Matrix: A matrix is a rectangular array (or table) of

numbers enclosed in square brackets. Generally the matrices

are denoted by capital letters of English alphabet while the
small letters or numerals are denoted the elements or entries
of a matrix.
i.e.

Row: The horizontal arrangement of elements of a matrix

is known as row.

Column: The vertical arrangement of elements of a matrix

is known as column.
Order of Matrix:
If a matrix has a m rows and n columns, then the order of
matrix is 𝒎 × 𝒏 read as m by n.
It may be noted that 𝒎 × 𝒏 is not a multiplication of m and
n.

 a11 a12 a13 


A  a21 a22 a23 
 
 a31 a32 a33  33
Name of
matrix Number 3 Number 1 Order of
shows row shows matrix
column
Hence the location of a31 is third row and first column.
Types Of Matrices:
Real Matrix: A matrix with real elements or entries is
called a real matrix.
For example.
1 1
A  
3 7 
This is a 2  2 real matrix because all elements of this
matrix A are real
Complex Matrix:
A matrix with complex entries or elements is known as
complex matrix.
For example:

 1 1  i 
D 
 3  2i 7 

Matrix D is a 2  2 complex matrix because it has complex

elements or entries.
Row And Column Matrices:
A matrix having a single row is called a row matrix and a
matrix having a single column is called a column matrix.
For example:

C   1 8 2 
Matrix C is a row matrix of order 1  3
2

B 1 
 
 2 
Matrix B is a column matrix of order 3  1 .
Row and column matrices are sometimes called row
vector and column vector.
Rectangular matrix:
A matrix in which number of rows is not equal to
the number of columns ( m ≠ 𝑛 ) is called a
rectangular matrix.
For example:

 3 7 
    1 7 3 2 
B  1 3 E 
   3 9 1 5 
 8 2 
m≠𝑛 m≠𝑛
3≠2 𝟐 ≠4
Both matrices are rectangular.
Horizontal Matrix:
A m  n rectangular matrix in which the number of rows is
less than the number of its columns (m < n) is called a
horizontal matrix.
For example:

 1 7 3 2 
E 
 3 9 1  5 

Here E is a horizontal matrix because number of rows is

less than number of its columns.
Vertical Matrix:
A m  n rectangular matrix in which the number of rows is
greater than the number of its columns (m > n) is called a
vertical matrix.
For example:
 5 7 

D  1 4 
 
 0 2 

Here D is a vertical matrix because number of rows is greater

than number of its columns.
Null or Zero Matrix:
A matrix in which each element is zero is called a null
matrix.
For example:
0 0 0 0

D 0 0  A  
  0 0
 0 0
A null matrix or zero matrix is usually denoted by O. If
null matrix is a square matrix of order 2, we may denote
it by 𝑂2 . If it is a rectangular matrix say of order 3  2 ,
we may denote it by 𝑂3×2 .
Square Matrix:
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to
the number of columns (m = n) is called a square
matrix.
For example:  a11 a12 ... a1n 
 
 1 5 2  
a21 a22 ... a2 n

  N 
1 2
  2 6 0  ... ... ... ... 
K  M
 
 5 3   
 5 3 9   n1
a a n2 ... a nn  n n
Above matrices are square matrices of order 2, 3 and n
respectively.
It may be noted that the elements a11 , a22 , a33 ,......, ann of
square matrix N are called leading diagonal or main
diagonal or principal diagonal elements.
 Diagonal Matrix:
A square matrix in which all elements other than the
diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix. It
may further be noted that if at least one diagonal element
of a diagonal matrix is non zero it is still called diagonal
matrix.
 2 0 0  2 0 0
For example: 1 0  0 3 0 ,  0 0 0
 0 3 ,
     
 0 0 5  0 0 0
All are diagonal matrices.
A diagonal matrix is defined as a square matrix which is
upper triangular as well as lower triangular matrix is called
diagonal matrix. d 0 0
1
It is denoted by D  diag [d1 d 2 d 3 ] A 0 d 0
 2 
 0 0 d 3 
Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are
equal is called a scalar matrix.
For example:
2 0 0
A  0 2 0
 
 0 0 2 
is a scalar matrix.
 Identity Matrix:
A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is unity is
called an identity matrix.
For example: 1 0 0 
1 0 0 1 0
A   , B 
 0 1   
 0 0 1 

are identity matrices of order of 2 and 3 respectively. A

matrix of order of 2 is denoted as 𝐼2 and a matrix of order 3
and n are denoted as 𝐼3 and 𝐼𝑛 respectively.
Note: The diagonal, scalar, and unit matrices may
be defined in double subscript notation as follow:

Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix. Then A is called

 a diagonal matrix if not all 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.

k when i  j
 a Scalar matrix if aij  
0 when i  j
k being a constant.

1 when i  j
 an identity matrix if aij  
0 when i  j
 Upper And Lower Triangular Matrices:

A square matrix in which every element below the principal

diagonal is zero is said to be upper triangular matrix and a
square matrix in which every element above the principal
diagonal is zero is said to be lower triangular matrix.
For example:

 6 1 3 
0 2 1 
  is a upper triangular matrix
 0 0 7 

 6 0 0
 3 2 0
  is a lower triangular matrix.
 4 5 7 
NOTE: The upper triangular and Lower triangular
matrices may be defined in double subscript notation as
follow:
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix. Then A is called
i. a upper triangular matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 > 𝑗
ii. a lower triangular matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 < 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 > 𝑗
 a11 a12 a13   a11 a12 a13 
A   a21 a22 a23   A   0 a22 a23 
   
 a31 a32 a33   0 0 a33 

this is a upper triangular matrix

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 > 𝑗
 a11 a12 a13   a11 0 0
.  a21 a22
A a23   A   a21 a22
 
0
 This is lower triangular matrix
 a31 a32 a33   a31 a32 a33 
Triangular Matrix:
A matrix is said to be a triangular matrix if it is either
upper triangular or lower triangular matrix.

Trace Of Matrix:
The sum of the diagonal elements of a matrix is called the
trace of the matrix.
For example:
1 0 4 
A  0 3 5 
 
 0 0 2 

Trace of the matrix A = 1 + 3 + (-2) = 2

Equality of Matrices:
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if they
have the same order and each element of one is equal to the
corresponding element of the other.
For example:
If
6 2   36 11 
A   and B 
5 7  9  2 9  2 

then A = B because the order of matrices A and B is same and

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for every i and j.
Example: Find the value of the variables in each of the
following.
x  3 y  7   1 2 
 4   
 z  1   4 6 

Sol:
According to the equality of matrices, the elements of one
matrix will be equal to the corresponding elements of other
matrix.
Hence x – 3 = -1. y + 7 = 2 and z – 1 = -6
After solving these equations, we have

x=2; y = -5 and z = -5
 Operations on Matrices
Following are the fundamental operations on the matrices.
1. Addition of Matrices:
If A and B are two matrices of the same dimension (order or
size ) 𝑚 × 𝑛 then their sum (A + B) is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix C
such that each element of C is the sum of the corresponding
elements of A and B.
For example:
If 1 2   5 10
A   and B 
3 4   7 11
Then
1  5 2  10   6 12 
C  A B     
 3  7 4  11  4 15
2. Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same dimension
(order or size ) 𝑚 × 𝑛 then their difference (A – B) is
an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix C such that each element of C is
obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the
corresponding elements of A.
For Example;
If 13 2   5 10 
A   and B   
 30 14   7 11 
Then
 13  5 2  10   8 12 
C  A B     
 30  ( 7) 14  11  37 3 
3. Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix
If K is any scalar then each element of the matrix
multiplied by that scalar.
Example:  1 2 3 15 2 1 
A   ,B 
Let  4 5 6   3 7 4  Find 2A+3B.
Sol: Here 2 and 3 are scalars multiplied with A and B
respectively.
 1 2 3 15 2 1 
2 A  3B  2    3 
  4 5 6   3  7 4 
 2 4 6   45 6 3
2 A  3B     
  8 10 12   9 21 12 
 2  45 4  6 6  3   43 2 9
2 A  3B     
  8  9 10  21 12  12   1 11 24 
4. Multiplication of Two Matrices
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be a matrix of order of m × 𝑝 and
B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be a matrix of order q × 𝑛 . Then their
product AB of order m × 𝑛 defined, only if the
number of columns in A is equal to the number of
rows in B i.e. only if p = q.
For Example: 1 2  1 2 3 
A3 4  and B 
 4 5 6
   
Here, No. of Columns of A= No of Rows of B,
hence matrix multiplication is possible.
Example: if 1 2  1 2 3 
A   and B   
3 4  4 5 6
Then solve AB.
Solution: Here, No. of Columns of A= No of Rows of B,
hence matrix multiplication is possible

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑨𝑩 =
𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
𝟏×𝟏+𝟐×𝟒 𝟏×𝟐+𝟐×𝟓 𝟏×𝟑+𝟐×𝟔
=
𝟑×𝟏+𝟒×𝟒 𝟑×𝟐+𝟒×𝟓 𝟑×𝟑+𝟒×𝟔

𝟏+𝟖 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐
=
𝟑 + 𝟏𝟔 𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎 𝟗 + 𝟐𝟒

𝟗 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟓
=
𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟔 𝟑𝟑
IMPORTANT NOTES:
 Two matrices are said to be confirmable for addition or
subtraction if and only if they have the same order.

 A matrix can be multiplied by itself, if it is a square

matrix. The product A.A in such case is written as 𝐴2 .
Similarly, 𝐴. 𝐴2 = 𝐴3 , 𝐴2 . 𝐴2 = 𝐴4 etc.

 In the product AB, matrix A is said to be post-multiplied

by matrix B and matrix B is said to be pre-multiplied by
A.

 If AB = 0, it does not necessary imply that A or B is a

null matrix.
IMPORTANT NOTES:
 Reader may note that if two matrices A and B holds a
property AB = 0 then
 |A| = 0 or |B| = 0.

 Matrices A and B are called “Divisors of zero”.

 AB = BA.

 If AB = AC it does not imply that B = C (This means in

matrix theory, the cancellation law does not hold in
general).
Example: Let 0 2 0 1 2 1
A  1 0 3 and B   2 1 0
   
1 1 2   0 0 3
Find 3A – 4B.
Sol: 0 2 0 1 2 1
 3 A  4 B  3 1 0 3  4  2 1 0
   
1 1 2   0 0 3
0 6 0 4 8 4  0  4 6  8 0  4 
 3A  4B  3 0 9   8 4 0   3  8 0  4 9  0 
     
 3 3 6   0 0 12   3  0 3  0 6  12 

 4 2 4 
 3 A  4 B   5 4 9 
 
 3 3 6 
Example: Let  1 3 0  2 3 4
A   1 2 1  and B   1 2 3
   
 0 0 2   1 1 2 
From the product AB and BA, Show that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.
Sol:  1 3 0  2 3 4 
AB   1 2 1   1 2 3
  
 0 0 2   1 1 2 
 (1  2)  (3  1)  (0  1) (1  3)  (3  2)  (0  1) (1  4)  (3  3)  (0  2) 
AB   ( 1  2)  (2  1)  (1  1) ( 1  3)  (2  2)  (1  1) ( 1  4)  (2  3)  (1  2) 
 
 (0  2)  (0  1)  (2  1) (0  3)  (0  2)  (2  1) (0  4)  (0  3)  (2  2) 

 5 9 13
AB   1 2 4 
 
 2 2 4 
Now BA,
 2 3 4  1 3 0
BA   1 2 3  1 2 1 
  
 1 1 2   0 0 2 

 (2  1)  (3  1)  (4  0) (2  3)  (3  2)  (4  0) (2  0)  (3  1)  (4  2) 
AB   (1  1)  (2  1)  (3  0) (1  3)  (2  2)  (3  0) (1  0)  (2  1)  (3  2) 
 
 ( 1  1)  (1  1)  (2  0) ( 1  3)  (1  2)  (2  0) ( 1  0)  (1  1)  (2  2) 

 1 12 11

AB  1 7 8 
 
 2 1 5 

Hence proved that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

 1 2 2
Example: if A  2 1 2 Show that A2  4 A  5I  O .
 
 2 2 1 
Where I and O are the unit matrix and null matrix of order 3
respectively.
Sol:
1 2 2
A  2 1 2
 
 2 2 1 
 1 2 2   1 2 2   1  4  4 2  2  4 2  4  2  9 8 8 
A2   2 1 2   2 1 2    2  2  4 4  1  4 4  2  2   8 9 8 
      
 2 2 1   2 2 1   2  4  2 4  2  2 4  4  1  8 8 9 
9 8 8  1 2 2 1 0 0  0 0 0 
A2  4 A  5 I  8 9 8   4  2 1 2   5 0 1 0   0 0 0 
       
 8 8 9   2 2 1  0 0 1  0 0 0 
Transpose Of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A by
interchanging its rows and columns is called a transpose of a
matrix. Transpose of a matrix is denoted by 𝐴𝑡 .
Example 1:
1
If A = [1 2 3] then 𝐴𝑡 is 2 .
3
Example 2:
1 −2 1 0
If A = then 𝐴𝑡 is .
0 4 −2 4

Thus by definition, if matrix 𝑨 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 then 𝐴𝑡 = 𝒂𝒋𝒊

 Properties Of Transpose of Matrix
If the matrices A and B are conformable for the sum
A+B and the product AB, then
 (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕

 (𝑨𝒕 )𝒕 = 𝑨

 (𝒌𝑨)𝒕 = 𝒌𝑨𝒕

 (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕
 (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕
Proof:
Let A and B be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices. Then by definition
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, hence (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 will
be n × 𝑚 matrix. Now
𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑗 , 𝑖 𝑡ℎ element of (𝑨 + 𝑩)
= 𝑎𝑗𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗𝑖

𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕 = 𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element

of 𝑩𝒕
= 𝑗 , 𝑖 𝑡ℎ element of A + 𝑗 , 𝑖 𝑡ℎ element of B
= 𝑎𝑗𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗𝑖
Thus, 𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕
Hence (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕
 𝒕 𝒕
(𝑨 ) = 𝑨
Proof:

𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of (𝑨𝒕 )𝒕 = 𝑗 , 𝑖 𝑡ℎ element of 𝑨𝒕

= 𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of A

Hence (𝑨𝒕 )𝒕 = 𝑨
 𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
(𝑨𝑩) = 𝑩 𝑨
Proof:
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and B = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 be an n × 𝑝 matrix.
Then AB is of order 𝑚 × 𝑝 and so (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 is of order p × 𝑚.
Now 𝑩𝒕 is of order p × 𝑛 and 𝑨𝒕 is of order 𝑛 × 𝑚
Hence 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕 is of order p × 𝑚
𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑗 , 𝑖 𝑡ℎ element of AB
= 𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝒂𝒋𝒌 𝒃𝒌𝒊
𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑡ℎ element of 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕 = sum of the products of the corresponding
elements if 𝒊𝒕𝒉 row of 𝑩𝒕 and 𝒋𝒕𝒉 column of 𝑨𝒕
= sum of the products of the corresponding
elements if 𝒊𝒕𝒉 column of B and 𝒋𝒕𝒉 row of A
= 𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝒂𝒋𝒌 𝒃𝒌𝒊

Hence (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕
Conjugate of a Matrix
A complex matrix obtained by replacing its elements by their
corresponding complex conjugate is called the conjugate of A
and is denoted by 𝐴 .
For Example:

 2  3i 4 5i   2  3i 4 5i 
A  0 4i 8  then A 0 4i 8 
   
 4  3i 0 7  3i   4  3i 0 7  3i 

𝐴 is the conjugate matrix of A

 Tranjugate or Transpose of a
Conjugate Matrix
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called the
tranjugate or transposed conjugate of A. it is denoted by
(𝐴)𝑡 .
For Example:
 2  3i 4 5i   2  3i 4 5i 
A  0 4i 8  then A 0 4i 8 
   
 4  3i 0 7  3i   4  3i 0 7  3i 
 2  3i 0 4  3i 
 4 
  
t
A   4i 0

 5i 8 7  3i 
 Properties of Conjugate and Transposed
Conjugate Matrices
If A and B are two complex matrices confirmable for
addition and multiplication then

 A  B  A  B
 A   A 
t
 t

 A.B  A.B
 k. A  k . A where k is a scalar, real or complex

  A  A
 A  A  real matrix

 A  A  purely imaginary matrix

Example: let  1 2 1 1 0 0
A   3 0 2  and B   2 1 0
   
 4 5 0   0 1 3

Verify that (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕

Sol:
 1 2 1  1 3 4 1 0 0 1 2 0
A   3 0 2   At   2 0 5  B   2 1 0  B t  0 1 1 
    ;    
 4 5 0   1 2 0   0 1 3 0 0 3
1 2 0  1 3 4  1  4  0 3  0  0 4  10  0 
B t At   0 1 1   2 0 5    0  2  1 0  0  2 0  5  0 
    
 0 0 3  1 2 0  0  0  3 0  0  6 0  0  0 
 5 3 14 
1 2 5
 
 3 6 0 
  1 2 1  1 0 0  1  4  0 0  2  1 0  0  3
AB   3 0 2   2 1 0   3  0  0 0  0  2 0  0  6 
    
 4 5 0   0 1 3  4  10  0 0  5  0 0  0  0 

 5 1 3  5 3 14 

  AB   1 2 5 
AB   3 2 6 
t

   
14 5 0   3 6 0 

Hence verified that (𝑨𝑩)𝒕 = 𝑩𝒕 𝑨𝒕