African Healthcare Setting VHF PDF

Infection Control for
Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers

in the African
Health Care
Setting
World Health Organization
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service CDC
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL
AND PREVENTION
C. J. Peters, M.D., Chief
Special Pathogens Branch

Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases
National Center for Infectious Diseases
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Guenael Rodier, M.D., Chief
Epidemiological Surveillance and Epidemic Response

Division of Emerging and Other Communicable Diseases
Developed and written by:
Ethleen Lloyd, M.S., C.H.E.S., Health Communication Specialist
Special Pathogens Branch (CDC)
Helen Perry, M.A., Educational Design Specialist
Layout and design by:
Lilien Yang, M.S., Visiting Fellow
Illustrations by:
Willie Richardson, A.A., Visual Information Specialist
Division of Media and Training Services, Public Health Program Practice Office (CDC)
The material in this manual is in the public domain. It may be used and reprinted without permission. The
source should be acknowledged. Suggested citation: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and World
Health Organization. Infection Control for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers in the African Health Care Setting.
Atlanta, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998: 1-198.
Infection Control
for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers
in the African Health Care Setting
December 1998
This manual was prepared by:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: National Center for Infectious Diseases,
Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Special Pathogens Branch, WHO Collaborating
Centre for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers
and
World Health Organization: Division of Emerging and Other Communicable Diseases -

Surveillance and Control
Acknowledgements
The contributions of the following organizations to the preparation and review of this
document are gratefully acknowledged:

Hospital Infections Program
Office of Health and Safety
WHO Regional Office for Africa
WHO Country Programmes in Kenya and Gabon
Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville, Gabon
Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, United Kingdom
Dr. Kalongi and the staff of Clinique Bondeko, République Démocratique du Congo
École de Médecine, Université de Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
Épicentre, France
Fogarty International, USA
Hôpital Général de Kikwit, République Démocratique du Congo
Institut de Médecine Tropicale, Belgium
Institut de Recherche Biologique Appliquée de Guinée
Institut Pasteur à Paris, France
Institute of Virology, Germany
Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, USA
Lassa Fever Research Projects, Guinea, Sierra Leone
Medical Emergency Relief International, United Kingdom
Médecins Sans Frontières, Belgium
National Institute of Virology, South Africa
Participants attending the CDC WHO VHF Isolation Precautions workshops held
at Mumias, Kenya, and Booué, Gabon
Swedish Institute for Infectious Diseases, Sweden
Tulane University, USA
United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, USA
Virus Research Centre, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kenya
Yale University, USA
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers: An Overview 3
How VHF Is Transmitted in the Health Care Setting 4
What Is in This Manual 5
Who the Manual Is For 5
Objectives 5
How to Use the Manual 6
Glossary for Use with This Manual 8
Section 1 Use Standard Precautions with All Patients 9
1.1 Use Standard Precautions 11
1.2 Establish and Maintain a Minimum Level of Standard
Precautions 12
1.3 Establish Routine Handwashing 12
1.4 Handle and Dispose of Sharp Instruments Safely 14
1.5 Disinfect Reusable Needles and Syringes Safely 15
1.6 Disinfect Disposable Needles and Syringes That Must Be
Reused 15
1.7 Use VHF Isolation Precautions 16
1.8 Select a VHF Coordinator 18
Section 2 Identify Suspected Cases of VHF 19
2.1 Use Information from Previous Outbreaks to Suspect a VHF 22
2.2 Begin VHF Isolation Precautions 25
2.3 Alert Health Facility Staff about Specific Risk for VHF
Transmission 25
2.4 Report the Suspected Case to the Health Authorities 27
2.5 Identify Patient’s Contacts and Travel History 28
Section 3 Isolate the Patient 29
3.1 Select Site for the Isolation Area 31
3.2 Plan How to Arrange the Isolation Area 32
3.3 Gather Recommended Supplies 34
3.3.1 Plan Disinfection for VHF-Contaminated Items 34
3.3.2 Gather Supplies for the Patient Area 35
3.3.3 Gather Supplies for the Changing Room 36
3.3.4 Arrange for Storing of Supplies Outside the Changing
Room 36
3.4 Set Up Changing Rooms 37
3.5 Place Security Barrier Around Isolation Area 37
3.6 Consult Family Members about Patient Care 39
Check List: Supplies for a Changing Room 41
Check List: Supplies for Patient Area 42
Section 4 Wear Protective Clothing 43
4.1 Specify Who Should Wear Protective Clothing 45
4.2 Gather a Supply of Protective Clothing 46
4.3 Put On Protective Clothing 53
4.4 Take Off Protective Clothing 57
Section 5 Disinfect Reusable Supplies and Equipment 65
5.1 Prepare Bleach Solutions 68
5.2 Prepare Supply of Soapy Water 72
5.3 Disinfect Gloved Hands between Patients 73
5.4 Disinfect Used Gloves before Reuse 74
5.5 Disinfect Reusable Medical Instruments 75
5.6 Disinfect Bedpan or Waste Bucket 76
5.7 Disinfect Patient’s Utensils 76
5.8 Disinfect Spills of Infectious Body Fluids 77
5.9 Disinfect Infectious Waste and Non-Reusable Supplies for
Burning 78
5.10 Clean and Disinfect Protective Clothing 79
5.11 Clean and Disinfect Boots 79
5.12 Clean and Disinfect Patient’s Bedding 80
5.13 Give First Aid for Accidental Exposures 81
Section 6 Dispose of Waste Safely 83
6.1 What Needs Disposal 85
6.2 Select Staff to Supervise Waste Disposal and Burning 87
6.3 Train and Supervise Staff to Carry Out Waste Disposal 87
6.4 Select Site for Burning VHF-Contaminated Waste 89
6.5 Use Incinerator to Burn VHF-Contaminated Waste 89
6.6 Use Pit to Burn VHF-Contaminated Waste 92
6.7 Take Steps to Ensure Security of Burning Site 93
Section 7 Use Safe Burial Practices 95
7.1 Prepare the Body Safely 97
7.2 Transport the Body Safely 98
7.3 Prepare Burial Site 98
7.4 Disinfect the Vehicle after Transporting the Body 99
Section 8 Mobilize Community Resources and Conduct Community
Education 101
8.1 Identify Key Community Resources 104
8.2 Meet with Community Leaders and Assess the Current Situation 106
8.3 Describe the Target Population 108
8.4 Describe Problems Contributing to Transmission Risk 108
8.5 Identify Changes or Actions Required 108
8.6 Identify Barriers to Carrying Out Recommended Changes or
Actions 109
8.7 Develop Specific Messages 109
8.8 Select Activities for Communicating Messages 110
8.9 Assign Tasks and Carry Out Activities 110
8.10 Evaluate Activities 111
8.11 Obtain Community Feedback 112
8.12 Meet Regularly with the Mobilization Committee 112
Section 9 Make Advance Preparations to Use VHF Isolation Precautions 113
9.1 Identify a VHF Coordinator to Oversee Preparations 115
9.2 Assess Current Readiness for VHF Isolation Precautions 116
9.2.1 Monitor Routine Handwashing Practices 116
9.2.2 Assess Readiness for Identifying Suspected VHF Cases 117
9.2.3 Assess Readiness for Setting Up a VHF Isolation Area 117
9.2.4 Assess Readiness for Medical, Laboratory, and Cleaning
Staff 117
9.3 Train Health Facility Staff in VHF Isolation Precautions 118
9.4 Plan for Community Mobilization 121
9.5 Assess Current Supplies and Equipment 122
9.6 Periodically Reassess Supplies 122
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies 123

Annex 1 Standard Precautions for Hospital Infection Control 133
Annex 2 Specific Features of VHFs 135
Annex 3 Planning and Setting Up the Isolation Area 141
Annex 4 Adapting VHF Isolation Precautions for a Large Number of
Patients 145
Annex 5 Making Protective Clothing 149
Annex 6 Requirements for Purchasing Protective Clothing 153
Annex 7 Disinfecting Water for Drinking, Cooking and Cleaning 157
Annex 8 Preparing Disinfectant Solutions by Using Other Chlorine
Products 161
Annex 9 Making Supplies: Sharps Container, Incinerator, and Boot
Remover 163
Annex 10 Sample Job-Aids and Posters for Use in the Health Facility 165
Annex 11 Laboratory Testing for VHFs 171
Annex 12 Skin Biopsy on Fatal Cases for Diagnosis of Ebola 173
Annex 13 Community Education Materials 181
Annex 14 Conducting In-Service Training for VHF Isolation Precautions 185
Annex 15 Local Resources for Community Mobilization and Education 187
Annex 16 International and Regional Contacts 189
References 193
Index 197
Figure List
Figure 1 Epidemiological graph of the Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreak in

Kikwit, 1995 3
Figure 2 An example of a handwashing station 13
Figure 3 Parts of hands that are often missed during handwashing 13
Figure 4 Standard sharps container 14
Figure 5 Using plastic bottle to dispose of used needles 14
Figure 6 Placing the disposable needle and syringe in soapy water 15
Figure 7 An example of VHF Isolation Precautions poster 26
Figure 8 A sample layout of an isolation area 32
Figure 9 A sample layout for a single patient 33
Figure 10 A sample layout for several patients 33
Figure 11 A security barrier and sign 37
Figure 12 An example of a sign-in sheet 38
Figure 13 Inner layer of clothing 46
Figure 14 Thin gloves 46
Figure 15 Using plastic bags as boots 47
Figure 16 Storing boots 47
Figure 17 Gown with ties 48
Figure 18 Wearing a plastic apron 48
Figure 19 Thick gloves 49
Figure 20 Using plastic bags as gloves 49
Figure 21 HEPA-filter mask 50
Figure 22 Surgical mask 51
Figure 23 Cotton mask 51
Figure 24 Head covering 51
Figure 25 Wearing clear eyeglasses or goggles 52
Figure 26 Scrub suit 53
Figure 27 Putting on boots 53
Figure 28 Putting on the first pair of gloves 54
Figure 29 Putting on the outer gown 54
Figure 30 Putting on a plastic apron 55
Figure 31 Proper way to put on the second pair of gloves 55
Figure 32 Putting on mask 55
Figure 33 Putting on head cover 56
Figure 34 Putting on eyewear 56
Figure 35 Disinfecting the boots 57
Figure 36 Disinfecting / disposing of used gloves 58
Figure 37 Removing the apron 59
Figure 38 Removing the gown 59
Figure 39 Washing the gloved hands 59
Figure 40 Removing the eyewear 60
Figure 41 Removing the head cover 60
Figure 42 Removing the mask 60
Figure 43 A boot remover 61
Figure 44 Removing the inner gloves 61
Figure 45 Marking container for mixing 1:10 bleach solution 69
Figure 46 Preparing bleach solutions 70
Figure 47 Preparing bleach solutions during an outbreak 71
Figure 48 Small piece of cake soap 72
Figure 49 Checking gloves for holes 74
Figure 50 Disinfecting a spill on the floor 77
Figure 51 Disinfecting a spill on the wall 78
Figure 52 Transferring laundry to the cleaning area 79
Figure 53 Cleaning patient’s bedding 80
Figure 54 A 220-litre drum 89
Figure 55 Making an incinerator 90
Figure 56 Making an incinerator 90
Figure 57 A completed incinerator 91
Figure 58 Disinfecting the vehicle after transporting the body 99
Figure 59 Meeting community leaders 107
Introduction
African countries (shaded areas) where viral haemorrhagic fevers have been
documented in the past
2
Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers: An Overview
In Africa, viral haemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) include Lassa fever, Rift

Valley fever, Marburg and Ebola haemorrhagic fevers,
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and yellow fever.
Humans initially contract an infection with a haemorrhagic fever
virus through exposure to rodents or insects (for Ebola and
Marburg VHFs, the natural reservoir is unknown).
Person-to-person transmission of Lassa, Ebola, Marburg and CCHF
viruses can occur through direct contact with VHF-infected
material.
Typically, during the course of a VHF, the blood vessels and many
organ systems are damaged. VHFs are often accompanied by
bleeding, reflecting the widespread presence of the virus
throughout the patient’s body. As a result, the blood, urine,
vomitus, pus, stool, semen and saliva from the VHF patient are
infectious. This is why VHFs pose a serious risk to caregivers in
the health care setting and in the community.
The transmission risk of VHFs in the health care and laboratory

setting is well documented. During the 1995 Ebola haemorrhagic
fever outbreak in Kikwit (former Zaire, and now the Democratic
Republic of the Congo), one fourth of the cases were in health care
workers with a history of recent patient care.1 After barrier nursing
practices (such as wearing protective clothing) were implemented,
the risk of transmission was reduced. No new cases were reported
among health care workers who used these practices. (Fig.1)
Health staff began

Numbe r o f de aths
using VHF Isolation
12
Precautions NonHealth
he althcare workers
c are w orke rs
10
He Non
alth chealth
are w orke
care rs
workers
0
31- 4- 8- 12- 16- 20- 24- 28- 2- 6- 10- 14- 18- 22- 26- 30- 3- 7- 11- 15- 19
Mar Apr Apr Apr Apr Apr Apr Apr May May May May May May May May Jun Jun Jun Jun Jun
Date of ons e t of s ymptoms
Fig. 1. The number of infected health care workers declined after barrier nursing practices
were begun during the Ebola haemorrhagic fever outbreak at Kikwit, 1995. One case
resulted from an inappropriate use of barrier nursing practices.
1 Khan AS et al. The Reemergence of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Journal of Infectious Diseases, in press,
1998.
How VHF Is Transmitted in the Health Care Setting
The virus enters the health facility in the body
fluids of a VHF patient
All health care staff, laboratory staff, cleaning

staff, other patients and visitors to the health
facility are at risk for exposure to VHF.
The virus is transmitted during direct,

unprotected contact with a VHF patient OR with
a deceased VHF patient.
The virus is also transmitted during unprotected
contact with VHF infectious body fluids
OR
contaminated medical equipment and supplies
OR
as a result of an accidental needlestick or
accidental exposure to infectious body fluids.
The exposed person carries the virus back to the

community. Transmission continues if there is
direct person-to-person contact OR any
unprotected contact with infectious body fluids.
Introduction
What Is in This Manual
This manual describes a system for using VHF Isolation

Precautions to reduce the risk of transmission of VHF in the health
care setting. The VHF Isolation Precautions described in the
manual make use of common low-cost supplies, such as
household bleach, water, cotton cloth, and plastic sheeting.
Although the information and recommendations are intended for
health facilities in rural areas in the developing world, they are
appropriate for any health facility with limited resources.
Who the Manual Is For
The manual is intended primarily for health officers who

implement infection control in the health care setting, and for:
• Health facility administrators
• Hospital outbreak coordinators
• Chief medical officers
• Chief nursing officers
• Medical and nursing staff
• Medical and nursing educators
• Public health officers and programme administrators.
Objectives
The information in this manual will help health facility staff to:
1. Understand what VHF Isolation Precautions are and how to

use them to prevent secondary transmission of VHF in the
health facility.
2. Know when to begin using VHF Isolation Precautions in the

health care setting.
3. Apply VHF Isolation Precautions in a large-scale outbreak.

(When a VHF occurs, initially as many as 10 cases may
appear at the same time in the health facility.)
5
4. Make advance preparations for implementing VHF Isolation
Precautions.
5. Identify practical, low-cost solutions when recommended

supplies for VHF Isolation Precautions are not available or
are in limited supply.
6. Stimulate creative thinking about implementing VHF

Isolation Precautions in an emergency situation.
7. Know how to mobilize community resources and conduct

community education.
How to Use the Manual

This manual can be used as a rapid reference when one or two
cases of a VHF appear in a health facility and no previous
preparations for VHF Isolation Precautions have been done.
Administrators or hospital outbreak coordinators can use the
information and instructions to set up an isolation area quickly and
make adaptations from local materials so that an effective system
of infection control can be implemented as soon as possible.
The manual can also be used for planning and carrying out
in-service training aimed at strengthening VHF Isolation
Precautions. It can be accompanied by workshop activities, in
which participants discuss and practice the recommendations
made in this manual.
The manual should be used to help health facilities make advance

preparations for responding with appropriate precautions when a
VHF case is suspected.
Introduction
This manual consists of nine sections:
Section 1 Use Standard Precautions with All Patients describes how to establish
routine precautions for infection control. The section emphasizes the
importance of using Standard Precautions consistently, especially
handwashing before and after examining patients with fever.
Section 2 Identify Suspected Cases of VHF lists common signs and symptoms of
VHF and the immediate precautions to take when a VHF is suspected.
Section 3 Isolate the Patient lists recommended supplies and describes how to set
up an isolation area. It includes checklists that can be used in an
emergency situation and practical suggestions for alternate equipment
when recommended items are not available.
Section 4 Wear Protective Clothing describes the protective clothing that should be
worn when VHF is present in the health facility. It also provides
information about selecting appropriate items when recommended
clothing is not available.
Section 5 Disinfect Reusable Supplies and Equipment describes the use of VHF
Isolation Precautions during patient care and when disinfecting and
cleaning contaminated surfaces, supplies and equipment. This section
also presents recommended first aid for accidental exposures.
Section 6 Dispose of Waste Safely describes step-by-step procedures for disposing

of VHF-contaminated waste. It also lists detailed instructions for building
an incinerator from available material.
Section 7 Use Safe Burial Practices describes how to prepare bodies of deceased
VHF patients safely for burial and how to prevent disease transmission
through contact with the deceased patient.
Section 8 Mobilize the Community and Conduct Community Education provides

guidance for involving the community in disease prevention and control
activities when VHF is suspected. It also describes how to choose a VHF
Coordinator.
Section 9 Make Advanced Preparations to Use VHF Isolation Precautions lists

steps for preparing in advance to use VHF Isolation Precautions. If
advance preparations have been carried out, and a VHF is suspected, the
supplies are ready and health facility staff are trained in recommended
practices. When advance preparations are not possible, VHF Isolation
Precautions must be implemented in an emergency situation.
The Annexes provide additional details about specific topics described in the manual.
Glossary for Use with This Manual
Changing room
room Area next to isolation ward where health workers dress in protective
protective
clothing, disinfect hands and gloves, and dispose of soiled and

and
contaminated protective clothing.
clothing.
Cleaning
Cleaning Removal of any soiling or other material on equipment or surfaces
surfaces
before disinfection or sterilization.

sterilization.
Contamination
Contamination Presence of infectious agent in blood and other body fluids, on body
surfaces and medical equipment, clothing and supplies. Contact with
contaminated body fluids or items is a risk for disease transmission.
Disinfection
Disinfection Elimination of most microorganisms from a surface, making it safe for
reuse. “Sterilization” means eliminating all microorganisms.
Health care worker

worker Any person trained to provide patient care (medical, nursing,
nursing,
paramedical, emergency room nurses, community health workers).

workers).
Health facility
facility Any hospital, health centre or clinic with inpatient facilities. Also any
facility providing emergency or first-service care.
Health facility staff

staff All patient care, laboratory, cleaning, disposal, reception, and
administrative staff who are likely to have contact with suspected VHF
cases, VHF infectious body fluids, and infectious waste.
Isolation area/ward
area/ward The area in the health facility used for housing suspected VHF
VHF
patients. It includes the patient's room or area, isolated latrine or

or
toilet, family entrance, and changing room.

room.
Protective clothing
clothing Masks, gloves, gowns, eyeglasses, caps, aprons, and boots. Provides
protection against splashes or spills of infectious material when
examining suspected VHF cases or handling infectious waste and
laundry.
Sharps container
container Puncture-resistant container for collecting used needles and syringes.
Standard Precautions
Precautions Practices for limiting or preventing disease transmission in the health
health
care setting.
setting.
Sterilization
Sterilization Elimination of all microorganisms (viral, bacteria, and fungal) through
heat, using an autoclave or steam sterilizer, or other appropriate
methods.
VHF Coordinator
Coordinator Designated health officer who coordinates infection control and
outbreak response, and provides liaison with the community and other
agencies involved in outbreak control.
VHF Isolation Barrier nursing and other infection control practices for preventing
Precautions contact between VHF infectious body fluids and non-infected persons.
Section 1
Use Standard Precautions with
All Patients
This section describes how to:
• Identify a minimum level of Standard Precautions for use

with all patients regardless of their infection status.
• Establish routine handwashing practices.
• Establish safe handling and disposal of used needles and

syringes.
• Be prepared to intensify Standard Precautions and include

VHF Isolation Precautions.
• Identify a VHF Coordinator to oversee and coordinate

activities associated with VHF Isolation Precautions.
Section 1
10
Section 1 Use Standard Precautions with All Patients
1.1 Use Standard Precautions
Health workers throughout the world are aware of the risks for
transmitting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis
viruses in the health care setting. Many use precautions (such as
wearing gloves) for preventing contact with infected blood.
Other dangerous diseases are also transmitted through contact with

blood or other body fluids and pose a significant risk in the health
care setting. For instance, a patient with a VHF may come to the
health facility at any point in his or her illness,
• When the possibility of exposure is often highest, and
• Before the specific cause of the patient’s illness is known.
Because a health worker cannot always know when a patient’s

body fluids are infectious, Standard Precautions2 should be used
with all patients in the health care setting, regardless of their
infection status.
Standard Precautions are designed to prevent unprotected contact

between the health care worker and
• Blood and all body fluids whether or not they contain

blood
• Mucous membranes.
When a specific diagnosis is made, additional precautions are

taken, based on how the disease is transmitted.3
2 See Annex 1 for more information about Standard Precautions.
3 This manual describes the Isolation Precautions to use when a patient is known to have or suspected of
having a VHF. Annex 1 describes other precautions for various modes of disease transmission.
11
Section 1
1.2 Establish and Maintain a Minimum Level of

Standard Precautions
Limited supplies and resources may prevent a health facility from
using all the Standard Precautions all the time. However, health
facilities should establish and maintain a basic, practical level of
Standard Precautions that can be used routinely with patients in
their health facility.
At a minimum, consider the services in the health facility that

present a risk of disease transmission due to potential contact with
blood and all body fluids, broken skin or mucous membranes.
For health facility staff who work in such areas, establish at least:
• A source of clean water (Please see Annex 7)
• Routine handwashing before and after any contact with a

patient who has fever
• Safe handling and disposal of sharp instruments and

equipment, including needles and syringes.
1.3 Establish Routine Handwashing
Handwashing is the most important precaution for the

prevention of infections.
Handwashing before and after contact with a patient who has fever
should be a routine practice in the health facility — even when
VHF is not present. Washing hands with soap and water
eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides
some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases.
In services where health care workers see patients with fever,

provide at least:
• Cake soap cut into small pieces
• Soap dishes. Microorganisms grow and multiply in

humidity and standing water. If cake soap is used, provide
soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away.
• Running water, or a bucket kept full with clean water
12
Use Standard Precautions with All Patients
• A bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping,

if running water is not available
• One-use towels. Sharing towels can result in

contamination. Use paper towels. If they are not available,
provide cloth towels that can be used once and then
laundered. If towels are not available, health care workers
and health facility staff can air-dry their hands.
Fig. 2. An example of a handwashing station
Make sure health facility staff know the steps of handwashing:
1. Place a piece of soap in the palm of one hand.
2. Wash the opposite hand and forearm. Rub the surfaces

vigorously for at least 10 seconds. Move soap to the
opposite hand and repeat.
3. Use clean water to rinse both hands and then the forearms.
If running water is not available, pour clean water from a
bucket over the soapy hands and forearms. The rinse water
should drain into
another bucket.
4. Dry the hands and

forearms with a clean,
one-use towel. First
dry the hands and then Back
the forearms. Or let
rinsed hands and
forearms air-dry.
Front
Fig. 3. The shading shows the parts of hands that are
often missed during handwashing. Make sure to wash
all parts of your hands: front, back, between the
fingers and under nails.
13
Section 1
1.4 Handle and Dispose of Sharp Instruments Safely
Disease transmission can occur through accidental needlestick

injuries. Make sure health facility staff always handle sharp
instruments safely. Do not recap needles after use.
Limit invasive procedures to reduce the number of injectable

medications. This will limit the opportunities for accidental
needlestick injuries.
When an injection is necessary, always

use a sterile needle and sterile syringe
for each injection.
To discard disposable needles and

syringes safely: Disposable needles
and syringes should be used only once.
Discard the used disposable needle
and syringe in a puncture-resistant
Fig. 4. Standard sharps container
container. Then burn the container in
an incinerator or pit for burning.
Instructions for using incinerators and

pits for burning are described in
Section 6.
If puncture-resistant containers are not

available, use empty water, oil, or
bleach bottles made with plastic or
other burnable material. Adapt them
for use as puncture-resistant
containers.
Detailed instructions for making a

puncture-resistant container are listed Fig. 5. Using plastic bottle to
in Annex 9. dispose of used needles
14
1.5 Disinfect Reusable Needles and Syringes Safely
Reusable needles and syringes are not recommended. If reusable

needles and syringes are used, clean, disinfect and sterilize them
before reuse, according to your hospital’s policy.
Note: Needles and syringes used with VHF patients require

special care. Cleaning staff should wear two pairs of gloves when
handling needles and syringes used with any patient with a known
or suspected VHF. See the recommendations for wearing
protective clothing when handling contaminated supplies in
Section 4.
1.6 Disinfect Disposable Needles and Syringes That

Must Be Reused
Remember! Whenever possible, use disposable needles and

syringes only once and then discard them safely.
In situations when disposable needles and syringes must be

reused, make sure they are cleaned and disinfected after each use.
Disinfection with bleach will reduce the risk of transmission of
VHF and blood-borne diseases, such as HIV infection and viral
hepatitis.
1. Obtain a jar or pan. Clean and disinfect it. Use it in Step 8

to store the disinfected needles and syringes.
2. Place the disposable

needle and syringe in a
pan of soapy water after
use. Fill the needle and
syringe with soapy water.
Leave them to soak until
they are cleaned.
3. Take the soaking needles

and syringes to the
cleaning area.
Fig. 6. Placing the disposable needle
4. Clean them very carefully and syringe in soapy water
in soap and water.
Remove any blood or
other biological waste, especially from the area around the
syringe fittings. Blood or other biological products may
collect in these small openings.
15
Section 1
5. Draw full-strength bleach into the needle and syringe.
6. Soak for 30 seconds, and then expel bleach into a container

for contaminated waste.
7. Soak again by once more drawing full-strength bleach into

the needle and syringe. Soak for 30 seconds, and then
expel bleach into the container for contaminated waste.
8. Let the disinfected needle and syringe air-dry. Store them

in a clean jar or pan that has been disinfected.
1.7 Use VHF Isolation Precautions
Section 2 of this manual describes how to identify a suspected case

of VHF so that relevant health facility staff can begin using VHF
Isolation Precautions. When a VHF is suspected, those health
facility staff who will have contact with the patient or with the
patient’s blood or other body fluids should intensify Standard
Precautions and use VHF Isolation Precautions.
VHF Isolation Precautions: The VHF Isolation Precautions

described in this manual have been shown to be effective in
reducing the transmission of VHFs in the health care setting.
As soon as a case of VHF is suspected in the health facility, alert

authorities and start VHF Isolation Precautions.
16
To reduce the risk of VHF transmission in a health care

setting:
USE VHF ISOLATION PRECAUTIONS
1. Isolate the patient.
2. Wear protective clothing in the isolation area, in the

cleaning and laundry areas and in the laboratory.
Wear a scrub suit, gown, apron, two pairs of gloves,
mask, headcover, eyewear, and rubber boots.
3. Clean and disinfect spills, waste, and reusable

equipment safely.
4. Clean and disinfect soiled linens and laundry safely.
5. Use safe disposal methods for non-reusable supplies

and infectious waste.
6. Provide information about the risk of VHF

transmission to health facility staff. Reinforce use of
VHF Isolation Precautions with all health facility staff.
7. Provide information to families and the community

about prevention of VHFs and care of patients.
Regular in-service training will strengthen skills for using VHF

Isolation Precautions. When a VHF is suspected, efforts will have
to be focused on providing care. There will not be enough time or
opportunity to provide initial training in skills for VHF Isolation
Precautions.
If health facility staff already know how to use VHF Isolation

Precautions when a VHF is suspected, authorities can be alerted
and VHF Isolation Precautions started without delay.
If health facility staff do not know how to use VHF Isolation

Precautions when a VHF case is suspected, training will need to
take place immediately.
17
Section 1
1.8 Select a VHF Coordinator
Being prepared for an emergency situation can save lives. In

addition to using a basic level of Standard Precautions with all
patients, health facilities can also prepare in advance for situations
when protective clothing, disinfection materials, and isolation
procedures are needed urgently.
Many health facilities already have an emergency coordinator or

emergency team who could assume the role of a “VHF
Coordinator.” The “VHF Coordinator” will:
• Oversee advance preparations and ensure that health

facility staff are prepared to use VHF Isolation Precautions.
• Serve as the focal point and coordinate activities when a

VHF case is suspected.
• Take the lead in mobilizing the community when an urgent

situation occurs.
Once a staff person is identified to serve as the VHF Coordinator,

he or she can review the recommendations in this manual and
begin the preparations described in Section 9. The VHF
Coordinator can also encourage efforts to strengthen and reinforce
the routine practice of a basic level of Standard Precautions with
all patients.
Remember! Using a minimum level of Standard Precautions

routinely will prevent transmission of contagious diseases, such
as HIV infection, viral hepatitis and VHF.
18
Section 2
Identify Suspected Cases of VHF
• In a non-outbreak situation, suspect VHF in patients with

fever, severe illness, and signs of unexplained bleeding.
• Alert relevant health facility staff and begin VHF Isolation

Precautions as soon as VHF is suspected.
• Report the suspected case to designated health authorities.

Section 2
20
Section 2 Identify Suspected Cases of VHF
In an outbreak situation, several cases occur around the same time.

They may be grouped together, and there may be person-to-person
transmission. An initial diagnosis of a VHF can be made based on
the signs and symptoms of the specific VHF.
Suspecting a VHF during a non-outbreak situation in a single case

is more difficult. The early symptoms of a VHF include high fever
and headache. These are also symptoms for many infections seen
at the health facility.
Most patients who present with fever do not have a VHF. Their
fever is more often caused by malaria, typhoid fever, dysentery,
severe bacterial infection or other fever-producing illnesses usually
seen in the area.
The health worker probably will not suspect a VHF until more
severe signs develop and the patient does not respond to
recommended treatment for other illnesses.
However, health workers should be aware of the possibility for

suspecting a VHF in a non-outbreak situation. As soon as a VHF is
suspected, VHF Isolation Precautions should begin. This will help
reduce the number of people exposed to the VHF.
21
Section 2
2.1 Use Information from Previous Outbreaks to

Suspect a VHF
When a patient presents with fever, use the available diagnostic
tools in your health facility to identify or exclude the cause of
fever. For example, do a malaria smear or take a stool culture as
soon as possible.
• Treat the most likely cause of the fever according to the

appropriate treatment guidelines.
• If the fever continues after 3 days of recommended

treatment, and if the patient has signs such as bleeding or
shock, consider a VHF.
• Review the patient’s history for any contact with someone

who was ill with fever and bleeding or who died from an
unexplained illness with fever and bleeding.
• If no other cause is found for the patient’s signs and

symptoms, suspect a VHF. Begin VHF Isolation
Precautions.
The flowchart on the next page shows how to
• Suspect a VHF and
• Decide to use VHF Isolation Precautions.
The flowchart applies to a non-outbreak situation. Annex 4 gives

examples of VHF case definitions in outbreak situations.
22
Use Isolation Precautions for Suspected VHF Cases
• Severe illness with weakness and

fatigue
• Measured fever (38.5oC or 101oF)
for more than 72 hours and less
than 2 weeks
Diagnose and treat for likely cause of

fever in area (such as malaria,
typhoid fever, dysentery, severe
bacterial infection)
If no response to
antimalarial and
antibiotic treatment
Does patient have one or more of the following?
* Unexplained bleeding from

– mucous membranes (gum, nose or vagina)
– skin (puncture sites, petechiae)
– conjunctiva (red eyes due to swollen blood
vessels)
– gastrointestinal system (vomiting blood; dark
or bloody stools)
* Shock: blood pressure <90mm Hg or rapid,
weak pulse
* Contact in the 3 weeks prior to onset of illness
with anyone who had an unexplained illness
with fever and bleeding or who died after an
unexplained severe illness with fever
Suspect a VHF
and
Begin VHF Isolation Precautions
23
Section 2
If VHFs have occurred in the area before:
Talk with the district or national surveillance officer about VHFs

that have been reported in your area.4 Use the information when
making a diagnosis of a suspected VHF case.
Record here the case definitions for VHFs that have been reported
in your area:
VHF Case Definition
4 Annex 2 provides more information about VHFs seen in the area of your health facility.
24
2.2 Begin VHF Isolation Precautions
Every health facility has its own procedures for responding to an

urgent situation. Adapt VHF Isolation Precautions as needed.
Designate the health officer who will coordinate VHF Isolation
Precautions. How to select a VHF Coordinator is described in
Section 9.1. As soon as a health care worker suspects a VHF, he
or she should notify the health facility administrator and the VHF
Coordinator who will:
• Refer the patient to the isolation area and take the necessary
steps to begin VHF Isolation Precautions (See Section 3).
• Limit the number of health facility staff and visitors in the

patient’s room.
• Limit the use of invasive procedures and reduce the number

of injectable medications.
Important! Between the time when VHF is suspected and when

the patient is received in the isolation area, there is a risk for
disease transmission from the patient’s blood and other body fluids
(stool, urine, vomit). Prevent disease transmission to other
patients, visitors and health staff in the waiting area by placing the
suspected VHF patient apart from other patients. Make every effort
to reduce this waiting time.
2.3 Alert Health Facility Staff about Specific Risks for

VHF Transmission
As soon as a VHF is suspected, alert the relevant health staff who

should begin using VHF Isolation Precautions, especially:
• Doctors or nurses providing direct patient care
• Cleaning, laundry, and waste disposal staff who clean and

disinfect contaminated material and supplies
• Laboratory staff who handle samples from the suspected

VHF cases
• Medical or support staff who prepare or handle deceased

VHF patients.
25
Section 2
Explain how VHF transmission can occur in the health facility and
the risks to health facility staff.5 Remind the staff that VHF is a
highly infectious disease. They must use VHF Isolation
Precautions whenever they have contact with the VHF patient, the
patient’s blood or other body fluids, or contaminated supplies and
equipment.
Fig. 7. An example of VHF Isolation Precautions poster.
5 The chart on page 4 of the Introduction summarizes the risk of VHF transmission in the health care
setting.
26
2.4 Report the Suspected Case to the Health

Authorities
Report suspected cases of VHF according to national level
surveillance guidelines.
If your district is conducting special surveillance activities for a

VHF, the district officer will provide specific information about
whom you should contact and how. If serum samples are needed,
the contact person will give you special instructions for collecting
and shipping serum samples. The table below can be used to
record information about whom to contact if a VHF is suspected.
Telephone Samples
Contact Information to
Agency and/or Fax to
Person Report
Number Collect
27
Section 2
2.5 Identify Patient’s Contacts and Travel History
Ask the patient (or a family member who can answer for the
patient):
• Where do you live?
• When did the symptoms begin?
• Who else is sick in your family (or village)?
• Where have you travelled recently?
Use the answers to identify others who had contact with the
patient. Provide them with information about VHF and when to
seek care.
Section 8 describes the steps for giving information to the

community about VHF and preventing VHF transmission.
28
Section 3
Isolate the Patient
• Gather supplies to set up an isolation area.
• Make a substitute item from available materials whenever a

recommended item is not available.
• Select a site for the VHF isolation area and set up:
— The patient’s room
— A changing room for health care workers to use

when changing clothes
— A changing room for other health facility staff to use

near their work area
— A family entrance, if necessary
— A security barrier around the entire isolation area.
• Counsel family members about patient care.

Section 3
30
Section 3 Isolate The Patient
Isolating the VHF patient will:
• Restrict patient access to health facility staff trained to use

• Establish a barrier between the VHF patient and uninfected

patients, other health facility staff, and visitors.
3.1 Select Site for the Isolation Area
Ideally, an isolation area should already be available to admit

patients requiring isolation.
If an isolation area is not available or if advance preparations have

not been done, and VHF is suspected, immediately identify and set
aside:
• A single room with an adjoining toilet or latrine.
If a single room is not available, select one of the following in

order of preference:
• A separate building or ward that can be used with VHF

patients only (especially if Ebola haemorrhagic fever is
suspected, or if there is a large number of patients)
• An area in a larger ward that is separate and far away from

other patients in the ward
• An uncrowded corner of a large room or hall
• Any area that can be separated from the rest of the health
facility (TB rooms, isolation ward for infectious diseases,
private or semiprivate rooms).
31
Section 3
Make sure the selected site has:
1. An isolated toilet: If a toilet is not next to the patient's

room, select and isolate a toilet near the isolation area. Use
it to receive the patient’s disinfected waste and other liquid
waste.
If a toilet is not available, prepare a latrine for disposal of

the patient’s and other liquid waste.
2. Adequate ventilation: The isolation room should have

adequate ventilation because chlorine disinfectants will be
used. To prevent airborne or droplet transmission of
infectious agents, avoid rooms with air conditioning.
3. Screened windows: If windows are left open for cooling,

screen them to prevent transmission of mosquito- and other
insect-borne diseases.
Restrict access. Tie a rope or line around the area outside the
window to restrict the area and prevent entry through the window.
3.2 Plan How to Arrange the Isolation Area
Make use of the available space and design of the health facility to
arrange the isolation area. The diagram below shows an ideal
arrangement for an isolation area. The next page shows examples
for a single patient’s room and for a ward with several patients.
Patient’s room
Toilet
11
12
1
Changing room
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 5
6
Fig. 8. A sample layout of an isolation area
32
Isolate the Patient
Toilet Patient’s room Changing room
Bedside Storage
table shelf Hooks
Bed Storage
shelf
Disinfection
station
Disinfection station Disinfection station
Fig. 9. A sample layout for a single patient
Screens between beds

Disinfection station
Storage
shelf Hooks
Bed Bed Bed
Storage
shelf
Changing room
Toilet
Bed Bed Bed

Disinfection station
Table for medical supplies and equipment;

disinfection and handwashing stations
Fig. 10. A sample layout for several patients
33
Section 3
3.3 Gather Recommended Supplies
Ideally, supplies should be available to begin VHF Isolation

Precautions. If a separate emergency supply is not available when
a VHF case is suspected, use supplies from other services in the
health facility.
If a recommended item is not available, or if the quantity is

limited, make a substitute item from available materials. For
example, the manual recommends using plastic sheeting to cover
mattresses. If plastic sheeting is not available, use plastic cloth
normally used to cover kitchen tables. This is usually available in
the local market.
3.3.1 Plan Disinfection for VHF-Contaminated Items
Ordinary household bleach, soap and water are useful

disinfectants against viruses causing VHF.6 They are low in cost
and commonly available.
Ordinary Household Bleach: The viruses causing VHF are

very sensitive to bleach solution. This manual describes a
low-cost disinfection system using two bleach solutions: a
solution of 1:10 and a solution of 1:100. Detailed
instructions for preparing the solutions are in Section 5.1.
Soap and Clean Water: Scrubbing with soap and water

before disinfection removes infectious body fluids and other
foreign matter from contaminated items. This makes bleach
solutions more effective. Detailed instructions for preparing
solutions of soapy water are in Section 5.2.
Sterilization: Heat sterilization requires special equipment,

such as an autoclave or steam sterilizer. When this
equipment is not working or is not available, boiling
heat-resilient items in water for 20 minutes will kill VHF
viruses.
6 VHF viruses are lipid enveloped, and this feature makes them sensitive to destruction by detergent
solutions.
34
Isolate the Patient
3.3.2 Gather Supplies for the Patient Area
Obtain the following items for use in the patient’s room:
Bed and mattress or sleeping mat for each patient.
Plastic sheeting to cover the mattress or sleeping mat. This is strongly

recommended. Plastic sheeting will protect the mattress from contamination. It
can be easily cleaned and disinfected if it becomes contaminated with infectious
body fluids.
Bedding for each bed -- at least 1 blanket and a bottom sheet. If necessary, the
patient or the patient's family can bring the bedding from home.
One thermometer, one stethoscope, and one blood-pressure cuff per patient.
Keep them in the isolation area for reuse with the same patient.
If there is not enough equipment to supply one each of these items per patient,
assign one piece of equipment for use only with the patients in the isolation area.
Covered container for alcohol or bleach solution used to disinfect thermometer

and stethoscope after use with each patient.
Puncture-resistant container for collecting used disposable needles, syringes and

other sharp instruments.
Puncture-resistant tray with soapy water for collecting reusable needles,

syringes and instruments.
Bedside table or shelf on which to place medical instruments, puncture-resistant

container, and so on.
Large wall clock with a second hand for measuring respiration rates and pulse.
Bedpan for each patient.
Screens or other barriers to place around the VHF patients' beds. This will
prevent patient-to-patient transmission through spills or splashes of infectious
body fluids or from aerosol routes.
If screens are not available, stretch ropes or lines from one end of the patient
area to the other. Hang sheets from the ropes.
Disinfection station with buckets, sprayer, bleach solutions, soap and water,
mop, and a supply of one-use towels. It is preferable to dispose of gloves after
each use. However, the reuse of gloves in many health facilities is a common
practice. Disinfect gloved hands between patients if there are not enough gloves
for health care workers to dispose of after each patient.
Container with soapy water for collecting discarded outer gloves.
35
Section 3
Boot sprayer for disinfecting the boots before leaving the patient’s room.
Extra supply of gowns and gloves.
3.3.3 Gather Supplies for the Changing Room
Hooks, nails, or hangers for hanging reusable protective clothing.
Roll of plastic tape for taping cuffs and trousers of protective clothing.
Disinfection station with bleach solution for disinfecting gloved hands.
Handwashing station with bucket, soap, soap dish, clean water, and supply of
one-use towels.
Containers with soapy water for collecting:
• Discarded gloves
• Used instruments to be sterilized.
Containers for collecting:
• Reusable protective clothing to be laundered
• Infectious waste to be burned.
3.3.4 Arrange for Storing of Supplies Outside the Changing Room
Shelf or box with a lock for storing clean protective clothing.
Supply of clean protective clothing.
Container for collecting non-infectious waste.
Covered shelf (or plastic bags which can be closed) to store disinfected boots
and keep them dry.
The checklists at the end of this section can be used to gather supplies for the isolation
area.
36
Isolate the Patient
3.4 Set Up Changing Rooms
For patient-care staff:
One changing room is needed outside the patient isolation area.

This area is where health care workers will put on protective
clothing to protect them from spills or splashes of infectious body
fluids while they are in the patient’s room. After leaving the
patient's room, they will reenter the changing room and remove
the protective clothing. They will hang it for reuse or dispose of it
appropriately.
Contaminated clothing and supplies remain in the changing room

until cleaning staff trained to use VHF Isolation Precautions take
the VHF-contaminated items to the laundry or disposal site.
For laboratory, cleaning, laundry, and waste disposal staff:
Set up changing rooms near the work areas for other health facility
staff who will handle laboratory specimens and who will clean
launder, or dispose of contaminated items. They will also need to
wear protective clothing during any contact they have with body
fluids or VHF-contaminated items.
The stations in the changing room should be set up so that traffic

flow is from the least to most contaminated area.
3.5 Place Security Barrier Around Isolation Area
Restrict access to the isolation

area: Place signs around the
isolation area clearly stating
that access is restricted. Or tie
lines or ropes around the
isolation area and hang plastic
sheets from them.
Fig. 11. A security barrier and sign
37
Section 3
Prepare a list of health facility staff and family members

authorized to enter the isolation area: List the medical, nursing,
laboratory, cleaning staff, and, if appropriate, those family
members who are trained in the use of VHF Isolation
Precautions. If an accidental exposure or incident occurs, the list
can help in the prompt identification of possible contacts.
When there is a large number of patients, station a guard at the

entry to the isolation area: In a large scale outbreak, station a
security guard at the door of the patient isolation area outside the
changing room. The guard will limit access to authorized health
facility staff and family members only. This is critical for
maintaining strict isolation and protecting the community.
Provide the guard with the list of authorized persons and a sign-in
sheet. The guard can record who comes into the isolation area
and note the time of entry and departure.
Date Name Service Time In Time Out
Infectious
13.6.98 Dr. Nsango 10:15 11:30
Diseases
Nurse Intensive
13.6.98 10:00 11:30
Bandari Care
Nurse Intensive
13.6.98 11:00 13:30
Ninakazi Care
13.6.98 Masika Cleaning 11:10 11:45
Family
13.6.98 Madunda member 11:15
Fig. 12. An example of a sign-in sheet
38
Isolate the Patient
3.6 Consult Family Members about Patient Care
Talk with family members and explain why the patient is being
isolated. Tell them about the risk of transmission for VHF and why
protective clothing is needed. Answer any questions they have.
When there is a large outbreak (more than one or two cases),

identify a person to serve as a liaison between health facility staff
and the patients’ families. Select a health staff member, an
experienced community member, or a convalescent patient.
If it is the custom for family members to provide cleaning and

washing of the patient while the patient is in the health facility,
help the family to select a caregiver. Select as caregiver the family
member who has already had the most contact with the patient.
Also select a second person who can do the patient care activities
when the other caregiver is resting.
In areas where family members participate in patient care, they are

likely to help the patient with:
• Feeding and giving water
• Washing the hospital gown or pyjama with soap and water
• Getting up or moving around.
When a VHF is suspected, it is likely that health care workers

trained in VHF Isolation Precautions will do most of the direct
patient care tasks. However, if there are family members who will
assist with direct patient care, give them information and training
about:
• The risk of VHF transmission and the reason for protective

clothing
• How to wear gloves, gowns, and a mask
• How to take off gloves, gowns, and mask and store or

dispose of them safely.
Make sure there is a changing room for family members to use that
is separate from the changing room for health care workers.
Provide a set of protective clothing for the family members to wear
in the isolation room. At a minimum, make sure that the family
members wear at least a pair of gloves.
39
Section 3
Provide in the family members’ changing room:
• A shelf or table to store a supply of clean gloves to be worn

by the family member
• Hooks to hang a set of protective clothing
• A bucket with soapy water for collecting discarded gloves

after leaving the isolation area
• A handwashing station.
Arrange to monitor family members for signs of illness.
Assist family members with:
• Coordination of other family members who bring food for

the patient and for the family member providing care
• Location of an area for family members to stay in while

providing care that includes cooking, washing and sleeping
facilities.
Note: When a breast-feeding mother has a suspected case of VHF,

the child's breast-feeding should not be interrupted. Help the
family to decide how to continue the child’s breast-feeding when
the mother is too ill to do so.
40
Isolate the Patient
Checklist: Supplies for a Changing Room

Storage Outside the Changing Room:
1. Shelf or cabinet with lock
2. Supply of clean scrub suits, gowns, aprons,

gloves, masks, headcovering, and eyewear
3. Covered shelf for storing disinfected boots
4. Bucket for collecting non-infectious waste
Inside the Changing Room:
1. Hooks, nails, or hangers for hanging reusable

gowns, scrub suits
2. Roll of plastic tape
3. Handwashing supplies: bucket or pan, clean

water, soap, one-use towels
4. Bucket or pan, 1:100 bleach solution for

disinfecting gloved hands
5. Container with soapy water for collecting

discarded gloves
6. Container with soapy water for collecting used

instruments to be sterilized*

reusable gowns, masks, sheets to launder*
*Place outside the changing room if the changing room

is too small
If large amounts of waste on floor:
Sprayer, bucket or shallow pan with 1:100 bleach

solution for disinfecting boots
41
Section 3
Checklist: Supplies for Patient Area
1. 1 bed with clean mattress or sleeping mat and at

least a bottom sheet and blanket for each bed
2. Plastic sheeting to cover mattress or sleeping mat
3. 1 thermometer, 1 stethoscope, and 1 blood

pressure cuff for each patient or for each patient
area
4. 1 puncture-resistant container for collecting

non-reusable needles, syringes, and discarded
sharp instruments
5. 1 bedside table or shelf
6. 1 large wall clock with a second hand
7. Pan with 1:100 bleach solution or alcohol and

one-use towels for disinfecting the thermometer
and stethoscope between use with each patient
8. Bucket or pan, 1:100 bleach solution, one-use

towels for disinfecting gloved hands between
patients
9. Supplies for disinfecting patient excreta (bedpan,

urinal, 1:10 bleach solution)
10. Sprayer, 1:100 bleach solution, clear water, and

mop for disinfecting spills on floor and walls

discarded gloves
12. Screens (or sheets hung from ropes or lines)

placed between VHF patients’ beds
13. Extra supply of gowns and gloves
14. Container for collecting infectious waste to be

burned
42
Section 4
Wear Protective Clothing
• Prepare a supply of protective clothing for use with VHF

Isolation Precautions.
• Make adaptations from locally available materials when an

item is not available, or if the supply is limited.
• Put on and take off protective clothing in the changing

room.
Section 4
44
Section 4 Wear Protective Clothing
4.1 Specify Who Should Wear Protective Clothing
• All doctors, nurses, and health care workers who provide

direct patient care to suspected VHF patients.
• All support staff who clean the isolation room, handle

contaminated supplies and equipment, launder reusable
supplies, and collect and dispose of infectious waste from
VHF patients.
• All laboratory staff who handle patient specimens and body

fluids from suspected VHF cases.
• Laboratory support staff who clean and disinfect laboratory

equipment used to test VHF specimens.
• Burial teams who remove bodies of deceased VHF patients

and prepare them for burial.
• Family members who care for VHF patients.
When a VHF case is suspected in the health facility, the following

protective clothing should be worn in the isolation area:
• A scrub suit or inner layer of clothing (an old shirt and

trousers brought from home)
• A pair of thin gloves
• Rubber boots or overshoes (only if the floor is soiled)
• A gown or outer layer of clothing (surgical or disposable

gown with long sleeves and cuffs)
• A plastic apron worn over both layers of clothes
• A second pair of thin or thick gloves. Wearing a second

pair of gloves provides an added measure of safety during
patient care and when handling contaminated supplies
• A HEPA-filter (high-efficiency particulate air respirator) or

other biosafety mask (or surgical mask if HEPA-filter or
other biosafety mask is not available)
45
Section 4
• Cotton head covering
• Clear eyeglasses or non-fogging goggles.
Note: When protective clothing is not available or is in short

supply, adaptations must be made and used.
4.2 Gather a Supply of Protective Clothing
Obtain and store the following items

outside the changing room or in a
storage cabinet inside the changing
room.
Scrub suit or inner layer: Wear a

scrub suit or a set of old clothes
brought from home (such as a
loose-fitting shirt and trousers).
Avoid wearing long skirts to prevent
contact between clothing and spills
of infectious waste on the floor.
Fig. 13. Inner layer of clothing
Thin gloves: These permit

fine-motor function when
examining or caring for patients.
They can be latex, vinyl, or
surgical gloves; they do not need
to be sterile. The gloves must
reach well above the wrist,
preferably 10 cm to 15 cm long (4
inches to 6 inches), measuring
from the wrist up along the arm.
Fig. 14. Thin gloves
46
Boots: Boots or overboots must be worn over street shoes when

infectious waste is on the floor. Common rubber boots are
recommended. The sides of the boots should be at least 30 cm
(12 inches) high and have textured soles.
If boots are not available, wear two layers of plastic bags.
Fig. 15. Using plastic bags as boots
Assign those staff who are entering the isolation area their own
pairs of boots. Staff members will be responsible for storing their
boots in a covered shelf or in a plastic sack between each use.
Fig. 16. Storing boots
Gown or Outer Layer: Wear a disposable surgical gown or a

cotton gown over the first layer of clothes.
Disposable surgical gowns can be reused by the same staff

member if they are not contaminated and are not obviously dirty
and torn.
When the supply of disposable gowns is limited, wear a cotton

surgical gown that can be washed and reused.
47
Section 4
The gown should:
• Open at the back and close with ties at the neck and waist.
• Be knee-length with collar wraps around the neck and

elastic bands to close the gown around the wrist. If elastic
bands are not used, sew on cotton loops. They can be
hooked around the thumb to hold the sleeve in place.
front back
Fig. 17. Illustration of gown with ties
If the supply of cotton surgical gowns is limited, make additional

gowns from local cotton fabric. Instructions for making cotton
gowns are listed in Annex 5. Specifications for ordering gowns
and other pieces of recommended clothing are listed in Annex 6.
Plastic Aprons: Wear a plastic apron over the outer gown. The
apron prevents contact with infectious body fluids that may soak
through protective clothing when the
patient bleeds, coughs or vomits.
Plastic aprons should be worn by

anyone who has direct contact with a
suspected VHF case or infectious
body fluids. These aprons are strongly
recommended for:
• Nurses
• Laboratory staff
• Cleaning staff
• Staff who perform autopsies or

prepare bodies for burial.
Fig. 18. Wearing a plastic apron
48
When a supply of commercial plastic aprons is not available, make

aprons from plastic sheeting, rubber, or plastic cloth normally used
to cover kitchen tables.
The apron should:
• Have hooks or ties that fasten around the neck.
• Have ties at the waist that reach around and tie at the back.
• Be long enough to cover the top of the boots and provide

additional protection from spills running inside the boots.
Thick gloves: These are worn over an inner pair of thin or latex
gloves. They are worn to clean spills, launder reusable protective
clothing and patient bedding, handle disposable waste, and
conduct autopsies and burial preparations.
Fig. 19. Thick gloves
The gloves can be made of neoprene or thick rubber. They should

reach well above the wrist, about 30 cm (12 inches) up the arm.
When thick rubber gloves are not available, use normal kitchen
gloves as the outer layer of gloves.
If the supply of gloves is limited, wear one pair of gloves.

Disinfect them after each contact with the VHF patient or with
infectious body fluids and contaminated material. How to
disinfect and clean gloves during patient care and for reuse is
described in Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
If gloves are not available, use plastic bags to cover the hands.
Fig. 20. Using plastic bags as gloves
49
Section 4
If nothing is available to serve as a glove or hand covering, make

sure health facility staff wash their hands with soap and water
immediately:
• After every contact with the VHF patient
• Before leaving the patient’s room
• After any contact with infectious body fluids
• After contact with any contaminated material.
How to set up handwashing stations is described in Section 1.3.
Mask: Masks protect the health care worker's face from contact
with blood or droplets of infectious body fluids. Use masks that
cover the mouth and nose. Use a HEPA-filter or other biosafety
mask, a surgical mask, or a cotton mask made locally.
HEPA-filter or biosafety mask: A HEPA-filter mask filters

the air to prevent breathing in small particles and harmful
microorganisms. It provides protection from airborne
transmission of microorganisms.
Fig. 21. HEPA-filter mask
A HEPA-filter or biosafety mask is lightweight and easy to

use. It can be reused by the same health care worker as
long as it continues to fit comfortably and the mask does
not become contaminated, crushed, or splattered with body
fluids.
Do not touch the mask after it has been put on. The mask
may become contaminated once it is touched. To avoid
the necessity for touching the mask, make sure it fits
comfortably before entering the patient’s room.
When handling a reused mask, hold it by the strings. Be

careful that the outside surface does not touch the health
care worker’s face.
50
Surgical mask: If HEPA-filter or

other biosafety masks are not
available, use surgical masks.
Surgical masks will not filter out
small particles, but they will
protect the health care worker
from droplets or splashing of
body fluids. Fig. 22. Surgical mask
A surgical mask can be reused by the same health care

worker as long as it is not contaminated and not obviously
dirty and torn.
Cotton mask: If surgical masks are not available, use cotton

masks made from four or five layers of cotton cloth sewn
together.
• Use a different colour for

each side of the mask.
This will help health care
workers quickly identify
which side should be
worn inside.
• The mask should have

Fig. 23. Cotton mask
ties that are long enough
to reach behind the head.
Cotton masks will not provide protection from breathing in

particles, but they will provide protection against splashes
and other droplet contact with infectious body fluids. A
cotton mask can be reused by the same health care worker
as long as it is not contaminated and not obviously dirty
and torn.
Head covering: A head covering or cap protects the hair and head
against splashes from the patient's vomit, blood, or other body
fluids.
Use disposable or cotton

caps. If disposable caps are
not available, make cotton
caps from locally available
cotton fabric. Include ties so
the cap does not fall off when
the health care worker bends
over a patient.
Fig. 24. Head covering
51
Section 4
If cotton caps are not available:
• Use a scarf, bandanna, or large piece of cloth.
• Fold the scarf, bandanna, or cloth and wrap it around the

head.
Eyewear: Wear clear eyeglasses or non-fogging goggles to protect

the eyes from splashes or spills of infectious body fluids.
Obtain clear eyeglasses from a local

eyeglass shop or in the market.
Place ties on the ear holders. Tie the
eyeglasses around the back of the
head so they will not fall off when a
health care worker bends over a
patient. If available, wear
commercial non-fogging goggles
instead of eyeglasses.
Fig. 25. Wearing clear eyeglasses or

goggles
52
4.3 Put On Protective Clothing
Make sure the changing room (and the changing area for cleaning
and other staff) contains a supply of protective clothing. Section
3.4 describes how to set up a changing room.
1. Before entering the changing room, remove jewelry, wallets

and other valuables. Store them safely outside the changing
room.
2. Remove street clothes and

hang them on a hook. Put on
the scrub suit or set of old
clothes.
3. Enter the changing room.
Fig. 26. Scrub suit: the first layer of

clothing
4. Put on rubber boots.
Put on each boot and tuck

the trouser leg inside the
boot. If overboots are used,
tape the top of the boot to
the leg with plastic tape.
This will help prevent spills
from running inside the
boots.
Fig. 27. Putting on boots
53
Section 4
5. Put on the first pair of gloves.
• Look at your hands for cut or broken skin. If the skin

is cut or broken, refrain from direct patient contact.
• Put on one glove at
a time. If the scrub
suit or set of old
clothes has long
sleeves, place the
edge of each glove
under the cuff.
• When only one pair
of gloves is worn,
place the edge of

Fig. 28. Putting on the first pair of
the glove over the
gloves
cuff or gown.
• If gloves are not available, use plastic bags. Put on

one layer now. Attach and close the first layer with
tape or elastic bands.
6. Put on the outer gown.
• Pick up the gown
from the inside.
This is especially
important if the
gown is being
reused.
• Place arms
through the
armholes.
Fig. 29. Putting on the outer gown

• Tie the gown in
back. Or, ask
another health
care worker to tie the gown.
54
7. Put on the plastic or rubber

apron.
Fig. 30. Putting on a plastic apron
8. Put on the second pair of gloves.
• Place the edge of the
second pair of gloves
over the cuff of the
gown.
• If using plastic bags,
place the second layer
of plastic bags over the
first. Close ends of the
bags with plastic tape or
Fig. 31. Proper way to put on the

elastic bands.
second pair of gloves
• Health facility staff who

do cleaning, laundering, disinfecting, waste disposal
or handling the body should wear thick gloves as the
second pair of gloves.
9. Put on the mask. Tie it at the back of the neck and towards
the top of the head.
Fig. 32. Putting on mask
55
Section 4
10. Put on a head cover.
Fig. 33. Putting on head cover
11. Put on the protective

eyewear. Attach the
eyeglasses or goggles
behind the head with
string or cord to prevent
the eyewear from falling
off when working with
patients in the isolation
ward.
Fig. 34. Putting on eyewear
Remember! Make sure the mask, head cover and eyewear fit
comfortably. Once gloved hands have touched a patient, do not
touch the mask, headcover and eyewear.
Plan ahead to bring everything into the isolation area for

examining the patient. Once protective clothing has been put on,
do not re-enter the general health facility. In an emergency, ask
the guard or a health assistant to go and obtain any needed items
from other parts of the health facility.
56
4.4 Take Off Protective Clothing
The steps for removing protective clothing include disinfection

with bleach solutions and washing hands with soap and water.
How to set up supplies for disinfection is described in Section 3.3.
How to prepare the bleach solutions is described in Section 5.1.
Outer gloves and boots are likely to have the most contact with
infectious body fluids during patient care.
Before leaving the patient’s room:
1. Disinfect the outer pair of gloves.
• Wash the gloved hands in soap and water.
• Dip the gloved hands in 1:100 bleach solution for 1

minute.
2. Disinfect the apron. Spray or wipe it with 1:100 bleach

solution.
3. Disinfect the boots.
Note: The soles of rubber boots are difficult to clean

because they are textured. Disinfect them carefully and
make sure to reach all surfaces of the textured soles.
• Use a sprayer
containing 1:100
bleach solution to
spray boots
OR
• Hold the foot over
a pan or basin and
ask another health
worker to pour
1:100 bleach
Fig. 35. Disinfecting the boots
solution over the
boots
OR
• Step into a shallow pan containing 1:100 bleach

solution and wipe boots on a bleach-drenched cloth.
57
Section 4
4. Remove the outer pair of gloves.
If two pairs of gloves are worn:
• Pull the edge of the glove back over the gloved hand
so that the glove turns inside out as it is being pulled
back.
• If gloves will be reused, place the glove in a bucket

containing soapy water.
Fig. 36.
Disinfecting used
gloves in soapy
water for reuse or
disposing of them
in waste bucket
• If gloves will not be reused, discard them in a bucket

for disposal of contaminated waste.
• Remove the other glove in the same way.
If only one pair of gloves is worn:
• Do not remove the gloves now.
• Rinse the gloved hands in 1:100 bleach solution for

1 minute before leaving the patient’s room.
After disinfecting the boots and removing the outer gloves, go into
the changing room.
58
5. Remove the apron and outer gown.
• Put the apron in a

laundry container or
hang it for reuse (if it will
be reused).
Fig. 37. Removing the apron
• Remove the outer

gown. Hang it on a
hook for reuse. Make
sure it is hung inside
out. If the gown needs
laundering, place it in
the laundry container.
Fig. 38. Removing the gown
6. Disinfect the gloved hands

after contact with apron and outer gown.
• Rinse the gloved hands in

1:100 bleach solution.
Then wash them in soap
and water.
• Dry the gloved hands

with a one-use towel.
• If bleach is not available,

wash the gloved hands
with soap and water.
Fig. 39. Washing the gloved hands
59
Section 4
7. Remove the eyewear, head

cover and mask.
• If eyewear is heavily
soiled, wash the
eyeglasses in soapy
water and wipe them
clean. Store them in a
drawer or shelf with
the clean supply of
eyeglasses.
Fig. 40. Removing the eyewear
• Remove the head

cover and, if unsoiled,
store it with the
cleaned eyewear. If it
is soiled, place it in the
laundry container or
discard it in the bucket
for disposal of
contaminated waste.
Fig. 41. Removing the head cover

• Remove the mask and
hang it on a hook or
store it for reuse.
• A HEPA-filter or other
biosafety mask can be
reused by the same
health care worker as
long as it is not soiled.
If the HEPA-filter or
other biosafety mask is
soiled, discard it in a
bucket for disposal of Fig. 42. Removing the mask
contaminated waste.
• A locally made cotton mask can be reused as long as

it is not obviously dirty and torn.
If it is soiled, place it in the laundry container.
60
8. Remove the boots.
• Place a towel that has been soaked in 1:100 bleach

solution on the floor for health facility staff to stand
on when removing boots.
• Use a boot remover to take off the rubber boots.

Avoid touching the boots with bare or gloved hands.
Fig. 43. A boot remover
• Store boots safely until next use. For example, store

them in a plastic sack or on a covered shelf.
9. Remove the inner pair of gloves.
If gloves will be discarded:
• Remove the first glove

with the other gloved
hand. Pull the edge
of the first glove back
over the gloved hand
so that the glove turns
inside out as it is
being pulled back.
• Place the inside-out

glove in the palm of Fig. 44. Removing the inner gloves
the gloved hand.
• Reach inside the glove to a clean area. Pull the

glove back over the hand so that only the inside of
the glove is exposed and covers the glove held in
the palm. Discard the gloves in a bucket for
disposal of contaminated waste.
• Wash ungloved hands with soap and water.
61
Section 4
If gloves will be reused:
• Reach inside the first glove to a clean area. Pull the

glove back over the hand so the glove turns inside
out as it is pulled back. Place the glove in a bucket
of soapy water.
• Remove the second glove in the same way.
• Place the second glove in soapy water.
• Immediately wash ungloved hands with soap and

water.
10. Remove inner layer of clothes and dress in street clothes.
• If the inner layer is not soiled, store the clothing for

reuse.
• If soiled, place the clothing in the laundry container.
• If personal shower facilities are available, shower

before dressing in street clothes.
• If skin has contact with soiled material, follow

guidelines for accidental exposure in Section 5.13.
• Put on street clothes.
11. Wash hands with soap and clean water before leaving the
changing room.
62
Note:
When gloves are in limited supply, use one pair of gloves only.
Modify the order for removing protective clothing as follows:
1. Rinse gloved hands in 1:100 bleach solution

upon leaving the patient isolation room.
2. Remove apron and outer gown as described in

Section 4.4.
3. Remove the gloves.
4. Wash ungloved hands in soap and water.
5. Remove the inner gown or scrub suit, mask,

head cover and eyewear.
6. Wash hands again.
63
Section 4
64
Section 5
Disinfect Reusable Supplies

and Equipment
• Prepare disinfectants.
• Clean and disinfect used gloves before reuse.
• Clean and disinfect used medical instruments and supplies.
• Disinfect patient waste and spills of infectious body fluids.
• Disinfect and discard infectious waste and non-reusable

supplies.
• Clean and disinfect protective clothing, boots, and patients’

sheets.
• Give first aid for accidental exposures.

Section 5
66
Section 5 Disinfect Reusable Supplies and Equipment
What to Disinfect: Disinfection kills almost all bacteria, fungi,

viruses, and protozoa. It reduces the number of microorganisms to
make equipment and surfaces safer for use. When VHF is
suspected in the health facility, all medical, nursing, laboratory
and cleaning staff should disinfect:
• Hands and skin after contact with a VHF patient or

infectious body fluids
• Gloved hands after contact with each VHF patient or after

contact with infectious body fluids (when gloves cannot be
changed)
• Thermometers, stethoscopes and other medical instruments

after use with each VHF patient
• Spills of infectious body fluids on the walls and floors
• Patient excreta and containers contaminated by patient

excreta
• Reusable supplies such as protective clothing and patient

bedding
• Used needles and syringes.
Note: All health facility staff — including cleaning, waste disposal,

and laundry staff — who handle, disinfect, or clean
VHF-contaminated supplies and equipment should wear the same
protective clothing as health care workers who provide direct
patient care. Wear thick gloves for the second pair of gloves.
Follow the steps in Section 4 for putting on and taking off
protective clothing.
67
Section 5
5.1 Prepare Bleach Solutions
In a central place in the health facility, prepare two solutions of

ordinary household bleach. Normally, ordinary household bleach
has a 5.0% chlorine concentration.7
• 1:10 bleach solution8 is a strong solution used to disinfect

excreta and bodies. It is also used to prepare the 1:100
bleach solution.
• 1:100 bleach solution9 is used to disinfect:
— Surfaces
— Medical equipment
— Patient bedding
— Reusable protective clothing before it is laundered.
It is also recommended for:
— Rinsing gloves between contact with each patient
— Rinsing gloves, apron, and boots before leaving the

patient’s room
— Disinfecting contaminated waste for disposal.
Bleach solutions must be prepared daily. They lose their strength

after 24 hours. Anytime the odour of chlorine is not present,
discard the solution.
Note: 1:10 bleach solution is caustic. Avoid direct contact with

skin and eyes. Prepare the bleach solutions in a well-ventilated
area.
7 The recommendations in this section assume ordinary bleach solution has a 5% chlorine concentration.
Annex 8 contains a table describing quantities to use when preparing chlorine solutions from other
chlorine products.
8 This is a solution with 0.5% chlorine concentration.
9 This is a solution with 0.05% chlorine concentration.
68
Disinfect Reusable Supplies and Equipment
To prepare the bleach solutions
1. Gather the necessary supplies:
• 1 container that holds 10 measures (for example, 10

litres) to make the base 1:10 bleach solution
• 1 large or several smaller containers (1 for each

station) with covers or lids to hold the 1:100 bleach
solutions. These containers should be a different
colour than the container holding the 1:10 bleach
solution, or they should be clearly labelled “1:100.”
• Chlorine bleach (for example, 1 litre of Javel)
• Clean water
• A measuring cup or other container (for example, a

bottle that holds 1 litre).
2. To prepare the containers for mixing the bleach solutions,

determine where to mark the measurements for “9 parts”
and “1 part” on each container.
• Pour 9 measures of water
into the container. Mark
a line where “9 parts”
has filled the container. Mark inside the

For example, use a nail container to show
to scratch a line on a where 9 parts of
metal or plastic bucket. water should be
• Add 1 measure of water

to the first 9 parts. Mark the level when
Using a nail, mark a 9 parts bleach is added
line at the point where
the total volume has Fig. 45. Marking container for mixing 1:10
filled the container. bleach solutions
3. To prepare 1:10 bleach solution:
• Fill the marked container with water up to the mark

for 9 parts.
• Then pour the ordinary household bleach into the
container up to the top mark.
69
Section 5
4. To prepare 1:100 bleach solution:
• Measure and pour 9 parts of water into the large

container. Then measure and pour 1 part of 1:10
bleach solution into the water to make 1:100 bleach
solution.
9 parts water
9 parts water
1 part bleach 1 part 1:10 bleach
1:10 1:100
Fig. 46. Preparing bleach solutions
• Distribute a container to each station.
• Fill the container at each station in the isolation area

with the 1:100 bleach solution as shown in Section
3.2.
• Place the remaining 1:10 bleach solution in the

isolation area to disinfect spills and excreta.
• When there is a large outbreak, make larger

quantities of bleach solutions. Prepare the
disinfectants daily and distribute them as described
in Section 3.
• Remove the disinfectants everyday or whenever the

solutions become cloudy or bloody. Replace the
solution with a fresh supply. Safe disposal of bleach
solutions is described in Section 6.1.
70
• If you cannot smell chlorine in the bleach solution,

the concentration is no longer strong enough for
disinfection. Replace the solution with a fresh
supply.
• Make a schedule for the cleaning staff so they know

when to bring a fresh solution into the isolation area,
when to change them, and when to remove them.
1:100
1:10
Fig. 47. Preparing bleach solutions during an outbreak
71
Section 5
5.2 Prepare Supply of Soapy Water
Prepare a daily supply of soapy water.
1. Gather the necessary supplies:
• Ordinary cake soap or powdered laundry detergent
• Supply of clean water
• Large bucket
• Container for measuring 1 litre.
2. Cut a small piece of cake soap.
2.5cm
2.5cm
2.5cm
Fig. 48. Small piece of cake soap
3. Mix one piece of cake soap with 4 litres (1 gallon) of water.
4. Make sure the soap is well mixed with the water so there
are suds. Pour into pan or bucket for use in cleaning (see
Section 3.3).
OR
5. Mix powdered laundry detergent according to instructions

on packet.
72
5.3 Disinfect Gloved Hands between Patients
Health care workers should change outer gloves between each

patient.
If there are not enough gloves to allow health care workers to

change to a new pair of outer gloves after examining or treating
each patient, disinfect gloved hands in 1:100 bleach solution after
working with each patient.
To disinfect gloved hands:
1. Place a bucket of 1:100 bleach solution in the isolation

room.
2. If gloved hands are visibly soiled, wash them first in soap

and water.
3. Dip the gloved hands into the 1:100 bleach solution for 1
minute.
4. Dry the gloved hands with a one-use (or paper) towel, or let
the gloved hands air-dry.
5. If a bleach solution is not available, wash gloved hands

with soap and water.
6. After several rinses in bleach solution, the gloves may

become sticky and will need to be changed.
7. If gloves will be reused, place gloves in a bucket of soapy

water. See Section 5.4 for instructions about washing used
gloves.
If gloves are not going to be reused, discard them in the

container for disposable infectious waste.
73
Section 5
5.4 Disinfect Used Gloves before Reuse
Reusing gloves is not recommended. If it is necessary to reuse

gloves because the supply in the health facility is limited, clean
and disinfect them. Also check them for holes.
When cleaning staff handle contaminated supplies, make sure they

wear the same protective clothing as health care workers. They
should wear thick gloves as the second pair of gloves.
To clean and disinfect gloves for reuse:
1. Take the bucket with soaking gloves to the VHF laundry

area. Carefully move the gloves to a bucket with fresh
soapy water.
2. Gently rub the gloves to remove visible soiling and cover

with water.
3. Soak them overnight.
4. Wearing at least an apron

and thick gloves, rinse the
gloves in clean water. To
check for holes, fill each
glove with rinse water. If
any water squirts out, there
is a hole in the glove.
Discard any gloves with
holes.
5. Air-dry the remaining

gloves.
6. If available, put talcum

powder in dry gloves. Fig. 49. Checking gloves for holes
7. Return clean gloves to the

storage shelf in the entry to the isolation area.
74
5.5 Disinfect Reusable Medical Instruments
In the isolation room, each time health care workers wash their
hands between patients, they should also disinfect thermometers
and stethoscopes they have used to examine the patient.
To disinfect thermometers and stethoscopes with alcohol:
1. Use rubbing alcohol (70% isopropyl).
2. Place the alcohol in a covered container and put it in the

patient’s room. Change the alcohol at least once a week.
3. Use a clean cloth or paper towel and dip it in the alcohol

solution.
4. Carefully wipe the thermometer with the alcohol solution

and hold the cloth around it for 30 seconds. Discard the
cloth. Let the thermometer air-dry.
5. Use another clean cloth and dip it in the alcohol solution.
6. Carefully wipe the metal part of the stethoscope and hold

the cloth against the surface for 30 seconds. Let it air-dry.
7. Discard the cloth in the laundry container. Discard paper

towels in the bucket for waste to be burned.
To disinfect thermometers and stethoscopes with bleach solution:
1. Place a covered container of 1:100 bleach solution in the

isolation room. Change the bleach solution each day.
2. Use a clean cloth or paper towel and dip it in the bleach

solution. Never dip a soiled cloth back into the bleach
solution. Use a cup or dipper to pour the bleach solution
on a soiled cloth.
3. Wipe the thermometer with the cloth soaked in bleach

solution. Or, soak the thermometer for 10 minutes in the
bleach solution. Let the thermometer air-dry.
4. Use a clean cloth or new paper towel and dip it in the

bleach solution.
5. Wipe the metal part of the stethoscope with 1:100 bleach

solution. Let it air-dry.
75
Section 5
6. Discard the cloth in the laundry container. Discard paper

towels in the bucket for waste to be burned.
How to disinfect and dispose of used needles and syringes is

described in Sections 1.4 through 1.6.
5.6 Disinfect Bedpan or Waste Bucket
1. Cover the contents with 1:10 bleach. Empty the bedpan

contents directly into the isolated toilet or latrine.
2. Clean the bedpan with soap and water to remove solid

waste. Pour into toilet or latrine. Rinse the bedpan in
1:100 bleach solution and return it to patient's room.
If a family member is responsible for carrying out this task, make

sure the family member wears protective clothing.
5.7 Disinfect Patient’s Utensils
If families will assist with patient care, provide 1:100 bleach

solution and soap and water so the family member can wash the
patient’s eating utensils. After washing the utensils, rinse them in
1:100 bleach solution, and let them air-dry.
76
5.8 Disinfect Spills of Infectious Body Fluids
Place a bucket containing 1:100 bleach solution in the isolation

area.
To disinfect spills of infectious body fluids:
1. Use a cup or dipper to pour

bleach solution on spills.
Cover the spill completely
with 1:100 bleach
solution. If the spill is heavy
or dense, cover with 1:10
bleach solution. Take care
to prevent drops or splashes
of the contaminated body
fluid from reaching anyone
when pouring bleach
solution on the spill.
2. Soak the spill for at least 15

Fig. 50. Disinfecting a spill on the
minutes. floor
3. Remove the disinfected blood or spilled material with a

cloth soaked with 1:100 bleach solution.
4. Discard any waste in the container for collecting disposable

infectious waste or in the isolated latrine or toilet.
5. Wash area as usual with soap and clean water.
77
Section 5
To clean the walls or other surfaces:
Surfaces such as tabletops, sinks,

walls and floors are not generally
involved in disease transmission.
However, in a VHF patient’s room,
if walls are visibly soiled with blood
or other body fluids, clean them as
follows:10
1. Use a sprayer or mop to wash

the walls with 1:100 bleach
Fig. 51. Disinfecting a spill on the
solution. Rinse the mop in a wall
fresh supply of 1:100 bleach
solution. (If using a sprayer,
apply the spray close to the surface to minimize splashing
and aerosols.)
2. Wash the wall as usual with soap and clean water to

remove visible soil.
3. Discard any waste in container for collecting infectious

waste or in the isolated latrine or toilet.
5.9 Disinfect Infectious Waste and Non-Reusable

Supplies for Burning
Place a bucket or other container containing 1:100 bleach solution
in the patient’s room. Use it to collect infectious waste,
contaminated items, and non-reusable supplies that will be
burned.
How to carry out safe waste disposal is described in Section 6.
10 Favero, MS, and Bond, WW. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital. In: Murray PR ed.
Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Washinton, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology. pp. 183-200,
1991
78
5.10 Clean and Disinfect Protective Clothing
Set aside a special part of the laundry or cleaning area for laundry
from suspected VHF patients. Make sure health facility staff who
handle contaminated laundry wear protective clothing, including
thick gloves as the second pair of gloves.
1. Transfer laundry as soon as

possible to area set aside for
VHF laundry.
2. Carefully move the laundry to

a bucket with fresh 1:100
bleach solution.
3. Soak laundry in 1:100 bleach

solution for 30 minutes. Be
sure that all items are
completely soaked.
4. Remove items from the bleach

solution and place in soapy Fig. 52. Transferring laundry to the
water. cleaning area
5. Soak overnight in soapy water.
6. Scrub thoroughly to remove stains. Rinse and line-dry.
7. Use a needle and thread to repair any holes or torn areas.
8. The clean clothing is now ready for use. It can be ironed

although this is not necessary. (It is not necessary to wear
protective clothing when ironing cleaned clothing.)
Items that are very worn out should be discarded or used as

cleaning rags.
5.11 Clean and Disinfect Boots
Place a sprayer or pan with 1:100 bleach solution at the exit of the
patient's room. Change the pan often. Steps for disinfecting boots
are described in Section 4.4.
79
Section 5
5.12 Clean and Disinfect Patient’s Bedding
For plastic sheeting:
1. If the plastic sheeting becomes soiled during its use with the
same patient, remove liquid or solid waste with absorbent
towels. Discard them in the container for collecting
infectious waste for burning. Then, wash the plastic
sheeting with 1:100 bleach solution.
2. Change the plastic sheeting between patients.
3. If the plastic sheeting cannot be changed between patients,

wash it with 1:100 bleach solution after each patient.
Fig. 53. Cleaning patient’s bedding
For patient’s sheets:
1. Remove sheets from bed. Put them in a container (plastic

bag or bucket) in the patient’s room.
2. Take the container directly to the laundry area.
3. Soak in 1:100 bleach solution for 30 minutes. Be sure all

items are completely soaked.
4. Remove items from the bleach solution and place them in

soapy water. Soak overnight.
5. Scrub thoroughly to remove stains. Rinse and line-dry.
80
Mattresses:
If a mattress is heavily soiled, remove it from the isolation area to

the outdoors and burn it. Make sure health facility staff wear
protective clothing and gloves when touching and carrying the
soiled mattress.
If mattresses must be reused:
1. Pour 1:10 bleach solution directly on the mattress. Let the

solution soak through completely to the other side.
2. Flood the soiled area with soapy water and rinse with clean
water.
3. Let the mattress dry in the sun for several days.
4. Turn the mattress often so it dries on both sides.
5.13 Give First Aid for Accidental Exposures
Accidental needlestick injury: Assume any needlestick injury is a

suspected contact for VHF whether or not a break in the skin can
be seen. If an accidental needlestick injury occurs, treat the
exposure site.
1. Immerse the exposed site in 70% alcohol for 20 to 30

seconds, and wash with soap and clean water.
2. Flush the site in running water for 20 to 30 seconds.
3. If needed, cover with a dressing.
4. Report the incident to a supervisor or the

physician-in-charge.
The purpose of notifying the physician-in-charge is:
• To identify what caused the problem
• To take corrective action to solve the problem and prevent

accidental transmission
• To provide appropriate care for the possible case of VHF.
81
Section 5
Remind the health facility staff that accidents do happen even

when every precaution to prevent them has been taken. Reassure
health facility staff that reporting the accidental exposure will have
no negative consequences. Explain that reporting the accidental
exposure is essential for protecting themselves, their families, other
health workers and patients.
Accidental contact with infectious body fluids: An accidental

contact can occur if there is unprotected contact between
infectious body fluids and broken skin or the mouth, nose or eye.
For example, vomit may run under a glove, a patient might cough
blood which runs into the health care worker's eye, or coughed
blood may run underneath a health care worker's mask and get
into the mouth. Treat any accidental contact as a suspected
contact with VHF. As soon as the contact occurs:
1. Flush the area in the most appropriate manner with soap

and clean water. If a splash occurs in the eye, flush it with
clean water.
2. Leave the isolation area and remove the protective clothing

as recommended.
3. Take a shower and put on street clothes.
4. Report the exposure to a supervisor or the

physician-in-charge. Complete the necessary forms.
Follow up accidental exposures:
1. Monitor the condition of the health facility staff. Take a

measured temperature two times per day.
2. If a fever occurs -- temperature is 38.5oC (101oF) or higher -

the health facility staff should not do patient care activities.
Treat as a suspected case of VHF if the health facility staff’s
signs and symptoms meet the case definition (Please see
page 23 and Annex 4).
82
Section 6
Dispose of Waste Safely
• Dispose of liquid waste and patient excreta in an isolated

latrine or toilet.
• Use an incinerator to burn contaminated waste.
• Use a pit to burn contaminated waste.
• Maintain security of the disposal site.

Section 6
84
Section 6 Dispose of Waste Safely
Direct, unprotected contact during disposal of infectious waste can

result in accidental transmission of VHF. For this reason, all
contaminated waste produced in the care of the VHF patient must
be disposed of safely. All non-reusable items should be destroyed
so they cannot be used again. Burning should be carried out at
least daily.
6.1 What Needs Disposal
When VHF is suspected, disinfect and dispose of:
• Infectious blood and other body fluids such as urine, faeces,

and vomitus
• Disposable needles and syringes and disposable or

non-reusable protective clothing
• Treatment materials and dressings
• Non-reusable gloves
• Laboratory supplies and biological samples
• Used disinfectants.
Recommended Disposal Methods: Liquid waste, including patient

excreta, can be disposed of in an isolated latrine or toilet set aside
for VHF cases. Burning is the recommended method for disposal
of other VHF-contaminated waste. A safe and inexpensive
disposal system can be made by using an incinerator or a pit for
burning.
• A latrine or toilet that joins the patient's isolation room can

be used to receive the disinfected bedpan contents from the
VHF patient. The latrine or toilet should be isolated.
Access should be restricted to health facility staff trained to
work in the VHF isolation area. Isolating the patient area is
described in Section 3.5.
85
Section 6
• Incinerators are containers with holes for ventilation to

allow air to enter and exit the container. This allows the
fire to reach temperatures high enough to completely
destroy all biological materials. Use flammable fuel (such
as diesel fuel) to speed the burning process and keep the
temperatures high.
Incineration is recommended for disposal of:
— Needles and syringes
— Used treatment materials and dressings
— Non-reusable protective clothing
— Laboratory supplies.
• When an incinerator is not available, burn waste in a pit.

Use fuel to accelerate the burning and ensure that all waste
is completely destroyed.
Use a pit to dispose of:
— Disinfected body fluids such as urine, faeces, and

vomitus when no designated latrine or toilet is
available.
— Used disinfectants. If it is not possible to dispose of

used disinfectants in a latrine or toilet, burn the used
disinfectant together with flammable items
(disposable gowns or masks, for example). Burning
with the flammable items will help keep the
temperature of the fire hot enough to boil off the
liquids.
Note: All staff who are likely to handle infectious material should
know and use VHF Isolation Precautions. Reinforce with all health
facility staff the importance of handling infectious waste safely.
86
6.2 Select Staff to Supervise Waste Disposal and

Burning
Select a person with authority who will:
• Oversee all the disposal procedures, including preparation

of the incinerator and pit.
• Train and supervise the staff who carry out waste disposal.
• Make a schedule for collecting and burning disposable

waste.
• Supervise the collection and burning to make sure it is

carried out safely.
6.3 Train and Supervise Staff to Carry Out Waste

Disposal
The cleaning staff who do the disposal tasks should understand the
purpose of safe disposal, know how to wear protective clothing,
and know clearly how to carry out waste disposal safely.
After the cleaning staff is selected:
1. Describe the risks of VHF transmission. Explain that health

facility staff who carry out waste disposal should wear
protective clothing including a plastic apron and at least
two pairs of gloves. Wear thick gloves as the outer pair of
gloves.
2. Describe the disposal procedures that cleaning staff will

carry out:
• Bring the containers of infectious waste from the

isolation and cleaning areas to the disposal site.
Discard the items in the incinerator or burning pit.
• Pour fuel on the waste in the incinerator or over the

pit. Light the fire.
87
Section 6
• Watch the burning carefully.
— Move waste frequently as it burns to be sure

all items burn completely.
— If any items remain, repeat the burning

procedures.
• When burning ends, remove ashes from incinerator

and bury them in a pit.
• When the pit is nearly full of ash, cover it with soil.

Waste should not be near the surface. It should take
about half a meter of soil to close the pit.
• Build a new pit when the old pit is full.
3. Show the cleaning staff how to:
• Wear protective clothing with one pair of thick or

kitchen gloves over an inner pair of thin gloves.
• Collect and carry the buckets of infectious waste

from the isolation area to the disposal area.
• Collect and dispose of liquid waste in an isolated

latrine or toilet. If no latrine or toilet can be isolated,
burn the liquid waste in the pit.
• Place the infectious waste in the incinerator or pit for

burning.
• Dowse the infectious waste with fuel (such as diesel

fuel) and burn it.
• Watch the burning from beginning to end to make

sure all the waste items are burned before letting the
fire go out.
88
6.4 Select Site for Burning VHF-Contaminated Waste
Select a burning site on the health facility grounds. It should be

located away from the normal traffic flow. To help maintain
security and prevent unauthorized access, the site should not be in
public view or in an area where it will attract a crowd. The ash
from the burning is not infectious, and it can be placed in a pit and
buried.
6.5 Use Incinerator to Burn VHF-Contaminated

Waste
If an incinerator is available on the health facility’s grounds, and it
can be set aside for VHF-contaminated waste, use diesel fuel
during burning to make sure all the waste is completely destroyed.
If no incinerator is available, make one from an empty 220-litre

(55-gallon) oil or fuel drum.
1. Gather the following supplies:
• 220-litre (55-gallon)
drum
• Chisel or other sharp
instrument (an awl, for
example) to cut metal
• Hammer
• 0.5 mm or 1.0 mm metal
wire
Fig. 54. A 220-litre drum

• The piece cut out from
the top of the drum or a
wire screen or grill about 1 cm thick
• Metal rods or bars 4 cm or 5 cm x 2 cm.
2. Cut open the drum by removing the top in one piece. Save
the top cutaway piece.
3. Hammer the edges of the drum so they are not sharp.
4. Cut three half-moon openings just below the open end of

the drum.
89
Section 6
5. Turn the drum and put the

open end on the ground. The half-moon
bottom of the drum is now the openings
top.
6. Cut four holes on the sides of

the drum. These holes are for
threading the two metal rods
through the drum so that they
form an X or cross inside the
drum. The crossed rods will
support a platform used for
holding the infectious material Fig. 55. Turn the drum and put the
to be burned. open end on the ground
To cut the holes for the rods:
Just above the half moon
openings (about one-third of the
height of the drum), cut a hole
the same size as the diameter of
the metal rod. Directly across
from the hole, on the other side
of the drum, cut a second hole
so that a rod can be threaded
through the two holes. Repeat
the steps and make two more
Fig. 56. Place the rods across the

holes on opposite sides of the drum
drum. Thread each rod through
the holes to make an X or cross.
7. Use the top piece of the drum that was cut away in step 2
to make the platform. It will rest on the crossed rods and
hold the infectious material to be burned. The platform
also lets air come in from the bottom of the drum so that
the temperatures at the bottom are high enough to
completely burn the material.
To make the platform: Punch holes in the cutaway top

piece of the drum. Make enough holes so it looks like a
sieve. Save the platform to use in Step 10.
8. Pierce a series of holes (about 0.5 cm in diameter) on the

sides of the drum and above the crossed rods to improve
the draw of the fire.
90
9. Cut away half of the bottom of the drum (which is now the
top of the incinerator and is facing up). Attach the wire
loops to the cutaway half. Attach another loop for a handle
to open the trap door. Items to be burned will be put in the
incinerator through this door.
10. Place the platform you made in Step 7 inside the drum on
top of the rods. Replace the incinerator if, as a result of the
heat, large holes appear in the sides.
platform
metal rods
Fig. 57. A completed incinerator half-moon

openings
To burn waste in the incinerator:
1. Place the infectious waste inside the top of the drum. Soak
the waste in one litre of fuel.
2. Light the fire carefully.
3. Watch the fire and frequently mix the waste with the metal
bars to be sure all of the waste is burned.
4. When the fire has gone out, empty the ashes into a pit.
91
Section 6
6.6 Use Pit to Burn VHF-Contaminated Waste
If an incinerator is not available, make a pit for burning infectious

waste.
1. Locate the pit far from the normal traffic flow of the health
facility.
2. Dig a pit that is 2 meters deep. It should be wide enough

to hold all contaminated waste material, including
discarded liquids.
To burn waste in the pit:
1. Place the disinfected waste in the pit, including disinfected

liquid waste that was not discarded in an isolated latrine or
toilet.
2. Pour fuel (such as diesel fuel) on the waste. Carefully start

the fire.
3. Watch the burning to make sure all the waste is completely

destroyed.
4. When the fire has gone out, if any waste remains, repeat
the steps for burning.
5. When no waste remains and the fire goes out, cover the
ashes with soil.
6. Before the pit becomes completely full, cover it with soil so

that no pieces of waste are visible or are too close to the
surface. The pit should be closed when it can be covered
by one-half meter of soil.
7. Dig a new pit.
92
6.7 Take Steps to Ensure Security of Burning Site
Maintain the security of the burning site to limit access to

contaminated items. This is important since children could be
tempted to pick up the interesting waste materials and use them for
toys. Dogs, cats, and other animals may carry items beyond the
health facility boundaries.
Tie a rope around the disposal area. Hang warning signs from the
rope that tell people this is a dangerous area. Also station a guard
to prevent unauthorized access to the disposal area.
Never leave unburned waste in the incinerator or the pit.
93
Section 6
94
Section 7
Use Safe Burial Practices
• Prepare bodies of deceased VHF patients.
• Transport the body safely to the burial site.
• Disinfect the vehicle after transporting bodies.

Section 7
96
Section 7 Use Safe Burial Practices
There is risk of transmission in the health facility when a VHF

patient dies because the bodies and body fluids of deceased VHF
patients remain contagious for several days after death. Family
and community members are also at risk if burial practices involve
touching and washing the body.
7.1 Prepare the Body Safely
Burial should take place as soon as possible after the body is

prepared in the health facility. Health facility staff should:
• Prepare the body safely.
• Be aware of the family’s cultural practices and religious

beliefs. Help the family understand why some practices
cannot be done because they place the family or others at
risk for exposure.
• Counsel the family about why special steps need to be

taken to protect the family and community from illness. If
the body is prepared without giving information and
support to the family and the community, they may not
want to bring other family members to the health facility in
the future. They may think that if the patient dies, the body
will not be returned to them.
• Identify a family member who has influence with the rest of

the family and who can make sure family members avoid
dangerous practices such as washing or touching the body.
To prepare the body in the health facility:
1. Wear protective clothing as recommended for staff in the

patient isolation area. Use thick rubber gloves as the
second pair (or outer layer) of gloves.
2. Spray the body and the area around it with 1:10 bleach
solution.
3. Place the body in a “body bag” (mortuary sack) and close it

securely. Spray the body bag with 1:10 bleach solution.
97
Section 7
4. If body bags are not available, wrap the body in two

thickness of cotton cloth and soak with 1:10 bleach
solution. Then wrap the body in plastic sheeting. Seal the
wrapping with plastic tape. Spray the body bag as in
Step 3. Place the body in a coffin if one is available.
5. Transport the body to the burial site as soon as possible.

Assign a health officer or health facility staff person to
accompany the body to ensure that the safety precautions
remain secure during the journey.
7.2 Transport the Body Safely
VHF Isolation Precautions should remain in force when the body is

being transported to the burial site.
1. Plan to take the shortest route possible for security purposes

and to limit any possibility of disease transmission through
accidental contact.
2. Any health facility staff who must touch or carry the body
during transport should wear the same protective clothing
as is worn in the isolation area. Note: The driver does not
need to wear protective clothing if there is no contact
with the body.
3. Take a closed container or sprayer with 1:10 bleach

solution in the event of any accidental contact with the
body or infectious body fluids. Also use it to clean up spills
in the transport vehicle.
7.3 Prepare Burial Site

1. The grave should be at least 2 meters deep.
2. Explain to the family that viewing the body is not possible.

Help them to understand the reason for limiting the burial
ceremony to family only.
98
Use Safe Burial Practices
7.4 Disinfect the Vehicle after Transporting the Body
1. The staff person who disinfects the vehicle must wear

protective clothing.
2. Rinse the interior of the vehicle where the body was carried
with 1:10 bleach solution.
3. Let it soak for 10 minutes.
4. Rinse well with clean water and let the vehicle air-dry. Be
sure to rinse well because the solution is corrosive to the
vehicle.
Fig. 58. Disinfecting the vehicle after transporting the body
99
Section 7
100
Section 8
Mobilize Community Resources

and Conduct Community
Education
• Organize community resources to develop and provide

information about prevention and control of VHF in the
community.
• Identify key messages and communication channels.
• Evaluate communication activities and take action to

improve them as needed.
Section 8
102
Section 8 Mobilize Community Resources and

Conduct Community Education
When VHF is suspected:
• Make sure that the community knows about the VHF

outbreak and how it is transmitted.
• Involve the community in identifying the source of the

epidemic and controlling it.
• Reduce fear and rumours in the population.
To develop community education in an urgent situation:
• Describe the extent of the current health problem.
• Identify and mobilize key community members who will

plan and lead the education efforts.
• Describe the target population and develop health

messages.
• Plan and conduct activities to communicate messages.
• Conduct ongoing evaluation of the activities and make

improvements as needed.
103
Section 8
8.1 Identify Key Community Resources
Identify key community organizations who already know the

community and have access to it. Describe their expertise and
available resources that could be useful in responding to the
outbreak. Consider organizations such as:
• Local governments
• Local non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
• Religious groups (missions, churches, mosques, temples)
• Businesses
• Schools
• Sports clubs and other recreational clubs
• Service organizations
• Volunteer organizations and community service groups.
For each organization, gather and record information about:
• The organization's expertise
• The representative or leader to be contacted
• Available human resources
• Available material resources (such as vehicles, office

supplies, and communication equipment).
104
Mobilize Community Resources and Conduct Community Education
Record the information on a chart such as the one below. Use it for planning and refer
to it when VHF cases occur.
Organization Expertise Representative Human Resources Available Contacted? Tasks

or Group or Leader and Equipment Assigned
Locating
Information
Red Cross Emergency Amadu Barrie 35 trained 2 pickup

response; House next to volunteers trucks
Disaster relief hotel
Catholic Teaching Sister Frances 6 sisters 1 Land Cruiser
Mission of St. Child care Use
Francis 4 novices 1 storage
short-wave
radio at the room
165 students
Catholic residing
Mission 1 photocopy
machine
1 short-wave
radio
Merchants Marketing & Kira Talitha 12 members well Wagon
Association community General store known in Supplies of
relations on main road community fabric, plastic
41 delivery cloth, buckets,
workers with household
knowledge of bleach
customers'
residence
Farmers Economic Daoudou 2 workers fluent 1 short-wave
Cooperative development Maliki in language of radio
Organization Government rural population
Centre 1 car
Building
office supplies
Telephone:
21246
105
Section 8
8.2 Meet with Community Leaders and Assess the

Current Situation
Invite representatives from each organization to a meeting.
Explain that the goal is to develop a Mobilization Committee that

will help halt an outbreak. Together with the VHF Coordinator
and health facility staff, the Mobilization Committee will:
• Plan and describe how communication will take place

between the Mobilization Committee and the VHF
Coordinator. The purpose is to keep the health staff
informed about the outbreak status in the community.
• Make sure the community leaders understand:
— The signs and symptoms of a VHF.
— How the disease is spread.
— Personal precautions to use to prevent contact with

infectious material and body fluids.
— The person to notify when a VHF is suspected (for

example, station a Red Cross volunteer at the health
facility to take reports from community members
about unexplained deaths or suspected VHF cases).
— The importance of handwashing, decontamination of

surfaces, careful laundering of clothes, bedding, and
other home infection control measures such as trying
to keep the sick person in a separate corner of the
house.
— Careful decontamination of the bedding and room

where the patient has died.
— The need for limited contact between the sick

person and other family and community members.
— The need to follow up family or community

members who have had contact with the sick
person. The duration of the follow up will vary
according to the incubation period for the VHF.
106
— When to send a sick person to the hospital. The

VHF Coordinator, community liaison person, or Red
Cross volunteer can facilitate this move if the
community has been adequately prepared. For
example, they can assist in transporting the patient
safely to the health facility, help disinfect the area
where the patient was cared for at home.
— How to care for VHF patients at home before they

have been diagnosed and also after they have been
released from the health facility.
— What is expected of families when the patient is in

the hospital.
— Why burial practices may need to be changed

during the outbreak.
• Deliver health messages using a variety of communication

methods that will reach as many people as possible in the
community.
• Conduct community surveillance including reporting

deaths, conducting case finding activities and planning case
follow-up.
Fig. 59. Meeting with community leaders
107
Section 8
8.3 Describe the Target Population
To prepare a complete description of the target population, gather

and present information about:
• Maps of the town
• The size of the population
• Major ethnic groups in the town
• Locations of any special populations such as refugees or

squatter settlements where the risk of disease transmission
may be particularly high
• How many people may be affected by the outbreak
• The populations at greatest risk.
Ask the members of the Mobilization Committee for any additional

information they might have about the target population. For
example, they may know about nearby villages and recent travel
by the local population to other areas.
8.4 Describe Problems Contributing to Transmission

Risk
Identify the likely transmission risks for this community.
For example, does the community know how disease is

transmitted and how it can be prevented? Is it customary to visit
the sick in their homes? During mourning, are individuals
expected to lay hands on the body or touch the body to show their
grief? Are there new skills to teach? Is bleach available?
8.5 Identify Changes or Actions Required
Specify the behaviour changes and actions that are required to

solve the problems. For example, if traditional burial practices
involve touching or washing the body, the community will need to
adapt burial practices.
108
8.6 Identify Barriers to Carrying Out Recommended

Changes or Actions
Talk with members of the Mobilization Committee about what
could prevent individuals from doing the recommended changes
or actions. Discuss, for example, if individuals:
• Know about the relevant VHF precautions and how to

follow them?
• Have the skills to do the recommended changes or actions?
• Have the correct resources to carry out the recommended

changes or actions?
• Understand that some caretaking and burial practices must

change during the outbreak even though they involve
traditional beliefs or cultural practices?
8.7 Develop Specific Messages
Review the information collected by the Mobilization Committee.

Select messages that match the specific risks for transmission of
VHF. Consider how to solve the obstacles that might prevent
individuals from taking the recommended precautions.
For example, the custom in the community may be to visit the sick
when they are at home. Plan a message about limiting visitors.
Also include information about how diseases are transmitted. This
will help the community understand why they must change their
customary practice.
After selecting the messages, decide if some activities should take

place before others.
For example, give basic information about VHF and its

transmission before telling the community about not touching the
body of a relative who has died.
In addition, the community may have heard rumours that everyone

in the hospital is dying. To reduce fear and rumours, give
information as soon as possible about VHF transmission. Discuss
the precautions being taken in the hospital to protect the patients,
the health facility staff, and the community.
109
Section 8
8.8 Select Activities for Communicating Messages
List all available methods of communicating with the community.

More than one method should be used to reach the maximum
population with the necessary information. For instance, consider:
• Existing communication channels in the community

(church, mosque, temples and other religious networks;
traditional healers, personal communication)
• Door-to-door campaigns
• Radio messages
• Short-wave radio to reach outlying areas
• Banners and posters.
Contact the person responsible for each communication method.

Ask for their support and availability.
8.9 Assign Tasks and Carry Out Activities
Look at the list of community resources prepared in Section 8.1.

Determine who should undertake which activity. For example:
• Religious leaders will make announcements in their

services. They can also prepare messages to deliver to
small groups and in personal communications.
• The Red Cross will be trained to evacuate the bodies and

safely perform burials.
• The Red Cross volunteers and student volunteers will be

trained by a member of the health facility staff skilled in
VHF Isolation Precautions. A training schedule will be set
up and the Mobilization Committee will work out the
information needed.
• The governor or village chief can make public

announcements with a loudspeaker to tell people to stay
calm, to listen to the information, and to attend information
sessions.
• Student clubs will make banners to put across the road to

give a specific message, design leaflets, pass out leaflets,
and go door to door and answer questions.
110
Elicit ideas from the Mobilization Committee about possible

problems and creative solutions. Describe the problems that have
occurred in previous outbreaks or that might occur in a future
outbreak. Explain that meetings with the group will continue
throughout the outbreak and new problems will be discussed as
they arise.
If funding and human resources are limited, set priorities. Select

specific activities that will make the most impact. Work with the
Mobilization Committee to coordinate and communicate with all
the resources in the community. There may be ways to
accomplish all the activities if groups can be mobilized and
understand the need.
Use the community information sheet to organize the specific tasks

and assign organizations to do them.
8.10 Evaluate Activities

Evaluation of the community education efforts should be ongoing.
Keep records of activities accomplished, any problems, and their
solutions. Use the evaluation results to make improvements.
When problems occur, find out why and solve them. Develop
new solutions to identified problems and implement these
solutions.
For example, in the 1995 Ebola haemorrhagic fever outbreak in

Kikwit, community education was a key element in halting the
epidemic. However, no one predicted that survivors would not be
accepted when they returned into the community. Community
members believed survivors still carried the disease. A new
education activity had to be developed so that the survivors and
surviving children would not be abandoned.
111
Section 8
8.11 Obtain Community Feedback
The Mobilization Committee should identify a representative from

the community or from each area of the community (for example,
a representative from each neighbourhood or quartier) to attend
community meetings and obtain feedback from the community.
Explain to the community the purpose of the Mobilization
Committee. Describe the activities that have been planned or that
are already being done. Reinforce the critical role of the
community representatives in providing information from the
Mobilization Committee to their own communities. Community
representatives are also important sources of information about
possible transmission risks and prevention activities.
Be alert to feedback from the community that can affect the

outcome of the community education efforts. For example, are
there areas where health messages do not reach community
members?
8.12 Meet Regularly with the Mobilization Committee

Set up regular meetings with the Mobilization Committee. Keep
them well informed of what is happening. Encourage and support
them to help continue enthusiasm for the efforts. Provide new
messages and information they need. Work together to identify
new problems and plan solutions.
112
Section 9
Make Advance Preparations to

Use VHF Isolation Precautions
• Identify health facility staff person to coordinate VHF

activities.
• Assess current readiness for VHF Isolation Precautions.
• Identify and train key staff who will work with VHF cases.
• Plan for community mobilization.
• Assess current supplies and obtain what is needed for VHF

• Use substitutions when supplies are limited or not

available.
Section 9
114
Section 9 Make Advance Preparations to Use

VHF Isolationtion Precautions
When a VHF case is suspected, VHF Isolation Precautions must

begin immediately. All efforts must be focused on meeting
patients’ needs. There is no time to give initial training in VHF
Being prepared for an emergency can ultimately save lives. Health

care workers will know how to use VHF Isolation Precautions, and
adequate supplies will already be available. Disease prevention in
the health facility setting will be more effective.
This section describes how to prepare for VHF Isolation

Precautions.
9.1 Identify a VHF Coordinator to Oversee

Preparations
Someone in the health facility may already serve as a coordinator
for emergency situations. This person can also serve as the VHF
Coordinator. If the emergency coordinator cannot assume the
VHF activities, select a staff person with authority who can serve as
VHF Coordinator. Discuss the tasks the coordinator will need to
do for VHF activities:
• Oversee all the preparations for VHF Isolation Precautions.
• Serve as the focal point for information and leadership

when a VHF case is suspected.
• Inform all health facility staff about VHFs and the risks
associated with them.
• Organize training in VHF Isolation Precautions for medical,

nursing, and laboratory staff who will work directly with
VHF patients or infectious body fluids.
• Assign responsibility to medical, laboratory, and cleaning

staff for ensuring that all the necessary precautions,
treatment protocols and cleanup procedures are carried out
within their areas.
115
Section 9
• Hire or reassign and train additional cleaning staff for work

with disinfection of waste, clothing, and equipment.
• Make sure that teams are trained to prepare and transport

bodies for burial.
9.2 Assess Current Readiness for VHF Isolation

Precautions
Be prepared to use VHF Isolation Precautions by identifying
problems and actions to solve them. Make sure relevant staff
know how to suspect a VHF, especially those who:
• See patients when they arrive at the health facility and

decide where they are next seen
• Work in the outpatient department
• Work in the emergency room.
9.2.1 Monitor Routine Handwashing Practices
Routine handwashing practices should be part of the minimum

level of Standard Precautions used with all patients in the health
facility.
To reinforce consistent handwashing practices, regularly monitor

the practices and improve them as needed. For example:
• Has handwashing been identified as a routine practice in

the health facility?
• Do all staff wash their hands after contact with each patient,
especially new patients with fever?
• Are there reliable supplies of soap and running water or

buckets with clean water available in areas where health
workers should use them?
• Are posters reminding health workers to wash their hands

placed in areas where health workers can see them?
116
Make Advance Preparations to Use VHF Isolation Precautions
9.2.2 Assess Readiness for Identifying Suspected VHF Cases
Assess the need for training your health staff to suspect a VHF. For
example:
• Do health care workers know the case definition for

identifying VHF cases that have occurred in your area?
• Do health care workers know the procedure for informing

the emergency or VHF Coordinator when a VHF is
suspected?
• Do health care workers in the relevant areas know the level

of Standard Precautions identified for the health facility?
Do they use them all the time to prevent health facility
transmission of VHFs and other contagious diseases such as
HIV and hepatitis B?
9.2.3 Assess Readiness for Setting Up a VHF Isolation Area
• Has an area been selected for VHF isolation that meets the
criteria described in Section 3.1?
• Has a map been drawn showing where to locate the

changing room, the patient room, the changing room for
the cleaning staff, and a changing room for family members
(if needed)?
A map that is prepared in advance can be used as a

reference for setting up a VHF isolation area in an urgent
situation.
9.2.4 Assess Readiness of Medical, Laboratory, and Cleaning

Staff
Key staff should be identified and informed about what will be

expected of them when a VHF case is suspected. For example:
• Is there a family liaison officer who will:
— Provide information and help families to care for the

patient
— Help families find a place near the hospital where

cooking, sleeping, and sanitary facilities are
available
— Talk with family members about their concerns?
117
Section 9
• Have the health care workers who will have access to the
isolation area if a VHF case is suspected been identified?
While all health facility staff should know and use Standard
Precautions consistently, identify the health care workers
who must also know how and when to use VHF Isolation
Precautions.
• Have laboratory staff been designated to work with VHF

samples? Laboratory staff are at particular risk of disease
transmission because they handle biological samples. They
do not see the patients and cannot know if the sample is
infected with a dangerous disease. When a VHF case
occurs, limit work on VHF samples to one laboratory staff
person who will do all testing of body fluids from VHF
patients. Make sure the designated person knows when
and how to use protective clothing and safely disinfect
spills and waste.
• Have cleaning staff been selected and trained to use VHF

Isolation Precautions? Cleaning staff have close contact
with infectious spills and equipment. They are at high risk
of transmission if VHF Isolation Precautions are not used.
Select the cleaning staff who will be responsible for
cleaning in VHF isolation areas, laundry areas, and the
body preparation area.
• Have body disposal teams been identified and trained to

use VHF Isolation Precautions? The health facility staff or
Red Cross volunteers who prepare corpses before families
claim them are at risk for VHF. The VHF patient is still
contagious for several days after death.
The VHF Coordinator should also meet with each group to explain
the risk of health facility transmission and the training schedules
and to answer any questions they have.
9.3 Train Health Facility Staff in VHF Isolation

Precautions
Learning to use a new skill takes time and practice. Health facility
staff who do not know how to use VHF Isolation Precautions will
need information about the new tasks, see them demonstrated and
practice doing them. Staff who are not familiar with protective
clothing should practice putting them on and working in them
before a VHF case presents.
118
Include information about VHFs and using VHF Isolation

Precautions during in-service training.11 Discuss topics such as:
General information about VHFs:
• A VHF can be caused by several different viruses, which are

transmitted to humans by animals or arthropods.
• Each virus causes a different disease, but all attack the small
blood vessels that carry blood through the body.
• The virus is usually in all organs and can cause bleeding

from the nose, mouth, and intestine, as well as under the
skin.
• Common presenting complaints are fever, body aches,

weakness persisting after rehydration, diarrhoea, muscle
pain and back pain.
• Clinical examination may reveal only conjunctival injection

(red eyes), mild hypotension (low blood pressure), flushing,
and haemorrhages.
• The course of VHF leads to shock, generalized mucous

membrane bleeding, reduced sensitivity to pain, and signs
involving the nervous system.
• Examples of VHFs include:
Africa: Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg and Ebola

haemorrhagic fevers, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic
fever, and yellow fever.
South America: Argentine haemorrhagic fever, Bolivian

haemorrhagic fever, Venezuelan haemorrhagic
fever, haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
(rare), yellow fever, and dengue haemorrhagic fever.
Asia: Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and

dengue haemorrhagic fever.12
11 Annex 14 contains a suggested agenda for training during in-service meetings. It can be adapted by
individual health facilities.
12 See Annex 2 for more information about VHFs reported in your area.
119
Section 9
VHF Transmission Risk in the Health Facility:
Give information about VHF, its transmission, and previous

outbreaks in the area listed in the Introduction and Section 2 of
this manual. Explain that:
• The virus is present in the patient's body fluids.
• It is transmitted through unprotected contact between an

infectious patient or their body fluids and a non-infected
person.
• While VHF is not a common diagnosis, it is a dangerous

disease and poses significant risks in the health care setting.
VHF Isolation Precautions:
When a VHF case is suspected, the health facility will immediately

take steps to limit its transmission. These include steps to:
• Create an isolation room for VHF patients.
• Limit contact with VHF patients to a small number of

specially trained staff and, in some areas, a family member
who has received information and training in VHF Isolation
Precautions.
• Limit the use of invasive procedures as much as possible in

treatment of VHF patients.
• Use protective clothing for all staff who have contact with
VHF patients or their body fluids.
• Use safe disinfection and waste-disposal methods.
Procedures for Accidental Exposures:
Provide information about how to respond when accidental

exposures occur. These procedures are detailed in Section 5.13 of
this manual.
120
9.4 Plan for Community Mobilization
Section 8 describes how to mobilize the community in an urgent

situation. However, community mobilization will be easier and
occur quickly if it is planned in advance.
Now is the best time to establish a Mobilization Committee. The

following steps can be done in advance.
• Identify key community resources.
— Identify key organizations and record them on the

Community Information Sheet (page 105).
— Identify the representative or leader for each

organization.
— Contact the representative or leader for an initial

meeting.
• Meet with identified community leaders.
— Give information and educate them on VHFs.
— Explain the purpose for a Mobilization Committee.
— Discuss and clarify each organization’s expertise.
— Discuss and clarify the human resources available

from each organization.
— Discuss and clarify equipment available from each

organization.
— Establish methods for communicating between the

Mobilization Committee and the VHF Coordinator.
— Record the relevant information on the Community

Information Sheet.
• Annually update the information on the Community

Information Sheet.
Then, when a VHF case is suspected, the committee can meet and
take action to mobilize resources and carry out community
education.
121
Section 9
9.5 Assess Current Supplies and Equipment
Use the checklist at the end of this section to assess which supplies
are already available in the health facility. If these supplies are
available, can they be set aside for use when VHF Isolation
Precautions are needed? If they are not available, could they be
borrowed from another service if an outbreak occurred?
If the supply is limited or unavailable, identify practical, low-cost

substitute items. When an item or equipment is not available,
consider what could be used in its place that will serve the same
function. Obtain the substitute item now. Set it aside for use
when VHF Isolation Precautions are needed.
For example, assess the present system for waste disposal. Find
out what is needed to carry out safe waste disposal when a VHF
case is suspected. Ask health facility staff to prepare an incinerator
(if none is available) so it is ready in advance. Let health facility
staff practice using it before cases occur.
The checklist that starts on the next page lists the necessary items
and recommended quantities. Use it to assess whether an item is
available. Also list what needs to be done to be prepared for VHF
9.6 Periodically Reassess Supplies
Periodically, for example, every 4 months, make sure the supplies

are dry, clean, and ready to be used.
122
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Standard Precautions

Recommendations for handwashing and safe disposal of sharps*
Recommended Item Recommended Amount Amount Amount to Local Adaptations Tick if Item is
Available Obtain Ready for Use
Source of clean water prepared as needed
Container for daily supply of water for 1 or 2 large containers

handwashing (if running water is not
available)
Ladle several
Bucket or pan for use with handwashing 1 for each location in the health facility where
handwashing is required
Pieces of soap several bars cut in pieces
Soap dishes 1 for each handwashing station

123
One-use towels 1 roll per health worker per week
Sharps containers 1 for each location where sharp instruments are used
Pans with soapy water to collect needles 1 for each location where sharp instruments are used
and syringes to be cleaned and
disinfected for reuse
Pans with full-strength bleach 1 for cleaning area
Supply of clean water for rinsing needles 1 - 5 litres

and syringes
Clean and disinfected jar for storing 1 for each patient isolation area
disinfected needles and syringes
* This is a recommended minimum level of Standard Precautions for use with all patients regardless of their infectious status.
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Patient Isolation
Bed 1 per patient
Mattress or sleeping mat 1 per patient
Plastic sheet to cover mattress 1 per bed
Bedding: bottom sheet and blanket 1 each per patient
Thermometer 1 per patient isolation area (1 per patient if available)

124
Stethoscope 1 per patient isolation area
Blood pressure cuff 1 per patient isolation area
Covered container for alcohol or bleach 1 per patient isolation area

solution used to disinfect thermometer
and stethoscope after use with each
patient
Sharps container or plastic pan with 1 per patient isolation area
bleach solution in it for disposal of used
needles and syringes
Bedside table or shelf 1 per patient
Large wall clock with a second hand 1 per patient isolation room
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Patient Isolation
One-use towels 1 roll per patient per week or stay
Bed pan 1 per patient
Screens (or sheets hung from ropes or enough length to go around isolation area
lines) placed between VHF patients’ beds
Signs saying “Isolation Area: No Access” 10
Poster describing Isolation Precautions 1

125
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Protective Clothing*
Scrub suits 1 - 2 reusable scrub suits per health staff
Surgical gowns 3 reusable gowns per health staff

4 disposable gowns per health staff per week
Plastic aprons 1 reusable apron for each health staff who needs one
3 disposable aprons per health staff per week
Thin gloves 3 dozen disposable pairs per health staff per week
126
Thick or heavy-duty kitchen gloves 2 pairs per health staff
HEPA-filter or other bio-safety mask 1 - 2 per health staff who needs one
Cotton mask 3 - 4 per health staff
Rubber boots 1 pair per health staff
Headcovering 1 - 2 per health staff who needs one
Eyewear 1 pair of goggles or clear spectacles per health staff in

isolation area
Shelf or cabinet with lock 1 outside the changing room

VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Protective Clothing*
Covered shelf for storing disinfected 1 outside the changing room
boots
Hooks, nails or hangers for hanging 1 for each health staff

reusable gowns and scrub suits
Boot remover 1 per changing room
Rolls of plastic tape 1 per changing room
Extra supply of clean protective clothing 1 - 3 sets (depending on staffing)

(for patient isolation area)
127
Extra supply of clean protective clothing 1 - 3 sets

(for the changing room)
* All health facility staff -- including cleaning, waste disposal, and laundry staff -- who handle, disinfect or clean VHF-contaminated supplies and equipment should wear the same
protective clothing as health care workers who provide direct patient care.
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Disinfection
Supplies for preparing disinfectants
Plastic bucket with lid or cover for 1
preparing 1:10 bleach solution
Containers for preparing 1:100 bleach 1 large container or several small ones
solution
Measuring cup 1 with measurments marked on it
Bleach 1 litre bleach yields 100 litres of 1:100 bleach

solution
Supplies for disinfection station (changing room and patient room)

128
Pan or bucket with 1:10 bleach solution 1 per each disinfection station
Pan or bucket with 1:100 bleach solution 1 per each disinfection station
Pan or bucket with 1:100 bleach solution 1 per changing room

for collecting reusable gloves
Bucket or bag for collecting 1 per changing room

contaminated, reusable protective
clothing
Bucket or bag for collecting patient’s 1 per patient isolation area
contaminated laundry
Pan with soapy water for collecting used 1 per patient isolation area
needles and syringes
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Disinfection
Sprayer, bucket or shallow pan with 1 for the disinfection station in patient room
1:100 bleach solution for disinfecting
boots
Sprayer, 1:100 bleach solution, clean 1 per each disinfection station
water for disinfecting spills on floor or
wall
Mop 1 per each disinfection station
Supplies for laundry

Bucket with 1:10 bleach solution
Buckets with 1:100 bleach solution 2 - 3 (10 - 30 litres of bleach solution is needed daily)
129
Buckets with soapy water 2 - 3 (10 - 30 litres of soapy water is needed daily)
Source of clean water for rinsing the 10 - 30 litres/day

laundry
Needles and thread for repairing holes in 5 spools and 5 needles

protective clothing
Talcum powder to put in washed gloves 1 tin
Line to air-dry reusable clothes

VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Waste Disposal
Containers with 1:100 bleach solution for 1 per patient isolation area
collecting infectious waste
Pit or incinerator for burning infectious 1 per facility, pit should be 2 meters deep
waste*
Kerosene or petrol 1 litre per week
Wood for burning
Rope to make barrier around the waste enough length to go around the waste disposal site
disposal site
130
* If no incinerator is available, make one from an empty 220-litre (55-gallon) oil or fuel drum.
VHF Isolation Precautions Supplies: Safe Burial Practices
Supply of 1:10 bleach solution prepared as needed
Sprayer 1
Body bags (cotton cloth, plastic sheeting, as needed

plastic tape)
VHF Infection Control Supplies: Others
131

Supply checklist as needed
Patient record forms as needed
Accidental exposure record forms as needed
Training materials for staff training in as needed

VHF Isolation Precautions
132
ANNEX 1 Standard Precautions for Hospital Infection

Control13
Standard Precautions aim to reduce the risk of disease transmission in the health
care setting, even when the source of infection is not known. Standard
Precautions are designed for use with all patients who present in the health care
setting and apply to:
• Blood and most body fluids whether or not they contain blood
• Broken skin
• Mucous membranes.
To reduce the risk of disease transmission in the health care setting, use the
following Standard Precautions.
1. Wash hands immediately with soap and water before and after examining
patients and after any contact with blood, body fluids and contaminated
items — whether or not gloves were worn. Soaps containing an
antimicrobial agent are recommended.
2. Wear clean, ordinary thin gloves anytime there is contact with blood, body
fluids, mucous membrane, and broken skin. Change gloves between tasks
or procedures on the same patient. Before going to another patient,
remove gloves promptly and wash hands immediately, and then put on
new gloves.
3. Wear a mask, protective eyewear and gown during any patient-care activity
when splashes or sprays of body fluids are likely. Remove the soiled gown
as soon as possible and wash hands.
4. Handle needles and other sharp instruments safely. Do not recap needles.
Make sure contaminated equipment is not reused with another patient until
it has been cleaned, disinfected, and sterilized properly. Dispose of
non-reusable needles, syringes, and other sharp patient-care instruments in
puncture-resistant containers.
5. Routinely clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces including beds,

bed rails, patient examination tables and bedside tables.
6. Clean and disinfect soiled linens and launder them safely. Avoid direct
contact with items soiled with blood and body fluids.
13 Adapted from Garner JS, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for Isolation
Precautions In Hospitals, January 1996. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public Health Service, US
Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia.
133
Annex 1
7. Place a patient whose blood or body fluids are likely to contaminate

surfaces or other patients in an isolation room or area.
8. Minimize the use of invasive procedures to avoid the potential for injury
and accidental exposure. Use oral rather than injectable medications
whenever possible.
When a specific diagnosis is made, find out how the disease is transmitted. Use
precautions according to the transmission risk.
• If airborne transmission:
1. Place the patient in an isolation room that is not air-conditioned or

where air is not circulated to the rest of the health facility. Make
sure the room has a door that can be closed.
2. Wear a HEPA or other biosafety mask when working with the

patient and in the patient’s room.
3. Limit movement of the patient from the room to other areas. Place a
surgical mask on the patient who must be moved.
• If droplet transmission:
1. Place the patient in an isolation room.
2. Wear a HEPA or other biosafety mask when working with the

patient.
3. Limit movement of the patient from the room to other areas. If

patient must be moved, place a surgical mask on the patient.
• If contact transmission:
1. Place the patient in an isolation room and limit access.
2. Wear gloves during contact with patient and with infectious body
fluids or contaminated items. Reinforce handwashing throughout
the health facility.
3. Wear two layers of protective clothing.
4. Limit movement of the patient from the isolation room to other

areas.
5. Avoid sharing equipment between patients. Designate equipment

for each patient, if supplies allow. If sharing equipment is
unavoidable, clean and disinfect it before use with the next patient.
134
ANNEX 2 Specific Features of VHFs14
Geographical and epidemiological characteristics of VHFs
Disease Geography Vector/Reservoir Human Infection

• Africa • Tick bites.
Crimean Congo HF Ticks. Tick-mammal-tick
• Balkans maintenance. • Squashing ticks.
• China (Western) • Exposure to aerosols or fomites from slaughtered cattle and sheep (domestic
animals do not show evidence of illness but may become infected when
• Former Soviet transported to market or when held in pens for slaughter).
Union (Southern)
• Nosocomial epidemics have occurred.
• Middle East
Dengue HF, Dengue All Tropic and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Increased world-wide distribution of the mosquito and the movement of dengue
Shock Syndrome subtropical Regions Mosquito-human-mosquito viruses in travellers is increasing the areas that are becoming infected.
(DHF/DSS) maintenance. Transmission occurs
with the frequent geographic
transport of viruses by travellers.
135
• Virus is spread by close contact with an infected person.

Ebola HF and Africa Unknown.
Marburg HF • Route of infection of the first case is unknown.
• Infected non-human primates sometimes provide transmission link to humans.
• Aerosol transmission is suspected in some monkey infections.
• Transmitted by aerosols from rodent to man.
Lassa Fever West Africa Mice. The Mastomys genus of the
mouse. • Direct contact with infected rodents or their droppings, urine, or saliva.
• Person-to-person contact.
Note: The reservoir rodent is very common in Africa and the disease is a major
cause of severe febrile illness in West Africa.
14 Peters CJ, Zaki SR, Rollin PE. Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers, Chapter 10 in Atlas of Infectious Diseases, vol 8, vol ed Robert Fekety, book ed GL Mandell. Philadelphia:
Churchill Livingstone. 1997: pp10.1-10.26.
Geographical and epidemiological characteristics of VHFs
Disease Geography Vector/Reservoir Human Infection

• Mosquito bite.
Rift Valley Fever Sub-Saharan Africa Floodwater mosquitoes.
Maintained between mosquitoes • Contact with blood of infected sheep, cattle, or goats.
and domestic animals, particularly • Aerosols generated from infected domestic animal blood.
sheep and cattle.
• No person-to-person transmission observed.
• Africa • Mosquito bite.
Yellow Fever Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
• South America Mosquito-monkey-mosquito • In epidemics, mosquitoes amplify transmission between humans.
maintenance. Occasional human • Fully developed cases cease to be viremic. Direct person-to-person
infection occurs when unvaccinated transmission is not believed to be a problem although the virus is highly
humans enter forest. In an urban infectious (including aerosols) in the laboratory.
outbreak, virus maintained in
infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes
and humans.
136
Common clinical features of VHFs
Disease Incubation Period Case Fatality Characteristic Features
Crimean Congo HF 3-12 days 15% - 30% Most severe bleeding and ecchymoses (a purplish patch caused by blood
coming from a vessel into the skin) of all the HF.
• Most fatal of all HF.

Ebola HF and 2-21 days 25% - 90%
Marburg HF • Weight loss.
• Exhaustion and loss of strength.
• A maculopapular (a lesion with a broad base) rash is common
• Post infection events have included hepatitis, uveitis and orchitis.
• Exhaustion and loss of strength.
Lassa Fever 5-16 days Approximately 15%
• Shock.
• Deafness develops during recovery in 20% of cases.
• Shock.
137
Rift Valley Fever 2-5 days (uncomplicated 50% of severe cases

disease; incubation for (about 1.5% of all • Bleeding.
HF may differ) infections) • Reduced or no urine production.
• Jaundice.
• Inflammation of the brain.
• Inflammation of the blood vessels in the retina of the eye.
• Acute febrile period followed by a brief period of remission.
Yellow Fever 3-6 days 20%
• Toxic phase follows remission with jaundice and renal failure in severe cases.
Specific clinical findings in different VHFs
Disease haemorrhage Thrombo leukocyte rash icterus 3 renal pulmonary tremor4, encephalo deafness eye lesions
cytopenia1 count 2 disease disease dysarthria5 pathy6
Crimean Congo + + + +++ ↓↓ ranging ++ + +

HF to ↑
Ebola HF and ++ +++ data not +++ ++ + ++ + Retinitis

Marburg HF available
Lassa Fever + ranging to + no change ++ + + + ranging ++

S to S
Rift Valley +++ +++ data not ++ + data not E Retinitis

Fever available available
138
Yellow Fever +++ ++ no change +++ ++ + ++

ranging to ↓↓
1 abnormally low number of platelets in the circulating + occasional or mild

blood
++ commonly seen and may be severe
2 white blood cell count
+++ characteristic
3 jaundice
S characteristic and seen in severe cases
4 shaking
↑ occasionally or mildly increased
5 difficulty speaking and pronouncing words due to
problems with the muscles used for speaking ↓↓ commonly decreased
6 disease of the brain E May develop true encephalitis
A summary of prevention and treatment of VHFs
Disease Prevention Treatment

• Tick avoidance. • Ribavirin is effective in reducing mortality.
Crimean Congo HF
• Avoid contact with acutely infected animals, especially • Ribavirin should be used based on in vitro sensitivity and of
slaughtering. limited South African experience.
• Use VHF Isolation Precautions when a case is suspected.
• Mosquito control of Aedes aegypti. • Supportive care. It is effective and greatly reduces mortality.
Dengue HF, Dengue
Shock Syndrome • Vaccines currently under investigation for probable use in
(DHF/DSS) travellers but unlikely to be a solution to hyperendemic dengue
transmission that leads to dengue HF.
• Standard Precautions including needle sterilization in African • None other than supportive care, which may be of limited utility.
Ebola HF and hospitals are particularly important.
Marburg HF • Antiviral therapies urgently needed.
• Use VHF Isolation Precautions when a case is suspected.
• Avoid unprotected contact with suspected patients or infectious
body fluids.
• Avoid contact with monkeys and apes.
139
• Rodent control. • Ribavirin is effective in reducing mortality.

Lassa Fever
• Use VHF Isolation Precautions when a case is suspected. • Use Ribavirin in higher risk patients, e.g. if aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) is greater than 150.
• Vaccination of domestic livestock prevents epidemics in livestock • Supportive care.
Rift Valley Fever but not sporadic, endemic infections of humans. • Use Ribavirin in haemorrhage fever patients (based on studies in
• Human vaccine safe and effective, but in limited supply. experimental animals).
• Veterinarians and virology workers in sub-Saharan Africa are
candidates for vaccine.
• Mosquito control of Aedes aegypti would eliminate urban • Supportive care.
Yellow Fever transmission but forest transmission remains.
• Vaccine is probably the safest and most effective in the world.
Annex 2
History of Viral
Haemorrhagic Fevers Major Signs and Symptoms Transmission Route
Seen in Your Area
140
ANNEX 3 Planning and Setting Up the Isolation

Area
Checklist: Supplies for a Changing Room
Storage Outside the Changing Room:
1. Shelf or cabinet with lock
2. Supply of clean scrub suits, gowns, aprons, gloves, masks,

headcovering, and eyewear
3. Covered shelf for storing disinfected boots
4. Bucket for collecting non-infectious waste
Inside the Changing Room:
1. Hooks, nails, or hangers for hanging reusable gowns, scrub

suits
2. Roll of plastic tape
3. Handwashing supplies: bucket or pan, clean water, soap,

one-use towels
4. Bucket or pan, 1:100 bleach solution for disinfecting

gloved hands
5. Container with soapy water for collecting discarded gloves
6. Container with soapy water for collecting used instruments

to be sterilized*
7. Container with soapy water for collecting reusable gowns,

masks, sheets to launder*
*Place outside the changing room if the changing room is too small
If large amounts of waste on floor:
Sprayer, bucket or shallow pan with 1:100 bleach solution for

disinfecting boots
141
Annex 3
Checklist: Supplies for Patient Area
1. 1 bed with clean mattress or sleeping mat and at least a

bottom sheet and blanket for each bed
2. Plastic sheeting to cover mattress or sleeping mat
3. 1 thermometer, 1 stethoscope, and 1 blood pressure cuff for

each patient or for each patient area
4. 1 puncture-resistant container for collecting non-reusable

needles, syringes, and discarded sharp instruments
5. 1 bedside table or shelf
6. 1 large wall clock with a second hand
7. Pan with 1:100 bleach solution or alcohol and one-use towels

for disinfecting the thermometer and stethoscope between
use with each patient
8. Bucket or pan, 1:100 bleach solution, one-use towels for

disinfecting gloved hands between patients
9. Supplies for disinfecting patient excreta (bedpan, urinal, 1:10

bleach solution)
10. Sprayer, 1:100 bleach solution, clear water, and mop for
disinfecting spills on floor and walls
11. Container with soapy water for collecting discarded gloves
12. Screens (or sheets hung from ropes or lines) placed between
VHF patients’ beds
13. Extra supply of gowns and gloves
14. Container for collecting infectious waste to be burned
142
Planning and Setting Up the Isolation Area
Use the grid on the next page to draw the layout of an isolation area in your own
health facility. Be sure to include:
• Area for patient isolation
• Changing room for health care workers to use for changing clothes
• Area for cleaning and laundering VHF-contaminated supplies
• Changing area for cleaning staff who handle VHF-contaminated waste but
who do not do direct patient-care activities.
143
Annex 3
Planning Grid: Layout for Isolation Area in Your Health Facility
144
ANNEX 4 Adapting VHF Isolation Precautions for a

Large Number of Patients
The recommendations in this manual assume 1 or 2 VHF cases have occurred in a

non-outbreak situation. When more than 1 or 2 VHF patients present in the
health facility, additional precautions need to be taken. When Ebola
haemorrhagic fever occurs, initially there may be as many as 10 cases.
When a VHF is suspected, develop a case definition based on the VHF that has
occurred. Use it to identify new cases during the outbreak. For example, the
current case definition for suspecting Ebola haemorrhagic fever (EHF) is:
Anyone presenting with fever and signs of bleeding such as:

• Bleeding of the gums
• Bleeding from the nose
• Red eyes
• Bleeding into the skin (purple coloured patches in the skin)
• Bloody or dark stools
• Vomiting blood
• Other unexplained signs of bleeding
Whether or not there is a history of contact with a suspected case of EHF.
OR
Anyone living or deceased with:
• Contact with a suspected case of EHF AND
• A history of fever, with or without signs of bleeding.
OR
Anyone living or deceased with a history of fever AND 3 of the following symptoms:
• Headache
• Vomiting
• Loss of appetite
• Diarrhoea
• Weakness or severe fatigue
• Abdominal pain
• Generalized muscle or joint pain
• Difficulty swallowing
• Difficulty breathing
• Hiccups
OR
Any unexplained death in an area with suspected cases of EHF.
145
Annex 4
The current case definition for suspecting Lassa fever is:
Unexplained fever at least 38oC or 100.4oF for one week

or more.
And 1 of the following:
— No response to standard treatment for most

likely cause of fever (malaria, typhoid fever)
— Readmitted within 3 weeks of inpatient care

for an illness with fever
And 1 of the following:

— Edema or bleeding
— Sore throat and retrosternal pain/vomiting
— Spontaneous abortion following fever
— Hearing loss following fever
Prepare Your Health Facility

If there are more than 2 suspected VHF patients, take steps immediately to adapt
the VHF Isolation Precautions for a large number of patients.
1. Reinforce the use of Standard Precautions — especially handwashing —

throughout the health facility. Make sure there is a reliable supply of soap
and clean water in areas where health facility staff have contact with
patients suspected as having a VHF.
2. Make sure adequate supplies of protective clothing are available.
3. Set up a temporary area that is separate from the rest of the facility where
febrile patients can wait to be seen by a health care worker. Also use this
area for patients who have been seen by a health care worker and who are
waiting to go to the isolation area.
Make sure the temporary admission area contains a supply of protective

clothing, buckets with disinfectants in them for collecting disposable waste,
and disinfectants for cleaning and disinfecting spills of infectious materials.
146
Adapting VHF Isolation Precautions for a Large Number of Patients
4. Identify a family liaison person from the health facility staff who can spend
time with families to answer questions, provide information about the VHF
and its transmission. If family members help provide care when relatives
are in hospital, make sure they know how to use protective clothing when
they are with the patient in the isolation area. Help families with
arrangements for cooking, washing and sleeping.
5. Designate a separate building or ward for placing patients with the same
disease together in a single isolation area. Select and isolate a toilet or
latrine for disposal of disinfected patient waste and other liquid waste.
6. Restrict access to the building or ward set aside as the isolation area. Set
up walkways from the temporary area to the isolation area by tying ropes
along the walkway and hanging plastic sheets from them.
7. Prepare a list of health facility staff authorized to enter the isolation area.
Station a guard at the entry to the isolation area, and provide the guard
with the list of authorized persons. The guard will use the list to limit
access to the isolation area to authorized health facility staff and, if
necessary, the caregiving family member.
8. Provide the guard with a sign-in sheet for recording who goes into the
isolation area and the time of entry and departure.
9. Prepare a large quantity of disinfectant solutions each day (bleach solutions

and detergent solutions). Store the disinfectants in large containers. Ask
cleaning staff to change the disinfectants when they become bloody or
cloudy or when the chlorine odour is no longer detectable.
10. Obtain additional patient supplies. Make sure each patient has a bed and
mattress or sleeping mat. Designate medical equipment for use with each
VHF patient (for example, a thermometer, a stethoscope, and a
blood-pressure cuff for each patient). If there are not enough items
available to provide one per patient, be sure to clean and disinfect the
items before use with the next patient.
11. Make sure schedules are carried out as planned for collecting, transporting
and burning infectious waste daily. Make sure that burning is supervised
and that security of the burning site is maintained.
12. Initiate community education activities.
147
Annex 4
148
ANNEX 5 Making Protective Clothing
Instruction on Making Headwear

Materials needed:
Elastic ¾ meter
Cotton cloth 51 cm2 (20 square inches)
A homemade head cover
1. Cut a round piece of cotton cloth that is

46 to 50 cm 46 to 50 cm (18 to 20 inches) in diameter.
(18 to 20 inches)
2. Sew elastic on the edge and shape a circle

18 cm (7 inches) in diameter.
18 cm
(7 inches )
149
Annex 5
Instruction on Making Gown

Materials needed:
1.5 meters cotton cloth to make one gown
20 cm
(7.5 inches)
Placing the tie away

64 cm
from the edge allows
(25 inches)
for overlap so the
back of the gown can
be closed.
108 cm
(42 inches)
long
Hole for threading

the lower tie.
148 to 158 cm
(58 to 62 inches)
150
Making Protective Clothing
Instruction on Making Aprons

Materials needed (to make 2 aprons):
1¼ meters plastic sheeting or plastic cloth used for covering tables
91 cm (36 inches) sewing tape
46 cm (18-inch) loop
or 2 long ties
25 - 30 cm
(10 to 12 inches)
41 cm
(16 inches)
Fold cloth to make

66 to 71 cm
ties or use sewing
(26 to 28 inches ) wide
tape; about 91 cm
(36 inches) long
Placing the tie away

from the edge allows
for overlap so the
back of the gown can 100 cm
be closed. (40 inches ) long
66 to 71 cm
(26 to 28 inches) wide
151
Annex 5
Instruction on Making a Cotton Mask

1 meter cotton cloth to make at least 2 masks
50 cm in second colour to make the inside of the masks
1. Cut 4 pieces of
cotton cloth to the
size shown.
20 cm 28 to 30 cm
2. Cut 1 piece from a (11 to 12 inches)
(8 inches)
different colour.
Use it as the inside
of the mask.
3. Sew the 5 pieces 13 cm

together and gather (5 inches)
or pleat the vertical
sides to 13 cm (5
inches) long. Sew
all pieces in place.
4. Sew on ties.
152
ANNEX 6 Requirements for Purchasing Protective

Clothing
Specifications for Items of Protective Clothing:

This list describes the generic requirements for ordering or purchasing protective
clothing from commercial vendors. Record the amounts needed on this list of
specifications. The list can be photocopied and provided to donors to make sure
that vendor specifications match the recommended specifications. Determine the
quantities needed from the recommendations on the chart in Section 9.
Gowns
Requirements Made from cotton cloth, cotton blend, or disposable fabric. The requirements
are the same for both disposable and reusable gowns.
Gowns should have the following requirements:
— Open at the back with ties at the neck, waist and middle of the back.
— Ribbed or elasticized cuffs.
— Be long enough to reach the knees.
— If only large size is available, larger size can be cut and altered to fit
smaller people.
If elasticized or ribbed cuffs are not available, attach thumb hooks to the end
of the gown's sleeves. The thumb hooks can then be covered with the long
wrist-sleeve of the gloves.
Quantity Number of disposable gowns _______ Number of reusable gowns _______

needed
Apron
Requirements Aprons are worn if there is risk of direct exposure to body fluids. The aprons
are worn by physicians, nurses, corpse carriers, and cleaners. The
requirements for the apron are the same for disposable or reusable models.
Aprons should have the following requirements:
— Rubber or plastic apron with hooks or ties around the neck and with ties at
the back.
— Made from disposable plastic or heavy plastic which can be disinfected for
reuse.
— Able to fit over gown.
Quantity Number of disposable aprons _______ Number of reusable aprons _______

needed
153
Annex 6
Caps
Requirements To prevent contamination of hair and head from patient's vomit or blood:
— Use disposable caps.
— If disposable caps are not available, use cotton caps that can be
laundered and reused.
Quantity Number of disposable caps ______ Number of cotton caps ______

needed
Masks
Requirements Worn to protect mouth and nose from splashes or droplets of patient's body
fluids.
Masks should offer appropriate protection.
1. 3M HEPA or N Series Mask:
— Has preferable exhalation valve
— Lightweight
— Easy to use
2. Biosafety mask that limits 0.3-µm particles
3. Dust-mist masks
4. Surgical masks only protect from droplets splashed in the face. They
are not HEPA rated.
Quantity HEPA mask _______ Biosafety mask _______ Dust-mist mask _______
needed
Thin gloves
Requirements Thin gloves to permit fine motor function. They can be surgical glove quality
but do not need to be sterile.
— Must reach well above the wrist, preferably 10 to 15 cm (4" to 6") long,
measuring from the wrist up along the arm.
— Should be tested for pinholes.

— May be powdered or non-powdered.
Quantity Number of pairs _______

needed
154
Requirements for Purchasing Protective Clothing
Thick gloves
Requirements Thick gloves for handling bodies, disinfection, and disposal of infectious
waste.
— Should be made from neoprene or other thick rubber material.
— Must reach well above the wrist, preferably about 30 cm (12”), measuring
from wrist up along the arm.
Quantity Number of pairs _______

needed
Boots or overboots
Requirements The requirements are the same for both latex overboots which can stretch over
street shoes, and regular rubber boots
— Should be 30 cm (12") high and have textured soles.
— Provide several sizes to meet size requirements of anyone who might use
them (for example, obtain pairs of boots in sizes medium, and large).
Overboots are preferable to regular boots. They take up less space, fewer
sizes are needed, and they are less expensive.
Quantity Total number of pairs of overboots _______ (medium _____ large _____)
needed
Total number of pairs of rubber boots ______ (medium _____ large _____)
Protective eyewear
Requirements 1. Use non-fogging goggles that are vented at the sides.
2. If non-fogging goggles are not available, purchase clear spectacles locally.
— Should have ties extending from ear holders that can be tied around the
back of the head so glasses will not fall off when health care worker leans
over patient.
Quantity Number of pairs of non-fogging goggles _______

needed
Number of pairs of clear spectacles _______
155
Annex 6
Other recommended equipment Quantity

needed
Sprayers: backpack style with hose to use for cleaning and disinfecting spills,
rinsing boots, and other decontamination procedures.
Plastic sheets for mattresses and barriers: can be purchased locally.
Waterproof mattresses
Front lamps: to fit over the physician's head to provide light when physician is
examining patients.
Kerosene lamps
Body bags
156
ANNEX 7 Disinfecting Water for Drinking, Cooking and

Cleaning
The Standard Precautions and VHF Isolation Precautions described in this manual
recommend using a source of clean water. In an emergency situation, health
facility staff may not have access to clean running water. For example, if the
power supply is cut off, water cannot be pumped to the health facility. Other
sources of water could be contaminated.
This Annex describes how to use household bleach to disinfect water when clean
running water is not available in the health facility.
Adding a small amount of full strength household bleach to water will disinfect it
enough so that it can be safely used for drinking, cooking, and cleaning.15
1. Locate several containers for storing the disinfected water. They should
have:
• A narrow mouth (to prevent hands being put
into the water)
• A screw top or attached lid
• A spigot, if possible.
Examples include jerry cans, large plastic jugs, or
buckets with spigots and lids that can be firmly
closed.
An example of a water
container
2. Make available:
• At least 1 litre of full strength household bleach. Use the

instructions on the package to prepare a full-strength concentration.
• Pieces of bar soap or powdered soap.
3. Clean and disinfect the containers. To disinfect the containers, wash them
with soap and water, or rinse them with 1:100 bleach solution.
4. Collect water from the available source (for example, a river, stream, or
well used by the village).
15 World Health Organisation: Cholera and other diarrhoeal diseases control -- technical cards on
environmental sanitation. Document WHO/EMC/DIS/97.6. Geneva: 1997.
157
Annex 7
5. Place the water into the disinfected containers, and add 3 drops of full
strength household bleach per litre of water.
Preparing drinking water
6. Mix the water and bleach drops together.
Let the water stand for 30 minutes. This water is now safe to drink and to
use for preparing meals. Clearly label the containers so that the health
facility staff will know that the water is for drinking and is available for use.
Use a marking pen to write DRINKING WATER on the container, or put a sign
on it that says DRINKING WATER.
7. Provide clean water for the:
— Handwashing stations in
areas where health workers
are likely to have contact
with patients who have fever
or with infectious body
fluids.
— Disinfection station where
reusable needles and
syringes are cleaned and
disinfected.
Using stored clean water for handwashing
158
Disinfecting Water for Drinking, Cooking and Cleaning
8. Assign the job of collecting and disinfecting water to a specific health

facility staff person. Give the health staff person information about how to
do the task and why it is important. Make a schedule for collecting and
disinfecting water routinely.
To disinfect a large quantity of water:
1. Determine how many litres the container holds.

Example: 25 litres
2. Calculate the amount of bleach that is needed to disinfect the specified

quantity of water.
Example: Use 3 drops of bleach per litre of clear water.
3 drops x 25 litres = 75 drops.
3. Find a spoon, cup or bleach bottle cap that can be used to measure the
required amount of bleach. Count the number of drops that the measuring
spoon, cup or bottle cap will hold.
Example: 75 drops of bleach = 1 teaspoon
4. Use the measuring spoon or cup to measure the amount of bleach each
time the large quantity of water is disinfected.
159
Annex 7
160
ANNEX 8 Preparing Disinfectant Solutions by Using

Other Chlorine Products
The disinfectants recommended in this manual are made with household bleach.
This table describes how to make 1:10 and 1:100 chlorine solutions from other
chlorine products.
Preparation and Use of Chlorine Disinfectants
Use a chlorine product 1:10 solution 1:100 solution

to make : For disinfecting: For disinfecting:
• Excreta • Gloved hands
• Cadavers • Bare hands and skin
• Spills • Floors
• Clothing
• Equipment
• Bedding
Household bleach 1 litre bleach per 10 litres 100 ml per 10 litres of

of water water or
5% active chlorine
1 litre 1:10 bleach
solution per 9 litres of
water
Calcium hypochlorite 7 grams or ½ tablespoon 7 grams or ½

powder or granules 70% per 1 litre of water tablespoon per 10
(HTH) litres of water
Household bleach 16 grams or 1 tablespoon 16 grams or 1

30% active chlorine per 1 litre of water tablespoon per 10
litres of water
161
Annex 8
162
ANNEX 9 Making Supplies: Sharps Container,

Incinerator, and Boot Remover
Making a Sharps Container:
If a puncture-resistant container is not available for collecting used disposable

needles, syringes and other sharp instruments that have penetrated the patient’s
skin, make a container using these instructions.
Materials:
• Plastic bottle or container made from burnable material (empty

plastic water bottles, for example)
• Cardboard box to serve as a stand for holding the plastic bottle
• Plastic tape.
1. Gather several plastic bottles and boxes made from cardboard or other
sturdy, burnable material.
2. Tape the sides and lid of the cardboard box together so the top side is
closed.
3. Draw a circle on the top of the box that is the same diameter as the plastic
bottle.
4. Cut out the circle and leave a hole in

the top of the box.
5. Place the bottle inside the hole. Fill

the bottle 1/3 full with 1:10 bleach
solution.
6. Place the bottle with its stand in the

patient’s room or where disposable
skin-piercing equipment is used.
7. At the end of the day, when disposable

waste is collected, carry the bottle and
An adapted sharps container
its stand to the site for burning
infectious waste. Place the bottle and
box in the pit for burning.
163
Annex 9
Making an incinerator: See Annex 10.
Making a boot remover:
33 cm
(13 inches) 19 cm
(8 inches)
52 cm
(21 inches)
Please bring this picture to the local carpenter.
164
ANNEX 10 Sample Job-Aids and Posters for Use in

the Health Facility
This section includes a series of sample posters that can be photocopied or

hand-copied for use in health facilities. The sample posters and job-aids are
pictorial explanations of how to do the steps described in various sections of this
manual. For example, posters will remind health workers about:
• Using VHF Isolation Precautions
• How to put on and take off protective clothing
• How to build an incinerator.
165
Viral Haemorrh agic Fevers Isolation Precautions
Wash hands as needed
Isolate the patient
Wear protective clothing
Dispose of needles and syringes safely
Dispose of waste safely
Use safe burial practices

Steps for Putting On Protective Clothing
1 Wear scrub suit 5 Put on the plastic

as the first layer apron.
of protective
clothing.
6 Put on the second

pair of gloves.
Place the edge of
gloves over the cuff
of the gown.
2 Put on rubber
boots.
7 Put on the
mask.
3 Put on the
first pair of
gloves.
8 Put on a
head
cover.
4 Put on the
outer gown.
9 Put on the
protective
eyewear.
Steps for Taking Off Protective Clothing
1 Disinfect the outer

pair of gloves. 7 Remove the
eyewear.
2 Disinfect the apron

and the boots. 8 Remove the head
cover.
3 Remove the outer

pair of gloves. 9 Remove the mask.
4 Remove the apron.

10 Remove the
boots.
5 Remove the outer

gown. 11 Remove the
inner pair of
gloves.
6 Disinfect the
gloved hands. 12 Wash hands with
soap and clean
water.
Steps for Building an Incinerator
1 Find a 220-litre 6 Cut 4 holes on

(55-gallon) the sides of the
drum. drum. Thread 2
metal rods
through these
holes so that they
cross inside the
drum.
2 Cut open the 7 Punch holes in the

drum. Remove top cutaway piece
and save the top to make a platform.
cutaway piece.
8 Pierce a series of
holes on the side
of the drum and
3 Hammer the edges of the drum so they above the crossed
are not sharp. rods to improve
the draw of the
fire.
4 Cut 3 half-moon
openings just 9 Cut away half of
above the top end the top. Attach the
of the drum. wire loops to the
cutaway half to
make a trap door.
Attach another
loop for a handle
to open the trap
door.
5 Turn the drum

upside down.
The bottom of 10 Place the platform
the drum now is inside the drum
the top. on top of the
rods.
Annex 10
170
ANNEX 11 Laboratory Testing for VHFs
Always wear protective clothing when handling specimens from suspected VHF
cases. Label all tubes carefully with name, date of collection and hospital
number. Provide a patient summary or fill out a clinical signs and symptoms form
(Annex 12). Contact your district officer for special instructions about collecting
and shipping specimens.
Diagnostic Samples Preparation & Shipping Viruses to be

Test required Storage confirmed
ELISA (Serology) Whole blood* Freeze or Frozen on dry ice Ebola
refrigerate or ice packs or
Detects: Serum or plasma Lassa
both****
(as cold as
— Viral antigen CCHF
possible)
— IgM and IgG Acute and Rift Valley
antibody convalescent** Marburg
Yellow fever
PCR Whole blood or Refrigerate or Frozen on dry ice Ebola

clot*** freeze or ice packs or
Detects: Lassa
both****
DNA, RNA CCHF
(genetic material) Tissues Freeze Rift Valley
from virus (fresh frozen) Marburg
Serum/plasma Yellow fever
Immunohisto- Liver biopsy from Fix in formalin Room Ebola

chemistry fatal cases temperature
(can be stored up Lassa
(liver) to 6 weeks) (Do not freeze) CCHF
Detects: Rift Valley
Viral antigen in Marburg
cells
Yellow fever
Immunohisto- Skin biopsy from Fix in formalin Room Ebola

chemistry fatal cases temperature
(can be stored up Lassa
(skin) to 6 weeks) (Do not freeze)
Detects: (any site)
Viral antigen in
cells
Immunohisto- Tissue biopsy Fix in formalin Room Possible

chemistry from fatal cases temperature detection of
(can be stored up Ebola, Lassa,
(other tissues) to 6 weeks) (Do not freeze) CCHF, Rift
Detects: (other tissues, Valley, Marburg,
spleen, lung, Yellow Fever
Viral antigen in heart, kidney)
cells
171
Annex 11
* Whole blood can be used for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

and may be frozen. Do not centrifuge suspected VHF specimens because
this increases risk to the lab worker. If serum specimens have already been
prepared these can be used. Place specimens in plastic tubes for shipping
and storage and be sure that the tubes are sealed and properly labelled.
** Collect acute-phase specimen when patient is admitted to hospital or

diagnosed as suspected case and collect convalescent-phase specimen at
death or when discharged from the hospital.
*** Whole blood or tissue is preferred, although serum or plasma may provide
results.
**** Use both ice packs and dry ice to provide best results. If dry ice or ice
packs are not available, sample may be shipped at room temperature and
still provide valid results in most cases.
172
ANNEX 12 Skin Biopsy on Fatal Cases for Diagnosis of

Ebola
Ebola virus can be detected in fatal cases from a skin specimen using an
immunohistochemistry test developed by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) Infectious Diseases Pathology Activity. The skin specimen is
fixed in formalin which kills the virus. The specimen is no longer infectious once
it is placed in formalin and the outside of the vial has been decontaminated. This
vial can be shipped by mail or hand carried to the lab without risk. Results are
available within a week after the specimen arrives at the CDC.
CDC provides Skin Biopsy Kits for the collection of skin samples in formalin. If
these are available in your area, follow the simple instructions that are provided in
the kit. An example of the instructions is on the following pages.
If a kit is not available, the biopsy can still be collected and sent for diagnosis to:
Dr. Sherif Zaki

Infectious Diseases Pathology G-32
1600 Clifton Road, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329-4018
173
Annex 12
174
Check the list of equipment and make sure everything is in place before beginning.
Kit Equipment List: Other items needed:
1. Instruction sheet 1. 1 or 2 buckets for disinfectant

2. Selection criteria and surveillance forms and handwashing
3. (1) box powdered bleach 2. Gowns or plastic aprons
4. (2) pairs latex gloves 3. 10 litres water
5. (1) pair heavy-duty gloves 4. VHF Infection Control Manual
6. (2) masks
7. (1) face shield
8. (1) tweezers and scissors set
9. (1) vial with formalin
10. (1) vial with chaotrope
11. (1) piece hand soap
12. (2) pieces of parafilm
13. (1) mailing tube
14. (1) set mailing labels
Shipping Instructions:
Be sure to fill out the forms with the name of the patient on each page. Number the vial and put
the number on the form. This is very important, especially if you have more than one specimen to
send. Use a pencil to write on the lid of the vial.
The formalin- and chaotrope-fixed specimens are not infectious. The vial can be sent by
normal mail or carried on a plane without risk to the carrier.
Put the forms and the vial containing the specimen into the mailing tube. Close the lid tightly and
seal with tape if available. Put the label on the tube and send it to CDC by the post office. It can
be mailed in your country or if someone carries it to the United States, it can be placed in any
U.S. mailbox.
Please remember to put stamps on the mailing tube.

Surveillance for Viral Hemorrhagic Fever
INSTRUCTION FOR USING THE SKIN BIOPSY KIT
IMPORTANT: The instruments used in the biopsy are for one use only, must not be reused, and
should be disinfected and incinerated after the biopsy. Reusing could result in contamination of
subsequent samples.
See the “Infection Control for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers” manual for detailed information on how
to properly put on and take off protective clothing and how to make an incinerator.
1. Fill out the patient forms with 8. Place the remaining sample in
the patient’s information. the formalin. See example sample
size. Close the cap tightly to
Include your address for sending
the results. Check the prevent leaks.
equipment and make sure you
have everything you need.
2. Prepare the disinfectant 9. Dip the vials in the disinfectant

solution. Mix the contents of the for 1 minute. Set them aside to dry.
box of bleach in 10 liters of water.
10. Place the rest of the

3. Put on the protective clothing. Begin
equipment in the bucket and leave
with the gown, next the latex gloves,
it for 30 minutes. If you need to
then the kitchen gloves, then the mask,
move the cadaver, do so while you
and finally the face shield or eye
have the protective clothing on.
protection. Use a plastic apron if one is
When you are finished, rinse your
available. See the “Infection Control for
exterior gloves in the disinfectant,
Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers” manual for
remove them, and drop them in the
detailed information on protective
bucket.
clothing.
4. Take the equipment to the work 11. Wearing the interior gloves, pour
site. Label vials with patient name excess bleach solution out at the base
and date. Open the vials of of the incinerator (without pouring out
formalin and chaotrope.* Open the equipment). Empty equipment from
instruments: the scissors and the bucket by dumping directly into the
tweezers. Arrange them for use incinerator. Remove interior gloves
near the body. and place them in the incinerator.
Using caution, light the incinerator.
5. Gently turn the head of 12. Wash your hands with soap
the cadaver to expose the and water. The specimen is not
side of the neck. infectious after it is placed in
formalin and chaotrope, and the
outside of the vial is disinfected.
6. With the tweezers and 13. Stretch a piece of parafilm

scissors, cut a piece of skin around the closure of each vial to
approximately 1.5 cm in size provide an extra seal. This will
from the neck and remove. help prevent leakage during transit.
Be sure that both vials are properly
labeled.
7. From the piece of skin, cut a smaller sample 14. Place the vials and the
(about the size of a rice grain) and place it in the patient forms in the mailing
chaotrope. See example sample size. Close the tube and send to CDC
cap tightly to prevent leaks. Atlanta. Do not freeze the
sample.
* Chaotrope is a skin irritant and may be harmful if swallowed or splashed in the eye. Use caution when handling open containers of chaotrope.
In case of contact on skin, wash with soap and water. In case of contact in eyes, flush with water or saline. Get medical attention immediately.
For safety data about formalin, see label on container.
Hemorrhagic Fever Surveillance Form
Vial Number:
Name and location of Health Center:
Name of physician or nurse:
Contact address (Important: to receive results, give a very specific contact address):
Telephone/Fax number:
Patient data Hospital Number:

Name:
Age:
Sex: Male Female
Address:
Profession or occupation:
Date of first symptoms: Date of admittance:
Date of death: Date of biopsy:
If patient was not hospitalized, who cared for the patient?
Are any other family members ill? If yes, relationship:

Symptoms of family member:
If the patient was hospitalized, use the table attached to mark the
symptoms you observed and any other important observations.
Clinical Signs and Symptoms Form
Name of Patient:
Symptoms (Check each one Date of appearance:
present)
Fever
Diarrhea
Extreme weakness after
rehydration
Nausea
Vomiting
Sore Throat
Headache
Loss of appetite
Muscle pain
Joint pain
Hiccups
Cough
Conjunctivitis
Chest pain
Rapid respiration
Recent loss of hearing
Burning sensations of the skin
Bleeding, specify below: Date of appearance:
Black or bloody vomit
Black or bloody stool
Mouth
Nose
Urine
Skin or puncture site
Other bleeding: (specify)
Other Observations:(specify)
Selection criteria for testing of suspected
viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF)
Patient’s last name, first name:
When to obtain a skin biopsy sample for testing:
The patient had the following symptoms within 2 weeks preceding death:
Fever and
Diarrhea and
One of the following signs:

Headache
Intense weakness after rehydration
Muscle pains
Joint pains
Back pains
Treatment was given with antibiotics and

antimalarials for a minimum of 3 days.
The patient failed to respond to treatment with no definitive diagnosis and died
with at least 3 of the following:
Sore throat or difficulty in swallowing
Red eyes
Skin eruptions
Hiccups
Burning sensation of the skin
Bleeding: nose, mouth, urine, stools (black or bloody), or vomit (black
or bloody)
Rapid respiration
Patient reports another similar death in the family within last 10 days*
* Measures should be taken to put the family and contacts under surveillance.
Obtain a skin biopsy sample , following the instructions given in this document.
The biopsy sample is not infectious once in formalin or chaotrope.
Send it to CDC for testing at the following address:
Special Pathogens Branch, CDC

1600 Clifton Rd., MS G-14
Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
Telephone: (404) 639-1115
TELEX 549571CDCATL
ANNEX 13 Community Education Materials
Examples of posters used to provide information to family members of Ebola

patients. Kikwit, 1995.
Avoid contact with the patient’s Do not touch or wash the

blood, urine, and vomit. bodies of deceased patients.
Use gloves to handle the

Burn needles and syringes patient’s clothing. Boil soiled
immediately after use. clothing before washing it.
181
Examples of posters or
teaching aids for viral

Protect yourself.
haemorrhagic fevers
Never touch urine, blood, vomit from a patient
with fever.
Wash spills with bleach solution or soap and water.
To prevent transmission of Lassa fever, wear

a gown, gloves and mask.
Wash your hands if you take care of a

patient with fever.
You can get Lassa fever by touching
the blood, urine, or vomitus of
another person with Lassa fever.
In addition to fever, Lassa fever patient may

have: sore throat, back pain, cough,
headache, red eyes, vomiting, or chest pain.
To prevent Lassa fever, keep your

food and water covered.
There is no injection or vaccine to prevent
Lassa fever. To prevent Lassa fever, we must
prevent its spread by rats.
You can get Lassa fever by touching, playing

with, or cutting up a rat’s dead body.
ANNEX 14 Conducting In-Service Training for VHF
Isolation Precautions
In-service training for VHF Isolation Precautions should be ongoing. Provide

training about VHF Isolation Precautions during supervisory visits, staff meetings
or conferences. Also use other channels such as newsletters, bulletins and
job-aids to provide health facility staff with information and reinforce the use of
Training in skills is most effective if health staff receive information, see examples,
and have an opportunity to practice the skills they are learning. Make sure that
training sessions for each topic include relevant examples and opportunities for
meaningful practice.
Conduct training sessions in small groups with each category of health worker.
• Present information with charts, pictures, posters or information written on

a flipchart or chalkboard. Use drawings from this manual to illustrate the
topic you are presenting.
• Give examples of the skills you would like the health staff to use. For
example, demonstrate the steps for handwashing as you explain aloud
what you are doing.
• Provide the materials and supplies that health staff need to practice the
skill. For example, provide two buckets of clean water, soap and clean,
one-use towels. Ask health workers one at a time to practice washing their
hands. Ask for feedback from the rest of the group about what was done
well and where improvement is needed.
• Provide feedback to the health staff and answer questions. Conclude the
training by summarizing the steps presented in the session. Provide a
job-aid or handout to tape on a wall to remind health facility staff about the
skills they learned in the session.
• Routinely monitor supplies and equipment to make sure that the supplies
for doing the desired skill are available. During supervisory visits, be sure
to acknowledge when you see health staff using the skills well. When
problems occur, find out what has caused them, and take steps to solve
them so that health staff can continue to use the practices consistently.
The following is a sample agenda for in-service training. It describes how to

include topics about VHF Isolation Precautions during monthly staff meetings.
Adapt it to the schedule for your health facility.
185
Annex 14
Month VHF Isolation Precautions Topic
January 1. Disease Transmission in the Health Care Setting

2. Identifying Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers: When to Suspect a VHF
3. General Information about Standard Precautions
4. Handwashing
February 1. Recommended Protective Clothing for VHF

2. Practice Putting On and Taking Off Protective Clothing
March 1. Preparing Disinfectants

2. Using Disinfectants
April 1. Selecting Disposal Sites and Planning Security Barriers

2. Building an Incinerator
May 1. Maintaining an Incinerator

2. Preparing a Pit for Burning Infectious Waste
June 1. Safe Use and Disposal of Sharp Instruments

2. Making a Sharps Container
July 1. Assessing Inventory of Protective Clothing

2. Identifying Items to Use When Recommended Protective Clothing is not
Available
August 1. Sites for Isolation Area (Patient Room and Changing Room); Security Barriers
2. Planning to Set Up an Isolation Area
September 1. Assessing Available Supplies for Isolation Area

2. Identifying Items to Use When Recommended Supplies are not Available
October 1. Selecting and Training Caregiving Family Members: VHF, Protective Clothing
November 1. Using VHF Isolation Precautions during Patient Care

2. Disinfecting Thermometers, Stethoscopes and Blood Pressure Cuffs
3. Disinfecting Used Needles and Syringes
December 1. Procedures for Responding to Accidental Exposures

2. Standard Precautions -- Especially Handwashing after Examining Patients with
Fever
186
ANNEX 15 Local Resources for Community

Mobilization and Education
Section 8 of this manual describes how to develop community education in an

urgent situation. The first step is to identify key community resources such as
groups who know the community and already have access to it. Information
about each key community resource can be recorded on the following chart. Use
the chart as a reference to identify appropriate community resources that can be
called upon when a VHF occurs.
187
Annex 15
Local Resources for Community Mobilization and Education
Representative or
Organization Leader and Human Available Task
Expertise Contacted?
or Group Locating Resources Equipment Assigned
Information
188
ANNEX 16 International and Regional Contacts
SWITZERLAND World Health Organization (WHO)

Division of Emerging and other Communicable Diseases Surveillance
and Control (EMC)
Dr David L. Heymann
20 Avenue Appia, CH-1211 Genève 27, Switzerland
Tel: 41-22-791-2660/41-22-791-2661
Fax: 41-22-791-4198
E-mail: HEYMANND@WHO.CH
ZIMBABWE WHO Regional Office for Africa

Dr D. Barakamfitiye
Director, Prevention and Control of Diseases
Medical School, C Ward, Parirenyatwa Hospital, Mazoe Street
P.O.Box BE 773, Belvedere, Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel: 1-407-733-9236
Fax: 1-407-733-9360
E-mail: BARAKAMFITIYED@HTSD.COM at INET
Dr A. Ndikuyeze, Regional Adviser, Prevention and Control of Diseases

Medical School, C Ward, Parirenyatwa Hospital, Mazoe Street
P.O.Box BE 773, Belvedere, Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel: 1-407-733-9240
Fax: 263-479-1214
E-mail: NDIKUYEZEA@SERVER.WHOAFR.ORG
WHO Collaborating Centres for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers
UNITED STATES OF Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

AMERICA
National Center for Infectious Diseases
Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases
Special Pathogens Branch
1600 Clifton Road, MS G-14
Atlanta, Georgia 30329-4018, USA
Telephone: 1-404-639-1115
Fax: 1-404-639-1118
E-Mail: CJP0@CDC.GOV
189
Annex 16
UNITED STATES OF US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

AMERICA (USAMRIID)
Fort Detrick, Maryland 21702-5011, USA
Telephone: 1-301-619-4608
Fax: 1-301-619-4625
CENTRAL AFRICAN Institut Pasteur de Bangui

REPUBLIC
Boite Postale 923
Bangui, Central African Republic
Telephone: 236-614-576
Fax: 236-610-109
FINLAND University of Helsinki

Haartman Institute
Department of Virology
P.O.Box 21
SF-Helsinki, Finland
Telephone: 358-0-434-6490
Fax: 358-0-434-6491
FRANCE Institut Pasteur à Paris

28, rue du Dr Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
Telephone: 33-1-4061-3088
Fax: 33-1-4061-3151
GERMANY Philipps-University
Institute of Virology
Robert-Koch-Str. 17
D-35037 Marburg, Germany
Telephone: 49-6421-28-6253
Fax: 49-6421-28-8962
KENYA Kenya Medical Research Institute

Mbagathi Road
P.O.Box 54628
Nairobi, Kenya
Telephone: 254-2-722-541
Fax: 254-2-725-950
190
International and Regional Contacts
NIGERIA University of Ibadan

College of Medicine
Department of Virology
Ibadan, Nigeria
SOUTH AFRICA National Institute for Virology

Special Pathogens Unit
Private Bag X4
Sandringham 2131, Zaloska 4
Republic of South Africa
Telephone: 27-11-882-9910
Fax: 27-11-882-0596
SWEDEN Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control

S-105 21 Stockholm, Sweden
Telephone: 46-8-735-1300
Fax: 46-8-735-6615
UNITED KINGDOM Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research

Division of Pathology
Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
Telephone: 44-198-061-2224
Fax: 44-198-061-2731
191
Annex 16
192
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196
Index
Accidental exposure 81-82, 120

Requirements 31-32
Advance preparation for VHF Isolation

Security 37-38
Precautions
Supplies 34-36
Assessing readiness 116-118

Isolation area (changing room)
In-service training 185-186

Checklist of supplies 41, 141
Preparing for outbreak 146-147

Sample layout 32, 33
Staff training 118-119

How to set up 37
Supplies checklists 41-42, 123-131, 141-142
Isolation area (patient area)
Burial 45, 48, 49, 97-99

Checklist of supplies 42, 142
Community mobilization 103-112

Sample layout 32, 33
Diagnostic testing
Posters 26, 165-169, 181-184
Laboratory testing 171-172

Protective clothing
Skin biopsy 173, 175-179
Making protective clothing 149-152
Disinfectants
Order for putting on clothing 53-56
Bleach solutions 34, 41-42, 68-71, 128-129,

Order for taking off clothing 57-62
141-142, 161
Purchasing protective clothing 153-155
Other chlorine products 161

Recommended items 45-46
Soapy water solution 34, 41-42, 72, 141-142
Apron 48-49
Disinfection
Boots 47
Bedding 80-81
Eyewear 52
Bedpan 76
Gloves 46, 49-50
Body of deceased patients 97-98

Gown 47-48
Boots 57, 79
Head cover 51-52
Gloved hands 73
Mask 50-51
Gloves, reusable 74
Scrub suit 46
Infectious waste 78
Who needs to wear protective clothing 45
Laundry 79
Needles and syringes

Standard Precautions 11
Disposable 15-16
Handwashing 12-13, 116, 133
Reusable 15
Minimum level for your health facility 12
Patient’s utensils 76
Disposal of sharp instruments 14-16, 133
Spills 77-78
Precautions 133-134
Thermometers and stethoscopes 75-76

Viral haemorrhagic fevers
Vehicles, after transporting bodies 99

Case definitions 145, 146
Water, drinking and cleaning 157-159

Clinical features 137, 138
What to disinfect 67
Epidemiology 135-136
Family
General 3, 119
Role in patient care 39-40

Prevention 139
Burial 97
Reporting 27
Suspecting 21-23
Glossary 8
Transmission 3, 4, 120
Isolation area 117

VHF Coordinator
Plan 32, 143-144
Role 18, 115-116
Purpose 31
Selection 18, 115-116
197
VHF Isolation Precautions
Adapting for a large number of patients
145-147
Recommended precautions 17, 120
Reducing risk of transmission 17, 25-26
When to begin using 22, 23, 25, 26
Who needs to use 16, 25, 117-118
Waste disposal
Incinerator 86
Items to be disposed of 85
Methods 85-86
Pit 92
Making an incinerator 89-91
Selecting and training staff 87-88
Selecting site 89
Security 93
198

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Infection Control for

Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers

World Health Organization

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES

Special Pathogens Branch

Guenael Rodier, M.D., Chief

Epidemiological Surveillance and Epidemic Response

Developed and written by:

Ethleen Lloyd, M.S., C.H.E.S., Health Communication Specialist

Special Pathogens Branch (CDC)

Helen Perry, M.A., Educational Design Specialist

Special Pathogens Branch (CDC)

Layout and design by:

Lilien Yang, M.S., Visiting Fellow

Special Pathogens Branch (CDC)

Willie Richardson, A.A., Visual Information Specialist

for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers

in the African Health Care Setting

This manual was prepared by:

World Health Organization: Division of Emerging and Other Communicable Diseases -­

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers: An Overview 3

How VHF Is Transmitted in the Health Care Setting 4

What Is in This Manual 5

Who the Manual Is For 5

How to Use the Manual 6

Glossary for Use with This Manual 8

Section 1 Use Standard Precautions with All Patients 9

1.1 Use Standard Precautions 11

1.2 Establish and Maintain a Minimum Level of Standard

1.3 Establish Routine Handwashing 12

1.4 Handle and Dispose of Sharp Instruments Safely 14

1.5 Disinfect Reusable Needles and Syringes Safely 15

1.6 Disinfect Disposable Needles and Syringes That Must Be

1.7 Use VHF Isolation Precautions 16

1.8 Select a VHF Coordinator 18

Section 2 Identify Suspected Cases of VHF 19

2.1 Use Information from Previous Outbreaks to Suspect a VHF 22

2.2 Begin VHF Isolation Precautions 25

2.4 Report the Suspected Case to the Health Authorities 27

2.5 Identify Patient’s Contacts and Travel History 28

Section 3 Isolate the Patient 29

3.1 Select Site for the Isolation Area 31

3.2 Plan How to Arrange the Isolation Area 32

3.3 Gather Recommended Supplies 34

3.3.1 Plan Disinfection for VHF-Contaminated Items 34

3.3.2 Gather Supplies for the Patient Area 35

3.3.3 Gather Supplies for the Changing Room 36

3.3.4 Arrange for Storing of Supplies Outside the Changing

3.4 Set Up Changing Rooms 37

3.5 Place Security Barrier Around Isolation Area 37

3.6 Consult Family Members about Patient Care 39

Check List: Supplies for a Changing Room 41

Check List: Supplies for Patient Area 42

Section 4 Wear Protective Clothing 43

4.1 Specify Who Should Wear Protective Clothing 45

4.2 Gather a Supply of Protective Clothing 46

4.3 Put On Protective Clothing 53

4.4 Take Off Protective Clothing 57

World Health Organization: Division of Emerging and Other Communicable Diseases -