected impulse
is then used as the specific acquired impulse.
Step 5. Calculate the mean presented area A of the target and the mass M
using the values of step 1.
Step 6. With the area and mass from step 4, the target shape factor B from
step 2 and the impulse from step 3, calculate the velocity from
0o V 1000
12 HABI (eq. 2-59)
Step 7. Determine the drag coefficient CD from table 2-8. Using that
value of CD, the area and mass of the target from step 5, the
velocity from step 6 and the mass density of air from step if,
2
evaluate the term: 12 p0 CDADv /Mg.
42'
.~ .~..*.
Step 8. ,vith the term calculated in step 7, enter figure 2-252 and read
tne value of 12 p C A R/M from which the range R is calculated.
Example 2A-15 Unoonstrained Seoondary Fragments "Close" to a Charge
Required: The ielocity and maximum range of a steel tool holder resting on a
lathe when a charge being held by the lathe explodes.
Solution:
Step 1. Given:
a. spherical charge of TNT

W = 15 lbs
b. radius of explosive: Re . 0.33 ft
c. cylindrical target; ler:gth- 8.0 In
Rt = 1.0 In - 0.083 ft
Wt - 7.13 lb
d. standoff distance: R - 1.0 ft
e. tool holder is resting so that its longitudinal axis is per-
pendicular to the radial line from the charge
f. mass density of air: Po . 0.115 lb - ms2 /in
Step 2. Ratio of standoff distance to radius of explosive:
R/R e = 1.0/0.33 - 3.03
Step 3. Target shape factor.
8 n/4 from figure 2-512
Step 4. Determine specific acquired impulse
(-e) .158 ps I-ms

a. , 8000 ps-s(fig 2-250)
eff t ft
b. Ref f -R e 0.33 ft (eq. 2-61)
429
A1
1!-
i (0.33 ft) (--08) 0.158 X 8000 si-ms

c. -.
0.33 ft
I - 1667 psi-ms
Step 5. Calculate area and mass of target.
a. Mean presented area

2
16 in
A - 2.0 in X 8.0 in -
b. Mass
2
7.13 lb - 18,450 lb-ms
.
32.2 x 12 x 10- 6 in 2 in
g
ms
Step 6. Find the velocity.
o = 1000 ABi 1000 X 16 X (/f/4) X 16(eq. 2-59)

12 M 12 X 18450
v - 95 ft/sec
o
Step 7. Evaluate the term 12 p0 CDA DVo 2 /Mg.
a. CD = 1.2 (table 2-8)
12P oCDAD Vo0 2 " 0.115 (1.2) (16) (95) 2 12

b. Mg 18450 X 32.2
Step 8. Calculate the range.
12 p CDADR
a. M - 0.33 (f ig. 2-252)
b. R - O.33M/(012p oC DA
0.33 (18450)/[12 (0.115) 1.2 (16)] 230 ft.
430
Problem 2A-16 Unoonstrained Secondary Fragments "Far" from a Charge
Problem: Determine the velocity of an unconstrained object "far" from an

explosive charge.
Procedure:
Step 1. Establish design parameters:
a. weight W of TNT e4uivalent explosive

b. shape, dimensions and weight of target
c. distance from the center of explosive charge to surface of the
target
d. orientation and location of target with respect to the
explosive charge
e. velocity of sound in air, a o
f. atmospheric pressure, p0
Step 2. Calculate the scaled standoff distance from:
Z = R /W 1/3
From figure 2-7, and the scaled distance find the peak incident
overpressure and the incident specific impulse.
Step 3. Determine the drag coefficient CD from table 2-8 based on the
shape and orientation of target (step 1).
Step 4. Calculate the mass of the target. Determine the distance from the
front of the target to the location of its largest cross-sectional
area, X. Also, determine the minimum transverse distance of the
mean presented area, H, and the presented area.
Step 5. Determine the constant K, which is equal to 4 if the object is on

the ground or reflecting surface. If the target is in the air, K
is equal to 2.
Step 6. With the peak incident overpressure Pso from step 2 and the atmos-
pheric pressure Po from step if, find Pso/Po"
431
Step 7. Evaluate the term 12CDisa 0 /1O [Ps (KH + X)] using i s and Pso
from step 2, C. from step 3, a o from step le, K from step 5 and H
and X from step 4.
Step 8. With two terms calculated in steps 6 and 7 enter figure 2- 2 48 and
6
read 144v Ma /[10 P A(KH + X)] from which the velocity is calcu-
lated. 0 0
Example 2A-16 Unoonstrained Seoondary Fragments "Far" trom Charge
Required: The initial velocity of a steel tool holder resting on a nearby
table, when a charge explodes.
Solution:
Step 1. Given:
a. weight of explosive: W - 15 lbs of TNT

b. cylindrical target: length - 8.0 in
Rt = 1.0 in
S-7.1.3 lb
c. standoff distance: R = 10 ft --
d. tool holder is resting on a table so that its longitudinal
axis is perpendicular to the radial line from the charge
e. velocity of sound in air: aO = 1100 ft/sec
f. atmospheric pressure: po - 14.7 psi
Step 2. Find the peak incident overpressure and the incident specfic im-
pulse.
a. Scaled distance
1/ 3
ZA - R/W I/ 3 - 10/(15)1/3 - '4.05 ft/lb
b. Peak incident overpressure.
P so = 39 psi (fig. 2-7)
c. Incident specific impulse.
1s/W1/3 - 12 psi-ms/lb1 / 3 (fig. 2-7)
I - 12 (15)1/3 - 29.6 psi-ms
432
Step 3. Drag coefficient.
CD - 1 (from table 2-8 for cylinder loaded perpendicular

to axis.)
Step 4. a. Mass of target.

M - Wt - 7.13 lb - 18,450 lb-ms 2
9 32.2 x 12 x 10- 6 n2 in
ms
b. Location of Largest oross-section.
X - 1 in (radius of object in this case - see fig. 2A--2!)
c. Transverse distance of presented area.
H - 2.0 in (diameter of object in this case - see

fig. 2A-25).
d. Mean presented area.

2
A - 2 X 8 - 16 in
Step 5. Reflection constant.
Target is resting on table which is a reflecting surface so:
K .4
Step 6. Evaluate Pso/Po
Pso/Po - 39/14.7 - 2.65
Step 7. Evaluate 12C Dis a /[10 3P (KH + X)]
12CDis ao 12 (1.2) (29.6) (1100) - 1.34

-
103 P (KH + X) 103 (39) (2 X 4 + 1)
Step 8. Calculate the velocity.
1114 v0M a 0
10616PO -A
A (KH ++ X) - 6.0 (fig. 2-248)
6.0 (KH + X) 10 106 (6.0)(14.7)(16)(2 X 4 + 1)

o 144 Ma 144)(18450)(1100)
v - 4.34 ft/sec
o
433
1~
I.
I~.
,~I.
.1'~
k-I
FIGURE 2A-25
4'
434
U
I-
F.
Problem 2A-17 Constrained Seondary Fragments.
Problem: Determine the velocity of a constrained object close to an explod-

ing charge.
Procedure:
Step 1. Estab]tsh design parameters:
a. fragnent material.
b. dimensions of object.
c. boundary condition, cantilever or fixed-fixed.
d. specific impulse imparted to object.
Step 2. Determine the fragment toughness T from table 2-9 and the fragment
mass density pf.
Step 3. Calculate the loaded area of the object.
Step 4. Evaluate the term 0.3,

Ib (2L/b)O'[A(pf 0.5
T)] ,using the specific
impulse and object dimensions from step 1 , the fragment density
and toughness from step 2 and the load" rea from step 3. With
this term, enter figure 2-251 and read the value of 12V
100
(of/T) from which the velocity is calculated.
or: Using the specific impulse and object dimensions from step 1, the
fragnent density and toughness from step 2, and the loaded area
from step 3, calculate the velocity of the object from equation 2-
66.
Example 2A-17 Constrained Secondary Fragments
Required: The velocity of a cylindrical tool holder after it breaks free of

its moorings.
Solution:
.
Step 1. Given:
a. fragment material; A36 steel

b. dimensions of object: b = 2.0 inches
L = 8.0 inches .5,
c. boundary conditions; cantilever ,
d. specific impulse: i : 1667 psi-ms (see step 4 of example 2A-

,
1 5)
435
C -
Step 2. a. Fragment toughness.
T - 12,000 in-lb/in 3 (table 2-9)
b. Mass density of steel.
490 lb/ft 3 (ft3 /1728 in3 ) lb-ms"

32.2 ft/s (12 in/ft)(s 2/10 6ms 2) in4
Step 3. Loaded a'ea.

2 2
2
A = Trr = IT (1.0) - 3.14 in
Step 4. Calculate the velocity.
ib (2L. 0.3
o.~(s)314731667 x 2.0
~ 2 x 8 0.3
(--)- -- = 0.668
A(p fT) 3.14(734 x 12,000) 0.5
from figure 2-251
12 Pf 1/2
000 [-1 V = 0.7"5
1/0.025 1000 1,000) 12

so 1000 [] 8.4 fps
12 12 - 34 0.025
or from equation 2-66
1000 T_ 1/2
12
=
0 Tp -. 2369 0.3931L ;b2 L 0
1
(PfT l2
10001 000 /2
= 1 12,734 (-.2369 + 0.3931 X 0.668)
V = 8.6 fps
436
Problem 2A-18 Ground Shock Load
Problem: Determine the air blat and direct induced ground shock param-
eters.
Procedure: Air blast-induced ground shock.
Step I. Determine the charge weight, ground distance R, height of burst

He , if any, and structure dimensions.
'p 2. Apply a 20% safety factor to the charge weight.
Step 3. Calculate the scaled distance Z.
Read: From fig. 2-15
a. Peak positive incident pressJre Pso.

1/3
b. Scaled unit positive inct.. impulse i 8 /W' . Multiply
1/ 3
scaled value by W to obt,'1 dbsolute value.
c. Shock front velocity U.
Step 4. Determine the maximum vertical ground motions.
a. Calculate maximum vertical velocity.
VV (eq. 2-74)
V Cp
where:
p - Mass density of soil (table 2-10)
C = Compression wave seismic velocity in the soil

(table 2-11)
b. Calculate maximum vertical displacement
D (eq. 2-75)
DV 1,000 PCP
437
I. ...
!I
c. Calculate maximum vertical acceleration of the ground surface.
1ooP
-OOp s
o
(eq. 2-76)
AV-PC g
wher e:
2
g - Gravitational constant equal to 32.2 ft/sec
Step 5. Determine the maximum horizontal ground motions parameters.
a. Check C /12000 U > .707
b. Calculate maximum horizontal velocity.

-1
VH - V tan [sin (C /12,000 U)] ( eq. 2-77)
H V p
c. Calculate maximum horizontal displacement.
D = D tan [sin - I (C /12,000 U)] (eq. 2-78)

H V p
d. Calculate maximum horizontal acceleration.
AH = Avtan [sin- 1(C p/12,000 U)] (eq. 2-79)
Step 6. Determine arrival time tA and duration to:
a. Read from fig. 2-15.
t A/W1 / 3
scaled time of arrival of blast wave and,
t 0W1/ 3 scaled duration of positive phase.
b. Multiply scaled value by W1/ 3 to obtain absolute value.
Direct-Induced Ground Shock
Step 7. Determine the maximum vertical ground motions.
a. Calculate maximum vertical displacement.
438
D 0 1.3 (eq. 2-80, rock media)
V Z1.3
ZG
or
0.17 RG1/3WI/3
DV - 2.3 (eq. 2-83, dry or saturated soil)
z.
b. Calculate the maximum vertical velocity.
5
VV . 150/ZG1 . (eq. 2-85)
c. Calculite the maximum vertical acceleration.
A,- 1O,000/WI/3ZG 2 (eq. 2-87)
Stcp 8. Determine the maximum horizontal ground motion parameters.
a. Calculate the maximum horizontal displacement.
DH - 0.5 D V (eq. 2-82, rock media)
or
D - D, (eq. 2-84, dry or saturated soil)

Ii V
b. Calculate the maximum horizontal velocity.
VH . VV (eq. 2-86, all groumd media)
c. Calculate the maximum horizontal acceleration.
AH - 0.5 A,, (eq. 2-88, dry soil)
A - A (eq. 2-89, wet soil o' rock media)

H V
Step 9. Determine arrival time tAG:
439
!I
tAG - 12000 RJC (eq. 2-92)
Example 2A-18 Ground Shock Loads
Required: Maximum acceleration, velocity, and displacement at a point 155

ft. away from a surface burst of 5,000 lbs. Also required are;
times of arrival and duration of air-blast Induced ground shock.
Sol utlon:
Air blast-induced ground shock.
Step 1. GIven: Charge weight - 5,000 lbs., R = 155 ft., H c - 12 ft.
Step 2. W = 1.2 (5,000) - 6,000 lbs.
Step 3. Calculate the scaled distance Z.
I/ 3
Z R 155 -8.53 ft/lb
3
WI/ (6,000)1/3 .
Read from figure 2-15.
a. P 13 psi,
so
I I/3
b. i9
Ps-ms/lb 'I
W1/3
1 = 9 x W I/3 - 9 x (6,000) I 1 3 - 163.54 psi-ms
c. U - 1.5 ft/ms
Step 4. Determine the maximum vertical ground motion.
P
a. VV -s pCp (eq. 2-74)
13
V "--1--- 1.125 in/sec
1.65 x 10 x 70,000
b. DV 0 (eq. 2-75)
V 1,000 P
440
' '
-,--
,,., ,... . , -,,
.. -.- - - , ... . .. ,,. i. . l l f ...
"TIi ".. " .~ - .. -. I. "f -"- i"- -' 1""i f lrI"
DV 163.5 - 0.0142 in
1,000 (1.65 x 10 - ) 70,000
10O0 P
10 Pso
(eq. 2-76)
A a g 100 x 12.8 - 3.44 g

v (1.65 x 10 - 4 ) 70,000 x 32.2
Step 5. Determine the maximum horizontal gr'ound motion.

I
a. Check C /1 2000 U > .707
P
70,000/12,000 x 1.5 - 3.89 > .707
b. VH - V V a 1.125 in/sec
C. DH - DV . 0.0142 in
d. A - AV a 3.4 g
Step 6. Arrival time tA
a. Read from figure 2-15.
tA A - 3.35 msllb I1 / 3
3 I/ 3
t 0/W 1/ . 2.35 ms/ib1
/ 3
b. t A "3.35 x W -/3.35 (6,000)1
tA - 60.90 ms
t - 2.35 x W - 2.35 x (6,000)1/3

0
t0 42.70 ms U
Direct-induced ground shock.
Step 7. Maximum vertical ground motions.
0.17 Ro1/3w1/3
a. D R 3/ (eq. 2-83)
V Z2.3
ZG
0.17 (155)113 (6,000)1/3 0.1198 in

(8.53)2.3
150_
b. V 150
ZG1.5 (eq. 2-85)
V= 150 - 6.020 in/see

(853)1.5
10,000
c. A . 10/300 (eq. 2-87)
G
AV. 10,000 2 7.56 g
(6,000)1/3 (8.53)2
,.
Step 8. Horizontal ground motions.
a. DH - DV (eq. 2-84)
D - 0.1198 in.
b. V - Vv (eq. 2-86)
VH - 6,020 in/sec
c. AH - 0.5 A (eq. 2-88)
442
'p
.
1-
r-
AH - 0.5 (7.56) "
A H . 3.78 g
Step 9. Arrival time tAG
t = 12,000 R /C p W 12,000 x 155 (eq. 2-92)

AG G 70,000
tAG - 26.6 ms
Problem 2A-19 Structwe Motion Due to Air Shck
Problem: Determine the maximum horizontal acceleration, displacement and

velocity of an above ground structure subjected to air shock.
Procedure:
Step 1. Determine external loadings acting on the roof, front and rear
walls according to the procedure outlined in problem 2A-10.
Step 2. Construct the horizontal force-time load curve by combining the

front and rear wall loadings from step I applied over the area of
front and rear walls. Use times of arrival to phase these two
loads.
Step 3. Calculate the dead weight and mass of the structure.
Step 4. Construct the downward force-time curve by adding the weight of

the structure and total roof load. The roof load is the pressure-
time loading from step 1 applied over the total area of the roof.
Step 5. Determine the coefficient of friction between soil and the

structure from table 2-12.
Step 6. Determine maximum horizontal acceleration, displacement and ve-

locity using the acceleration impulse extrapolation method out-
lined in Volume III, Article 3-19.2.1.2 of this manual. The re-
sisting force at each time interval is equal to the value of down-
ward force curve of step 4 multiplied by the coefficient of fric-"
tion determined in step 5. The resisting force Is assumed to be
effective when the total horizontal movement is equal to or larger
than 1/4 inch as mentioned in paragraph
443
Example 2A-19 Structure Motion Due to Air Shook
Required: Maximum horizontal acceleration, velocity and displacement of the

square structure shown in figure 2A-9 from problem 2A-10 for a
surface burst of 5,000 lbs at a distance from the front wall of
155 ft. Assume a coarse and compact soil. Roof, floor slab and
side walls are 1 foot thick reinforced concrete slabs and assume a
50 psf of internal dead load for the structure.
Step 1. External loadings on the structure are determined according to the

procedure in example 2A-10. See figures 2A-10, 2A-12 and 2A-13.
The arrival time (tA) for these loads are tabulated in step 3d of
example 2A-10.
tAf (front wall) -60.9 ms
tAb (rear wall) - 83.6 ms
Step 2. a. Calculate area of front and rear walls.

2
Area (front and rear) = 30 x 12 x (12)2 = 51840 in
b. Calculate the time difference between the rear and front walls
from step 1.
At - t ab - tr - 83.6 - 60.9 - 22.7 ms
c. Construct the horizontal force-time load curve by multiplying

the values of the front and rear wall curves from sTep 1 by
the area from step 2a. Rear wall load starts at time equal to
6t - 22.7 from step 2b. See figure 2A-26.
Step 3. a. Calculate dead weight of structure Wd. Assume concrete weight

is 150 psf.
W-d 150 [4 (30- 1) (12-1) + 2 (30)2] + 50 (30-2)2 - 500,600 lbs
444
3,000,000
100 too go
TIME ,ms
FRONT WALL
1,000,000~-
00
"~ REAR WALL
2,000,000-
1,000,000
__ ;0 11__,_02 TIME,mns
COMBINED
FIGURE 2A -26
445
b. Calculate total mass.
2 6 lb ms2
Wd 500,600 (1000)
m . . .. 1295.55 x 10
g 32.2 x (12) in
Step 4. a. Calculate area of the roof.

2
Area (roof) - 302 x (12)2 _ 129,600 irn
b. Construct the downward force-time curve by multiplying the

values of the roof curve from step 1 by the roof area from
step 4a, and adding the dead weight of structure Wd - 500,600
lbs from step 3a. (If the resulting value is negative, assume
zero). See figure 2A-27 below.
tJ
0--
-.309,30 4
INN
800,800
I10 ...o.... oo I300
0..
Figure 2A-27
Step 5. Coefficient of friction u from table 2-12 for coarse and compact
soil.
. 0.60
Step 6. Using tne acceleration impulse extrapolation method from Volume

III of this manual determine maximum horizontal acceleration, dis-
placement and velocity of the structure due to load curve (P) from
step 2c. Resisting force R is tne friction force produced due to
the downward load curve F from step 4b after an initial lateral
translation of 1I inch. Use two m3 time intervals for extrapola-
tion. The following are the equations used in the extrapolation
shown in Table 2A-3.
446
ni
P
- man
n n n
Rn =Fn-
F
2
XXn + 1 2X u Xn-i + a n (At)
Vn Vn - 1 + an (At)
where
Pn - Load at time of step n (step 2c)
Rn - Resisting Friction Force at time step n
m - Mass from (step 3b)
a n - Acceleration at time step n
u - Friction coefficient (step 5)

Fn - Downw4ard force at time step n (step 4b)
n
Xn Deflection at time step n
Vn - Velocity at time step n
The maximum motions from Table 2A-3 are:
%rax .00122 in/ms 2 << 101.67 ft/sec 2 4K3.16 g's
Vmax - .01231 in/ms < 1.026 ft/sec
Da .355 in '
Problem 2A-20 Shock Response Spectra
Problem: Ccnstruct the elastic shock response spectra for the interior cor-
ponents of an above ground structure subject to an external explo-
sion.
Procedure:
447
N
65
5 55 a 5
OF , a'5 56Z,5 *98
93ii (A N '
co~
->4
'I~~~ t 3I -t
r- - I I I I
0.- '.o 'V t- ta; m Fj
448i
Step 1. Determine maximum acceleration, velocity and displacement due to
ground shock according to procedure outlined in Problem 2A-18.
Step 2. Determine maximum acceleration, velocity and displacement due to

air shock according to the procedure outlined in Problems 2A-10
and 2A- 19.
Step 3. Determine if the ground shock is outrunning or superseismic (para-

graph 2-23.2). For outrunning ground shock the maximum values of
displacement, velocity and acceleration in horizontal and vertical
directions are the algebraic summation of the maximum motions from
steps 1 and 2. Otherwise proceed to step 4.
Step 4. For superseismic ground shock the maximum values of displacement.,

velocity and acceleration are the numerically larger values uf
direct-induced ground shock or the algebraic sum of the maximum
motions from air shock and air-burst induced ground shock.
Step 5. Calculate the magnitude of acceleration, velocity and displacement

for response spectra in horizontal and vertical directions by mul-
tiplying the maximum values of motions from step 3 or step 4 by
their appropriate factor from paragraph 2-24.3.
Step 6. Draw the horizontal and vertical shock response spe.ctr'as.
Example 2A-20 Shock Response Spectra
Required: Shock response spectra for the structure defined in Examples 2A-18
and 2A-19. 'C
Solution:
Step 1. Maximum values of motion in vertical and horizontal directions due

to ground shock according to the procedure outlined in Example 2A-
18 are:
a. Air blast-induced
A A - 3.44 g
H V
VH V V - 1.125 in/sec
D = D = .014 in
H V
b. Direct-induced
449
AH - 3.78 g
Av - 7.56 g
V
V- V 6.02 in/sec
DH - DV - .120 in
Step 2. Maximum horizontal acceleration, velocity and displacement due to

air shock following the procedure outlined in Examples 'A-10 and
2A-19.
A max - 3.16 g
V max - 12.31 in/sec
I
D max - .355 in
Step 3. a. Check for outrunning ground shock
TG < TA
AG(A:
From Example 2A-18
TAG - 26.6 ms
T - 60.9 ms
A
T AG < T Outrunning ground shock

A
b. Add the values of maximum motions from step 1 and step 2.
.. A max - 3.16 + 3.44 + 3.78 - 10.38 g
. H max - 12.310 + 1.108 + 6.020 - 19.438 in/sec
D max - .355 + .014 + .120 - .489 in

H
and
450
. Ay max - 3.44 +7.56 - 11.00g
" V max - 1.108 + 6.020 - 7.128 in/se
'. DV max - .014 + .120 - .134 in
Step 4. Does not apply, the ground shock i, not superselsmic.
Step 5. Magnitude of the mot-ons for respcna-. spectra.
AH - 10.38 x 2.0 - 20.76 g
V - 19.438 x 1.5 - 29.157 in/sec

H
DH = .489 x 1.0 - .489 in
and
AV a 11.00 x 2.0 - 22.00 g
V - 7.128 x 1.5 - 10.692 ln/sec
DV - .134 x 1.0 - .134 in
Step 6. See the shock response spectra for the values from step 6 in
figure 2A-28.
45
451
114 x c
U IP
6.1 0 h
0 40i
2 hi
22
I, -
aS
PiO~~~~OI~ LD3 N ~lIY
N Llv4v
el! N
PU0213A J0Finfll1X
90 741111 A.JI:)0
16S2
APPENDIX 2B - LIST OF SYMBOLS
a (1) acceleration (in./ms 2 )
(2) depth of equivalent rectangular stress block (in.)

(3) long span of a panel (in.)
a o velocity of sound in air (ft./sec.)
ax acceleration in x direction (in./ms 2 )
ay acceleration in y direction (in./ms2 )
A (1) area (in.2 )
3/ 2
(2) explosive composition factor (oz.
112
-in. - )
Aa area of diagonal bars at the support within a widt'i b (in. 2

Ab area of reinforcing bar (in.2 )
2
Ad (1) door area (in. )
(2) area of diagonal bars at the support within a width b
(in.2)
2
drag area (in. )
AD
2
Af net area of wall excluding openings (ft. )
Ag area of gros3 section ) (in.2

AH maximum horizontal acceleration o" nd surface (g's)
At area of longitudinal tors'on rei, in. 2 )
2
AL lift area (in. )
Ar (1) net area of section (in.2 )
(2) area of individual wall subdivision (ft. 2 )
2
A0 area of openings (ft. )
02 2
Ap
As area of prestressed reinforcement (in.
area of tension reinforcement within a width b
(in.2) 2
A area of compression reinforcement within a width b (in. )
(in. 2 )
2F
A-
S
area of rebound reinforcement
AsH area of flexural -einforcement within a width b in the hori-

2
zontal direction on each face (in. )*
A area of spiral reinforcement (In. 22 )
2
A total area of reinforcing steel (in. )
See note at end or zymbols.
453
AsV area of flexural reinforcement within a width b in the vertical
direction on each face (In.2)*
At area of one leg of a closed tie resisting torsion within a dis-
tance s (in.2 )
AV total area of stirrups or lacing reinforcement in tension with-
in a distance, ss or s, and a width b. or b, (in.2 )
AV maximum vertical acceleration of the ground surface (g's)
2
Aw area of wall (ft. )
Ail A11 area of sector I and II, respectively (in,2
b (1) width of compression face of flexural member (in.)

(2) width of concrete strip in which the direct shear stresses
at the supports are resisted by diagonal bars (in.)
(3) short span of a panel (in.)

bf width of fragment (in.)
bs width of concrete strip in which the diagonal. tension stresses
are resisted by stirrups of area Av (in.)
bt wi-dth of concrete strip in which the diagonal tension stresses
are resisted by lacing of area A. (in.)
bo failure perimeter for punching shear (in.)
bt center-to-center dimension of a closed rectangular tie along b
(in.)
B explosive constant defined in table 2-7 (oz.
11 2
In. ' 7/6)
c (1) distance from the resultant applied load to the axis of ro-
tation (in.)..
(2) damping coefficient
(3) width of columa capital (in.) 4
c I , III distance from the resultant applied load to the axis of rota-
tion for sectors I and IJ, respectively (in.)
c3 dilatational velocity of conc.'ete (f,../sec,)
C (1) shear coefticient "
(C) defiection coe-fficient for f.at slabs
cc deflection coefficient for the center of interlor panel of flat
slab $
.4
Ccr crJtical damping
* See rinte ,itend of !yrnbois.
|&'ft
Cd shear coefficient for ultimate shear stress of one-way elements
CD drag coefficient
CDq drag pressure (psi)
CDq o peak drag pressure (psi)
CE equivalent load factor
8
Cf post-failure fragment coefficient (b. 2-ms 4/In. )
CH shear coefficient for ultimate shear stress in horizontal
direction for two-way elements*
CL (1) leakage pressure coefficient from figure 2-235
(2) deflection coefficient for midpoint of long side of inter-
ior flat slab panel
(3) lift coefficient
CM maximum shear coefficient
Cm equivalent moment correction factor
CP comprcssion wave seismic velocity in the soil from Table 2-10
(tn./sec.)
Cr sound velocity in reflected region from figure 2-192 (ft./ms)
CR force coefficient for shear at the corners of a window frame
Cra peak reflected pressure coefficient at angle of incidence a
CS shear coefficient for ultimate support shear for one-way ele-
ments
CsH shear coefficient for ultimate support shear in horizontal
Cs V shear coefficient for ultimate support shear in vertical direc-
tion for two-way elements*
CS deflection coefficient for midpoint of short side of interior
flat slab panel
Cu impulse coefficient at deflection Xu (psi-ms2/in.2 )
Ct impulse coefficient at deflection Xm (psi-ms2 /in. 2 )
Cv shear coefficient for ultimate shear stress in vertical
Cx shear coefficient for the ultimate shear along the long side of
window Irame
See note at end of symbols.

C shear coefficient for the ultimate shear along the short side
of window frame
CL confidence level
2 2)
C1 (1) impulse coefficient at deflection X I (psi-ms /inI.
(2) ratio of gas load to shock load
2 2
C1, impulse coefficient at deflection Xm (psi-ms /in. )
C2 ratio of gas load duration to shock load duration
d (1) distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of ten-
sion reinforcement (in.)
(2) diameter (in.)
(3) fragment diameter (in.)
d' distance from extreme compre3sion fiber to cenroid of compres-
sion reinforcement (in.)
db diameter of reinforcing bar (in.)
dcdistarce between the centroids of the compression and tension
reinforcement (in.)
dcH distance between the centroids of the horizontal compression
and tension reinforcement (in.)
dec diameter of steel core (in.)
dcv distance between the centroids of the vertical compression and
tension reinforcement (in.)
de distance from support and equal to distance d or de (in.)

di average inside diameter of explosive casing (in.)
d adjusted inside diameter of casing (in.)

dp distance between center lines of adjacent lacing bends measured
normal to flexural reinforcement (in.)
dp distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of pre-
stressed reinforcement (in.)

d3 p depth of spalled concrete (in.)
di diameter of cylindrical portion of primary fragment (in.)
D (1) unit flexural rigidity (lb-in.)
(2) location of shock front for maximum stress (ft.)
(3) minimum magazine separation distance (ft.) -F
3
(4) caliber density (lb/in. )
(5) overall diameter of circular section (in.)
(6) damping force (lb.)
456
(7) displacement of mass from shock load (in.)
DE equivalent loaded width of structure for non-planar wave front
(ft,)
DH maximum horizontal displacement of the ground surface (in.)
DIF dynamic Increase factor
diameter of the circle through centers of reinforcement
arranged in a circular pattern (in.)
D diameter of the spiral measured through the centerline of the
spiral bar (in.)
DLF dynamic load factor
Dv maximum vertical displacement of the ground surface (in.)
e (1) base of natural logarithms and equal to 2.71828...
(2) distance from centroid of section to centroid of pre-
stressed reinforcement (in.)
(3) actual eccentricity of load (in.)
e, balanced eccentricity (in.)
1 2
(2E') " Gurney Energy Constant (ft./sec.)
E (1) modulus of elasticity
(2) internal work (in.-lbs.)

modulus of elasticity of concrete (psi)
Em modulus of elasticity of masonry units (psi)
Es modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (psi)
f (1) unit external force (psi)
(2) frequency of vibration (cps)
f Cstatic ultimate compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
(psi)
dynamic ultimate compressive strength of concrete (psi)
dynamic ultimate compressive strength uf casonry units (psi)
f ds dynamic design stress for reinforcement (a function of fy, fu

and 0) (psi)
fdu dynamic ultimate stress of reinforcement (psi)

fdy dynamic yield stress of reinforcement (psi)
Am static ultimate compressive strength of masonry units (psi)
natural frequency of vibration (cps)
fp average stress in the prestressed reinforcement at ultimate
457
load (psi)
fpu specified tensile strength of prestressing tendon (psi)
fry yield stress of prestressing tendon corresponding to a 1 per-
cent elongation (psi)
fr reflection factor
fs static design stress for reinforcement (psi)

fse effective stress in prestressed reinforcement after allowances
for all prestress losses (psi)
fu static ultimate stress of reinforcement (psi)
fy static yield stress of reinforcement (psi)
F (1) total external force (lbs.)

(2) coefficient for moment of inertia of cracked section Ik
(3) function of C2 and C I for bilinear triangular load
Fo force in the reinforcing bars (lbs.)
FE equivalent external force (lbs.)
FD drag force (lbs.)
FF fr'cticnal force (lbs.)
FL lilt force
LL (lbs.)P
FN vertical load supported by foundation (lbs.)
g acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft./sec. 2 )
G shear modulus (psi)
h (1) charge location parameter (ft.)
(2) height of masonry wall
hn average clearing distance for individual areas of openings from
Section 2-15.4.2
ht center-to-center dimension of a closed rectangular tie along h
(in.)
h' clear height between floor slab and roof slab
H (1) span height (in.)*
(2) distance between reflecting surface(s) and/or free edge(s) 24
in vertical direction (ft.)
(3) minimum transverse dimension of mean presented area of

object (ft.)
Hc heigit of charge above ground (ft.)
H8 height of structure (ft.)
3l
458
h
HT height of triple point (ft.)
Hw height of wall (ft.)

Hc heat of combustion (ft.-lb./lb.)
Hd heat of detonation (ft.-lb./lb.)
I unit positive impulse (psi-ms)
Ia sum of blast impulse capacity of the receiver panel and the
least impulse absorbed by the sand (psi-m)
iba blast impulse capacity of receiver panel (psi-Ms)
i- unit negative impulse (psi-ms)
la sum of scaled unit blast impulse capacity of receiver panel arid
scaled unit blast impulse attenuated through concrete and sand
in a composite element (psi-ms/lb.1 / 3 )
ib unit blast impulse (psi-ms)
1/3
Tb scaled unit blast impulse (psi-ms/lb. )
iba scaled unit blast impulse capacity of receiver panel cf com--

1 / 3)
poaite element (psi-ms/lb.
ibd scaled unit blast impulse capacity of donor panel of composite
/3
element (psi-ms/lb.1 )
ibt total scaled unit blast impulse capacity of composite element
(psi-ms/lb.1/3)
ic impulse capacity of an element (psi-ms)
id total drag and diffraction impulse (psi-ms)
ie unit excess blast impulse (psi-ms)
ifs required impulse capacity of fragment shield (psi-ms)
t9gas impulse (psi-ms)
ir unit positive normal reflected impulse (psi-ms)
ir - unit negative normal reflected impulse (psi-ms)
Ira peak reflected impulse at angle of incidence a (psi-Ms)
is unit positive incident impulse (psi-ms)
Ii
s- unit negative incident impulse (psl-ms)
ist impulse consumed by fragment support connection (psi-ms)
I (1) moment of Inertia (in. /in. 414

for slabs) (in. for beams) 1%
(2) total impulse applied to fragment

e
459
Ia average of gross and cracked moments of inertia (in.4/in. for
4
slabs) (in. for beams)
Ic moment of inertia of cracked concrete section (in.4/in. for
4
IcH moment of inertia of cracked concrete section in horizontal
direction (in.4/in.)*
IcV moment of inertia of cracked concrete section in vertical
direction (in.4/in.)*
19 moment of inertia of gross concrete section (in.4/in. for

4
Im mass moment of Inertia (lb.-ms 2 -in.)
4
in moment of inertia of net section of masonry unit (in.
I gross moment of inertia of slab (in. 4/in.)
Ist impulse consumed by the fragment support connection (psi-ms)

Iw gross moment of inertia of wall (in. h/in.)
ratio of distance between centroids of compression and tension
forces to the depth d

k (1) constant depending on the casing metal
(2) effective length factor

kv velocity decay coefficient
K (1) unit stiffness (psi/in. for slabs) (lb./in./in. for beams)
(lb./in. for springs)

(2) constant defined in paragraph 2-18.2
Ke elastic unit stiffness (psi/in. for slabs) (lb./in./in. for
beams)
Kep elasto-pastic unit stiffness (psi/in. for slabs) (lb./in./in.
for beams)
KE (1) equivalent elastic unit stiffness (psi/in. for slabs)
(lb./in./ in. for beams)
(2) equivalent spring constant (lb./in.)
KL load factor
KLM load-mass factor
(KLM)u load-mass factor in the ultimate range
460
(KLM)up load-mass factor in the post-ultimate range
KM mass factor
KR resistance factor
KE kinetic energy
1 charge location parameter (ft.)
2. (1) length of the yield line (in.)
(2) width of 1.12 of the column strip (in.)
basic development length of reinforcing bar (in.)
dh development length o.' hooked bar (in.)
Ic length of cylindrical explosive (in.)
kp spacing of same type of !acing bar (in.)
Is span of flat slab panel (in.)
L (1) span length (in.)*
(2) distance between reflecting surface(s) and/or free edge(s) .,
In horizontal direction (ft.)
Ley I length of cylinder (in.)

Lf length of fragment (in.)
LH clear span in short direction (in.)

LZ length of lacing bar requried in distance s (in.)
LL clear span in long direction (in.)
Lo embedment length of reinforcing bars (in.)
Ls length of shaft (in.)
Lu unsupported length of column (in.)
Lw wave length of positive pressure phase (ft.)
Lw - wave length of negative pressure phase (ft.)
le p l d t (
Ly clear span in long direction (in.)
Ly clear span in short direction (in.)
Lwb, Lwd wave length of positive pressure phase at points b and d,
respectively (ft.)
LI total length of sector of element normal to axis of rotation
(in.)
m (1) unit mass (psi-rns2 /in. for slabs) [beams, (lb./in-ms2)/in.]
* See note at end of symbols.
4.1
(2) ultimate unit moment (in.-lbs./in.)
(3) mass of fragment (lbs.-ms 2 /in.)

ma average of the effective elasti.c and plastic unit masses (psi-
MS 2 /in, for slabs) [beams, (lb./in-ms 2 )/in]
Me effective unit mass (psi-ms 2/in. for slabs) [beams, (lb/in-

ms2 )/in]
msp mass of spalled fragments (psi-ms 2 /in.)
mu effective unit mass in the ultimate range (psi-ms'/in. for
slabs) [beams, (lb/in-ms 2 ]/in.]
mUD effective unit mass in the post-ultimate range (psi-ms2/n.)
M (I) unit bending moment (in.-lbs./in. for slabs) (in.-lbs. for
beams)
(2) total mass (lb.-ms /in.)
(3)design moment (in.-lbs.)
Me effective total mass (lb.-ms 2 /in.)
Mu ultimate unit resisting moment (in.-ibs./in. for slabs) (in.-

lbs. for beams)
M- ultimate unit rebound moment (in.-ibs./in. for slabs) (in.-lbs.
u
for beams)
Mc moment of concentrated loads about line of rotation of sector
(in.-lbs.)
MA fragment distribution factor
ME equivalent total masz. (lb.-ms 2/in.)
MHN ultimate unit negat - moment capacity in horlzontal direction
(in.-lbs./in.)*
MHP ultimate unit positive mo:nent capacity in horizontal direction
MOH, MOL total panel moment for direction H and L respectively (in.-
lbs.)
MN ultimate unit negative moment capacity at supports (In.-
lbs./in. for slabs) (in.-lbs. for beams)
M ultimate unit positive moment capacity at midspan (in.-lbs./in.
462
for slabs) (In.-Ios. for beams)
MVN ultimate unit negative moment capacity in vertical direction
(in.-lbs./in.)*
MVp ultimate unit positive moment capacity in vertical direction
(in.-lbs./in.)*
MI value of smaller end moment on column
M2 value of larger end moment on column
n (1) modular ratio
(2) number of time intervals
(3) number of glass pane tests
(4) caliber radius of the tangent ogive of fragment nose
N (1) number of adjacent reflecting surfaces
(2) nose shape factor
N. number of primary fragments larger than W
Nu axial load normal to the cross section
NT total number of fragments A A
p reinforcement ratio equal to or
bd -bd
c
A' A'
p' reinforcement ratio equal to - or s
oN
Pb reinforcement ratio producing balanced conditions at ultimate

strength
Po ambient atmospheric pressure (psi)
pp prestressed reinforcement ratio equal to Aps/bd p
PM mean pressure in a partially vented chamber (psi)
peak mean pressure in a partially vented chamber (psi)
Pr average peak reflected pressure (psi)

PH reinforcement ratio In horizontal direction on each face*
PT total reinforcement ratio equal to PH + PV
PV reinforcement ratio in vertical direction on each face*
p(x) distributed load per unit length
P (1) pressure (psi)
' See note at end of symbols.
463
(2) concentrated load (lbs.)
F- negative pressure (psi)
Pc critical axial load causing buckling (lbs.)
Pg maximum gas pressure (psi)
Pi interior pressure within structure (psi)
APi interior pressure increment (psi)
Pf fictitious peak pressure (psi)
Pax maximum average pressure acting on interior face of wall (psi)
?(1) peak pressure (psi)
(2) maximum axial load (lbs.)
(3) atmospheric pressure (psi)
Pr peak positive normal reflected pressure (psi)
Pr peak negative normal reflected pressure (psi)
Pr peak reflected pressure at angle of incidence a (psi)
PRIB maximum average pressure on backwall (psi)
P5 positive incident pressure (psi)
Psb' Pse psoitive incident pressure at points b and e, respectively
(psi)
Pso peak positive incident pressure (psi)
Pso- peak negative incident pressure (psi)
PsoL, Psod' peak positive incident pressure at points b, d, and e,
Psoe respeutively (psi)
Pu ultimate axial load at actual eccentricity c (lbs.)
Px ultimate load when eccentricity eV
Py ultimate load when eccentricity ey is present (lbs.)
q dynamic pressure (psi)
q0 ' qe dyna.mic presure at points b and e, respectively (psi)
qo) peak dynamic pressure (psi)
ob' qoe peak dynamic pressure at points b and e, respecitvely (psi)
r (1) unit resistance (psi)
(2) radius of spherical TNT [density equals 95 lb./ft. 3 ] charge
(ft.)
(3) radius of gyration of cross section of column (in.)
r- unit rebound resistance (psi, for slabs) (ib./ir. ror beams)
ravaii dynaimic resistance available (psi)
464
ar change in unit resistance (psi, for slabs) (lb./in. for beams) '
rd radius from center of impulse load to center of door rotation
(in.)
rDL uniform dead load (psi)

r e eastic
unit resistance (psi, for slabs) (lb./in. for beams)
rep elasto-plastic unit resistance (ps, for slabs) (lb./in. for
beams )
r ultimate unit resistance of fragment shield (psi)
r 3radius
s of shaft (in.)
rT tension membrane resistance (psi)

ru ultimate 'init resistance (psi, for slabs) (lb./in. for beams)
rup post-ultimate unit resistance (psi)
r, radius of' hemispherical portion of primary fragment (in.)
R (1) total internal resistance (lbs.)
(2) slant distance (ft.)

(3) ratio of S/G
(4) standoff distance (ft.)
Reff effective radius (ft.)
Rf (1) distance traveled by primary fragment (ft.)
(2) distance from center of detonation (ft.)

Rg uplift force at corners of window frame (lbs.)
R radius of lacing bend (in.)
Rt target radius (ft.)
RA normal distance (ft.)
RE equivalent total internal resistance (lbs.)
RG ground distance (ft.)
RU total ultimate resistance (lb.)
RI, RII total internal resistance of sectors I and II, respectively
(lbs.)
s (1) sample standard deviation
(2) spacing of torsion reinforcement in a direction parallel to
the longitudinal reinforcement (in.)
(3) pitch of spiral (in.)
ss spacing of stirrups in the direction parallel to the longitu-
465
dinal reinforcement (in.)
31 spacing of lacing in the direction parallel to the longitudinal

reinforcement (in.)
S height of front wall or one-half its width, whichever is
smaller (ft.)
So weighted average clearing distance with openings (ft.)
SE strain energy
t time (ms)
At tir, increment (ms)
ta any time (ms)
tb t te tf time of arrival of blast wave at points b, e, and f, respec-
tively (ms)
tc (1) clearing time for reflected pressures (ms)
(2) average casing thickness of explosive charges (in.)
tc, (1) adjusted casing thickness (in.)
(2) Clearing time for reflected pressures adjusted fc- wall
openings (ms)
td rise time (ms)
tE time to reach maximum elastic deflection (ms)
tg
9fictitious gas duration (ms)
tm time at which maximum deflection occurs (ms)
to duration of positive phase of blast pressure (ms)
to- duration
ips
of negative phase of blast pressure (ms)
0
to fictitious positive phase pressure duration (ms)

tof fictitious negative phase pressure duration (mo) :
tr fictitious reflected pressure duration (me)

tu
ty
tA
tAG
tI
time at which ultimate deflection occ:urs (ms)
time to reach yield (ms)
time of arrival of blast wave (ms)
time of arrival of ground shock (Wm)
time at which partial failure occurs (ms)
i
h
T (1) duration of equivalent triangular loading function (ms)

(2) thickness of masonry wall (in.)
(3) toughness of material (psi-in./in.)
Tc thickness of concrete section (in.)
466
..........
T scaled thickness of concrete section (ft./lb. I / 3 )
Tg
9thickness of glass (In.)
TH force in the continuous reinforcement in the short span direc-
tion (lbs.)
Ti angular- impulse load (lb.-ms-in.)
TL force in the continuous reinforcement in the long span direc-
tion (lbs.)
TN effective natural period of vibration (Ms)
T minimum thickness of concrete to prevent perforation by a given
fragment (in.)
Tr rise time (ms)
Ts (1) thickness of sand fill (in.)
(2) thickness of slab (in.)
Tap minimum concrete thickness to prevent spalling (in.)
Tscaled thickness of sand fill (ft./lb.1 / 3 )
T total torsional moment at critical section (in.-lbs.)
Tw thickness of wall (in.)
Ty force of the continuous reinforcement in the short direction
(lbs.)
u particle velocity (ft./ms)
uu ultimate flexural or anchorage bond stress (psi)
U shock front velocity ,.ft./ms)
Us strain energy
v velocity (in./ms)
va instantaneous velocity at any time (in./ms)
vb boundary velocity for primary fragments (ft./sec.)
vc ultimate shear stress permitted on an unreinforced web (psi)
vf maximum post-failure fragment velocity (in./ms)
vU (avg.) average post-failure fragment velocity (in./ms)
v1 velocity at incipient failure deflection (in./ms)
vo initial
0 velocity of primary fragment (ft./seQ.)
vr residual velocity of primary fragment after perforation (ft..,
sec.)
vs striking velocity of primary fragment (ft./sec.)
vto maximum torsion oapacity of an unreinforced web (psi)
467
A %
-
iSL 7. A JL * ~A.~~C* ~ % .j.-<v .~
- P .
vtu nominal torsion stress in the direction of v u (psi)
vu ultimate shear stress (psi)
VUH ultimate shear stress at distance de from the horizontal sup-

port (psi)%
V ultimate shear stress at distance de from the vertical support

(psi)*
vX velocity in x direction (in./ms.)
Vy velocity In y direction (in./ms.)
3
V (1) volume of partially vented chamber (ft. )
(2) velocity of compression wave through concrete (in./see.)

(3) velocity of mass under shock load (in./sec.)
Vd ulximate direct shear capacity of the concrete of width b

(lbs.)
VdH shear aL distance de from the vertical support on a unit width
(lbs./In.)*
VdV shear at distance de from the horizontal support on a unit

width (lbs./in.)*
3
Vf free volume (ft. )
VH maximum horizontal velocity of the ground surface (in./sec.)

3
Vo volume of structure (ft. )
Vs shear at the support (lb./in., for panels) (lbs. for beam)

VsH shear at the ver'ical support on a unit width (lbs./in.)*
1VsV shear at the horizontal support on a unit width (lbs./in.)*
V total shear on a width b (lbs.)
Vv maximum vertical velocity of the ground surface (in./sec.)
Vx unit shear along the long side of window frame (lb./in.)
Vy unit shear along the short side of window frame, (lbs./in.)

2
I
w applied uniform load (lbs.-in. )
wc (1) unit weight (psi, for panels) (lb./in. for beam)
3
(2) weight den3ity of concrete (lbs./ft. )
3
w weight density of sand (ibs./tt. )
W (1) design charge weight (lbs.)
(2) external work (in.-lbs.)
468
(3) width of wall (ft.)
WA weight of f).uia (lbs.)
WACT actual quantity of explosives (lbs.)
Wc total weight of explosive containers (Ibs.)
WE effective charge weight (lbs.)
WEg effective charge weight for Z!s pressure (lb.)

WEX P weight of explosive in question (lbs.)
Wf weight of primary fragment (oz.)
Wf average fragment weight (oz.)
WF weight of frangible element (lb./ft. 2 )
WCl weight of inner casing (lbs.)
Wco total weight of steel core (lbs.)
WCo weight of outer casing (lbs.)
WC 1, Wc2 total weight of plates 1 and 2, respectively (lbs.)
Ws width of structure (ft.)
WD work done
x yield line location in horizontal airection (in.)*

X (1) deflection (in.)
(2) distance from front of object to location of largest cross

section to plane of shock front (ft.)
Xa any deflection (in.)
Xc lateral deflection to which a masonry wall develops no resis-
tance (in.)
XDL deflection due to dead load (in.)
Xe elastic deflection (in.)
XE equivalent elastic deflection (in.)
Xep elasto-plastic deflection (in.)

Xf maximum penetration into concrete of armor-piercing fragments
(in.)
Xft maximum penetration into concrete of fragments other than
armor-piercing (in.)
Xm maximum transient deflection (in.)
XPplastic deflection (in.)
N See note at end of symbols.
469
I d '-*- v- w. 'P 4r I r r - 1--- - - '- - 4
X(1) maximum penetration into sand of armor-piercing fragments

(in.)
(2) 3tatic deflection (in.)
Xu ultimate deflection (in.)
X1 (1) partial failure deflection (in.)
(2) deflection at maximum ultimate resistance of masonry wall

(in.)
y yield line location in vertical direction (in.)*
Yt distance from the top of section to centroid (in.)
Z scaled slant distance (ft./lb. I/ 3 )
ZA scaled normal distance (ft./lb. 1 / 3 )
1 3
ZG scaled ground distance (ft./lb. / )
I (1) angle formed by the plane of stirrups, lacing, or diagonal
reinforcement and the plane of the longitudinal reinforce-
ment (deg)
(2) angle of incidence of the pressure front (deg)
(3) acceptance coefficient
(41)trajectory angle (deg.)
aec ratio of flexural stiffness of exterior wall to flat slab
ecH4 %ecL ratio of flexural stiffness of exterior wall to slab in direc-
tion H and L respectively
(1) coefficient for determining elastic and elasto-plastic
resistances
(2) particular support rotation angle (deg)
(3) rejection coefficient
(4) target shape factor from figure 2-212
61 factor equal to 0.85 for concrete strengths up to 4,000 psi and
is reduced by 0.05 for each 1,000 psi in excess of 4,000 psi
ycoefficient for determining elastic and elasto-plastic deflec-
tions
Y Pfactor for type of prestressing tendon
6 moment magnifier
* See note at end of symbols.
470
k k- k A. . ' I _WI%'N - ' -% a

6n1 clearing factor
A deflection at sector's displacement (in.)
average strain rate for concrete (in./in./ms)
Em unit strain in mortar (in./in.)
Es t average strain rate for reinforcement (in./in./ms)
EU rupture strain (in./in./ms)
e (1) suport rotation angle (deg)
(2) angular acceieration (rad/ms2 )
Gmax maximum support rotation angle (deg)
01i horizontal rotation angle (deg)*
0V vertical rotation angle (deg)*
Aincrease in support rotation angle after partial failure (deg)
(I) ductility factor
(2) coefficient of friction
v Poisson's ratio
4
(1) mass density (lbs.-ms.2/in.
3)
(2) density of air behind shock front (lbs/ft.
3
Pa density of air (oz./in. )
3
PC density of casing (oz./In. )
3
Pf mass density of fragment (oz./in. )
PC mass density of medium (lb.-ms. 2 /in.)
iu fracture strength of concrete (psi)
to effective perimeter of reinforcing bars (in.)
EM summation of moments (in.-lbs.)
ZMN sum of the ultimate unit resisting moments acting along the
negative yield lines (in.-!bs.)
EMp sum of the ultimate unit resisting moments acting along the
positive yield lines (in.-lbs.)
maximum shear stress in the shaft (psi)I
0 (1) capacity reduction factor
(2) bar diameter (in.) r
(3)TNT conversion factor r
Or assumed shape function for concentrated loads
471
*(x) assumed bhape function for distributed loads free edge
W angular velocity (rad./ms)

simple support
fixed support
either fixed, restrained, or simple support
* Note. This symbol was developed for two-way elements which are used as
walls. When roof slabs or uther horizontal elements are under consideration,
this symbol will also be applicable if the element is treated as being rotated
into a vertical position.
I
b I I. F I
472
APPENDIX 2 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blast Loads
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Project White Tribe: Air Blast From Simultaneously Detonated Large-Scale
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The Air Blast From Simultaneously Detonated Explosive Spheres, BRL Report
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! 973.
Baker, W. E., Prediction and Scaling of Reflected Impulse Fran Strong

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473
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Charges, Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
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Measurements Around Multiple Detonating Charges, Minutes of the Eighteenth
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Institute), Price, P. D. (ARRADCOM), Blast Effects of Simultaneous
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22. Hopkirson, B. British Ordnance Board Minutes, 13565, 1915.
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Operation of 6-Foct and 2-Foot Shock Tubes: High Pressure Tests on Simple
Shapes, Report No. 54, Final Test Report No. 10, ARF Project No. D087,
Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology.
2L. Jack, W. H., Jr., Measurements of Normally Relfected Shock Waves Frcm
Explosive Charges, BRL Memorandum Report 1499, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, AD 22886, July 1963.
25. Jack, W. H., Jr. and Armendt, B. F., Jr., Measurements of Normally
Reflected Shock Parameters Under Simulated High Altitude Conditions, BRL
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474
', -
% ') ,'. ' , "" a" " . 'b ,,'J " " " % " " " ' - - " " " ' " "" """AA ' r . . .. 4 -''-
26. Johansson, C. H. and Persson, P.A., Detonics of High Explosives, Academic
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27. Johnson, O.T., Patterson, J.D. II, and Olson, W.C., A Simple Mechanical
Method for Measuring the Reflected Impulse of Air Blast Waves, BRL Report
1099, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, July 1957.
28. Kaplan, K., Lewis, K. S., and Morris, P. J., Blast Loading and Response of
Military Equipment, Draft Final Report URS 7339-6, URS Research Conpany,
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ARRADCOM, Dover, New Jersey, AD E4OO320, june 1979.
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Partially Vented Explosions in Cubicles, Technical Report R 828, prepared
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7N
DISTRIBUTION LIST
Commander
Armament Research, Development, and
Engineering Center
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions, and
Chemical Command
ATTN: SMCAR-MSI (5)
SMCAR-AES
SMCAR-AES-M (10)
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Dover, %J 07801-5001
Commander
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions, and
Chemical Command
ATTN: AMSMC-GCL(D)
Dover, NJ 07801-5001
Administrator
Defense Technical Information Center
ATTN: Accessions Division (12)
Cameron Station
Alexandria, VA 22304-6145
Director
Ballistic Research Laboratory
ATTN: AMXBR-OD-ST
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005-5066
Commander
U.S. Army Armament Munitions and
Chemical Command
ATTN: SMCAR-ESP-L
AMSMC-SF(R) (2)
AMSMC-IR(R)
AMSMC-EN(R)
Rock Island, IL 61299-6000
Commander
Chemical Research and Development Center
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and
Chemical Command
ATTN: SMCCR-SPS-IL
SMCCR-RSP-A
485
IIIIIIIIIIII
Commander
U.S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCSF
5001 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22333
Director
AMC Field Safety Activity
ATTN: AMCOS
Charleston, IN 47111
Chief
Benet Weapons Laboratory, CCAC
Armament Research, Development, and
Engineering Center
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and
Chemical Command
ATTN: SMCAR-CCB-TL 1
Watervliet, NY 12189-5000
Director
U.S. Army Materiel Systems
Analysis Activity
ATTN: AMXSY-MP
CRfC Resident Operatione Office

ATTN: SMCCR-TSE-OA
National Space Technology Laboratories
NSTL, MS 39529
Chai rman
Department of Defense Explosives
Safety Board
ATTN: J. Ward
P. Price (2)
Hoffman Bldg 1, Room 856C
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
HQUSACE
ATTN: DAEN-ECE-T (10)
DAEN-RDM
Washington, DC 20314
Commander
U.S. Army Engineering Division
ATTN: HNDED-CS (R. Lein) (10)
P.O. Box 1600
Huntsville, AL 35807
486 %
k
Commander
U.S. Army Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory
P.O. Box 4005 (2)
Champaign, IL 61820
Commander
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory
P.O. Box 282 (2)
Hanover, NH 03755
Commander
U.S. Army Engineer Weterways
Experiment Station
ATTN: Library, Helen Ingram (2)
P.O. Box 631
Vicksburg, 14S 39180-0631
Commander
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
ATTN: Code FPO-3A, Room 12N57 (20)
200 Stovall Street
Commanding Officer
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
ATTN: Code L51, W. Keenan (15)
Port Hueneme, CA 93043
Chief of Naval Operations

Department of the Navy
ATTN: NOP-411F
Commander
Naval Sea Systems Command
ATTN: SEA-06H1
Naval Sea Systems Command Headquarters
Commander
David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research
and Development Center
Bethesda, MD 20084
Kr
487
Wkimil
Commander
Naval Surface Weapons Center
ATTN: GI0 (J. Proctor)
R12 (W. Filler)
Rl5 (J. Connor)
R15 (M. Swisdak)
White Oak Laboratory
silver Spring, MD 20910
Facilities and Maintenance Branch

Department of Energy
Albuquerque Operations
AmRrillo Area Office
ATTN: Mr. L.M. Paradee, Chief (5)
P.O. Box 30030
Amarillo, TX 79120
Department of Energy
Facilities and Construction
Maintenance Division
Albuquerque Operations
ATTN: Mr. Manuel G. Martinez (5)
P.O. Box 5400
Albuquerque, NM 87115
AFESC/RDC
ATTN: W.C. Buchholtz (5)
Tyndall AFB, FL 30403
Ammann & Whitney Consulting Engineers

ATTN: N. Dobbs
96 Morton Street
New York, NY 10014
Southwest Research Institute

ATTN: Mark G. Whitney (5)
P.O. Drawer 28510
6220 Culebra Road
San Antonio, TX 78284
Wilfred Raker Engineering

218 E. Edgewood Place (5)
San Antonio, TX 78209
Illinois Institute of Technology

Research Institute
ATTN: H.S. Napadensky
10 West 35th Street
Chicago, IL 6)616
488
Defense Contract Administration Service
Management Area, Dayton (DCASR-CLE-GDQ)
c/o Defense Electronics Supply Center
ATTN: Bill Loser
Dayton, OH 45444
AFATL/DLYV
ATTN: Mr. Ralph McGuire
Eglin AFB, FL 32542
USAED, hurope
EIJDAD-TA
ATTN: Roger Crowson (2)
APO New York 09757
DCSAR, Cleveland
ATTN: DCSAR-CLE-OS (4)
1240 East 9th Street
Cleveland, 04 44135
Officer in Charge
White Oak Lab
Naval Surface Weapons Center Detachment
ATTN: Robert Hutcheson, Code 12
10901 New Hampshire Avenue
I
Silver Springs, MD 20903-5000
HQ IJSAF/LEEE
ATTN: Satish Abrol (5)
Bldg 516
Bolling AFB
Washington, DC 20332-5000
Department of the Navy

Atlantic Division
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
Code 402, Owen Hewitt
Norfolk, VA 23511-6287
DCSAR N-I-QSS
ATTN: Richard Castell
201 Varick Street
S
i
New York, NY 10014-4811
489
SU

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AD-A 176 673

SPECIAL PUBLICATION ARLCD-SP-84001

U.S.ARMY A W IESRCH, DEVELOPMENT MI) G3EERNt CEMIfER

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED.

Best Available Copy

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE BEFORECOMPLTINGF

* Special Publication ARLCD-SP-84001 /!1-

Ammmaun & Whitney; Mark Whitney, Patricia Bowles,

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTfS

19. KEY WORDS (cont)

Blast loads Structure motion

20.- ABSTRACT (coit)

effects) and secondary fragments (velocity, trajectory). The last section

SECuRITY CLASSIFICAT ION OF THIS PAGE(When Date Entered)

2-7 Effects of Explosive Output 4

2-8 Blast Phenomena 5

2-1 4.3 Gas Pressures 186

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FRAGMENTS

2-16 General 293

2-17.3.2 Explosives with Non-Uniform

2-18 Secondary Fragments 315

2-20 Introduction 331

APPENDIX 2A ILLUSTRATIVF EXAMPLES 349

APPENDIX 2B LIST OF SYMBOLS 453 "

DISTRIBUTION LIST 485 ,

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

2-1 Blast loading categories ....................................... 10

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

2-29 Peak positive incident pressure and scaled impulse for an

2-56 Average peak reflected pressure

(N = 3, P/L = 0.25 and 0.75, h/H = 0.10) .................... 113

2-82 Average peak reflected pressure

2-108 Scaled average unit reflected impulse

2-134 Scaled average unit reflected impulse

2-160 Scaled gas impulse (W/Vf - 0.15, / /3 100) ................ 196

I/ 3 100) ................. 198

2-189 Peak positive pressure at the back of a partially vented

blast load (W/H - 3 and 6) ................................. 262

blast load (W/H = 3/4 and 3/2) .............................. 263

blast load (LIH 1, W/H = 3) ................... ........... 270

'.0 . ' '- . . '% ... % -. . ,

2-217 Idealized times T 3 and T 4 for interior side wall

(W/H - 3 and 6)............................................. 290

2-241 B2 NT/W versus casing geometry ................................. 306

Table Title Page

2-1 Heat of Detonation and Heat of Combustion ....................... 8

2-5 Specific Weight and Gurney Energy Constant for

The primary objectives are to establish design procedures and construction

(2) Provide methods for calculating the aynamic response of structural

(3) Establish construction details and p'ocedures necessary to afford

(4) Establi3n guidelines for siting explosive facilities to obtain max-

2-4 Scope of Manual

This manual is generally applicable to the design of protective structures

1. Department of the Army

Commander and Director

2. Department of the Navy

Attn: Code L51

3. Department of the Air Force

The individual programs are identical at each repository. If any modifications