Application Note

Dielectric Analysis of High Voltage Power Transformers

Author
Martin Anglhuber | martin.anglhuber@omicron.at

Date
30.10.2017

Related OMICRON Product

CPC 100, CPC 80, TD1, DIRANA

Application Area
Power Transformers, Bushings

Version
v1.1

Document ID
ANP_15008_ENU

Abstract
This Application Note gives an overview of the dielectric tests which can applied to power transformers and
bushings. It presents the different types of field tests, shows the background of each individual test, where and
how it is applied and which information can be derived from it.

© OMICRON Page 1 of 21
Content

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................4
2 Dielectric properties of insulation systems ........................................................................................4
2.1 Dielectric properties of paper and pressboard................................................................................4
2.2 Dielectric properties of oil ...............................................................................................................5
2.3 Dielectric properties of power transformer oil-paper insulations ....................................................6
2.4 Dielectric response of bushings ......................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Oil-impregnated paper (OIP) bushings ............................................................................................. 7
2.4.2 Resin impregnated (RIP) and resin bonded paper (RBP) bushings .................................................. 7
3 Dielectric measurement methods for field tests ................................................................................8
3.1 Measurements at a single frequency..............................................................................................8
3.2 Measurements at a limited frequency range (15 Hz to 400 Hz) .....................................................8
3.3 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”) ......................................................................8
3.4 Broadband dielectric measurements ..............................................................................................8
3.5 DC measurements ..........................................................................................................................9
4 Types of power transformer .............................................................................................................. 10
4.1 2 winding transformers ................................................................................................................ 10
4.2 3 winding transformers ................................................................................................................ 11
4.3 Autotransformers with accessible tertiary winding ...................................................................... 12
4.4 Autotransformers without accessible tertiary winding ................................................................. 12
5 Performing dielectric measurements on power transformer ......................................................... 13
5.1 Preparations ................................................................................................................................ 13
5.2 Measurements at line frequency ................................................................................................. 13
5.3 Measurements at 15 Hz to 400 Hz .............................................................................................. 14
5.4 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”) ................................................................... 14
5.5 Broadband dielectric measurements ........................................................................................... 15
6 Measurements on bushings .............................................................................................................. 17
6.1 Measurements at line frequency on bushings ............................................................................. 17
6.2 Measurements at 15 Hz to 400 Hz on bushings ......................................................................... 17
6.3 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”) on bushings ............................................... 18
6.4 Broadband dielectric measurements on bushings ...................................................................... 19
7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 19

© OMICRON 2015 Page 2 of 21

 Please use this note only in combination with the related product manual which contains several important
safety instructions. The user is responsible for every application that makes use of an OMICRON product.

OMICRON electronics GmbH including all international branch offices is henceforth referred to as OMICRON.

© OMICRON 2015. All rights reserved. This application note is a publication of OMICRON.
All rights including translation reserved. Reproduction of any kind, for example, photocopying, microfilming, optical
character recognition and/or storage in electronic data processing systems, requires the explicit consent of OMICRON.
Reprinting, wholly or in part, is not permitted.
The product information, specifications, and technical data embodied in this application note represent the technical status
at the time of writing and are subject to change without prior notice.
We have done our best to ensure that the information given in this application note is useful, accurate and entirely reliable.
However, OMICRON does not assume responsibility for any inaccuracies which may be present.
OMICRON translates this application note from the source language English into a number of other languages. Any
translation of this document is done for local requirements, and in the event of a dispute between the English and a non-
English version, the English version of this note shall govern.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 3 of 21

1 Introduction
Power transformers are the most expensive assets used in power transmission and distribution.
Their owners expect a long working life without unplanned outages.
In order to fulfill this task, the transformer has to be in healthy condition which has to be verified by
diagnostic measures so measures can be taken if the status should not be optimal to prevent failures.
One group of diagnostic methods are dielectric measurements. Their scope is to identify the status of
the insulation of the power transformer and its bushings. The integrity of these insulations is one basic
requirement for their operation.
During the last decades, a variety of different types of dielectric measurements have been developed.
The common basis of all those dielectric diagnostic measurement techniques is that they are non-
invasive and identify capacitance and losses of the insulation they are applied on. Their difference is
the investigated frequency range, the applied voltage and the assessment technique used to interpret
the results. Thereby, the different techniques provide different information about the measured
insulation.
The scope of this paper is to present the different types of dielectric measurements, show their
strengths and limitations and the conclusions which can be drawn from the results. The focus is on
the diagnostic of the transformer insulation and the insulation of the bushings.

2 Dielectric properties of insulation systems

For the understanding of various effects regarding dielectric measurements on high voltage assets, it
is helpful to look at the dielectric properties of the individual components of their insulation. The next
chapters shortly describe the dielectric properties of paper/pressboard, oil and resin bonded and resin
impregnated paper. For a detailed description of dielectric properties, please refer to the cited
literature.

2.1 Dielectric properties of paper and pressboard

The dielectric properties of paper and pressboard are quite similar [1]. In Figure 1, the dielectric
properties of oil impregnated pressboard with various water contents are displayed. The influence of
the water is dominant at lower frequencies where water increases both polarization and conductivity
[1] [2]. Dielectric properties at line frequency and above are only slightly influenced; a significant
influence is visible only where there is higher water content.

Figure 1: Dielectric properties of oil impregnated pressboard at different water contents at 20°C.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 4 of 21

 The dielectric response of paper and pressboard is also dependent on temperature (Figure 2).
Therefore, measuring the temperature is always essential when measuring dielectric properties.

Figure 2: Dielectric properties of oil impregnated pressboard with a water content of 2 wt.% at different temperatures.

2.2 Dielectric properties of oil

The dielectric properties of mineral oil show a simpler behavior than those of pressboard (Figure 3).
They can be sufficiently modelled with a single conductivity and permittivity for low field strengths [1]
[2].

Figure 3: Dielectric properties of mineral oil with a conductivity of 1 pS/m at 20°C.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 5 of 21

2.3 Dielectric properties of power transformer oil-paper insulations
The dielectric properties of a combined oil paper insulation in a power transformer are dependent on
a broad range of parameters such as:
• Temperature
• Oil conductivity
• Internal geometry (amount of barriers and spacers)
• Water content in the paper and pressboard insulation
Additionally, the dielectric properties are also dependent on frequency. A closer look shows the
influence factors mentioned before are dominant at different frequencies (Figure 4). A higher oil
conductivity or temperature will cause the tan(δ) curve to shift towards higher frequencies whereas a
higher water content will increase the tan(δ) at higher and lower frequencies but show nearly no
influence in between (Figure 4). The influence of the water content at higher frequencies is much less
than at lower frequencies and usually not visible until the water content has reached high values.
Additionally, the values at higher frequencies are also influenced by the geometry of the transformer
insulation. Therefore, for moisture assessment, the dominant part of the water content at lower
frequencies provides much better and much more reliable results. Using high frequencies for water
content determination cannot be recommended as the dielectric properties are more dependent on
the oil conductivity than the water content (Figure 5). A high tan(δ)/power factor value at power
frequency does not provide information whether the reason is a high water content or a high oil
conductivity (Figure 5). The latter can achieve values from 0.1 pS/m and below for new oil up to
hundreds of pS/m for heavily aged oil.

Figure 4: Dielectric properties of a power transformer oil-paper High- to the Low-voltage winding insulation (CHL)

Figure 5: Simulated dependence of tan(δ) at 50 Hz for a power transformer at two different oil conductivities

© OMICRON 2015 Page 6 of 21

2.4 Dielectric response of bushings
2.4.1 Oil-impregnated paper (OIP) bushings
Contrary to power transformers, the insulation of oil-impregnated paper (OIP) bushings between
measurement tap and inner conductor consists mainly of tightly wrapped paper with a quite low
content of oil. Nonetheless, the same moisture assessment can also be used for other oil paper
insulated assets with a high content of wrapped paper like bushings and instrument transformers [3].
The response of such assets is usually more similar to the response of pure paper or pressboard than
the response of power transformers (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Dielectric responses of OIP bushings

2.4.2 Resin impregnated (RIP) and resin bonded paper (RBP) bushings
As RIP and RBP bushings are not an oil-paper insulation, the assessment of those bushings has to
be different. Direct moisture determination is not possible but the dielectric response is also dependent
on moisture in the insulation. Usually, bushings of the same type are compared at about the same
temperature. Increased losses in single bushings are signs a higher water content.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 7 of 21

3 Dielectric measurement methods for field tests
Although it is theoretically possible to perform a dielectric measurement at any frequency and any
voltage, several groups of measurement devices have formed themselves for field test of high voltage
equipment. Therefore, the following chapters will highlight the features and the practical use of each
of the test methods.

3.1 Measurements at a single frequency

Dielectric measurement at a single frequency are usually performed at the line frequency of the
system, usually 16 2/3 Hz, 50 Hz or 60 Hz. As interference at the same frequency from a live system
nearby has to be expected in field use, usually a high voltage source is required to achieve a suitable
signal to noise ratio, making the test equipment often quite big and heavy.
The advantage of testing at the line frequency of the asset is that all determined parameter
(capacitance, tan(δ)…) apply also in the real use of the asset.

3.2 Measurements at a limited frequency range (15 Hz to 400 Hz)

An improved version of the measurement at line frequency is the measurement at a frequency range
including line frequency. A typical frequency range is 15 Hz to 400 Hz. Due to the increased frequency
range, the frequency dependency of dielectric properties can be analyzed. Although the still limited
frequency range does not allow for a separation of the multiple influence factors (see Figure 4), often
some further conclusions regarding the status of the asset can be drawn.
Dielectric properties at line frequency can either be measured directly or they can be obtained by
interpolation, thus, a comparison of measured values to reference values at line frequency is also
possible.

3.3 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”)

The usually called “tip up test” is a measurement at a single frequency where the voltage is increased
and the dielectric parameters are measured in a voltage range. Mostly line frequency is used but also
a combination with a frequency range (see previous chapter) is possible.
As the test voltage in the field is usually much below the nominal voltage, the PD inception voltage is
usually not reached so this can’t be used a simplified PD test. Additionally, nearly all insulations
systems used in power transformers show a quite voltage independent dielectric response at lower
field strengths. Nonetheless, there are some defects which can be detected by such a test, like a bad
contact at a measurement tap of a bushing.

3.4 Broadband dielectric measurements

Broadband dielectric measurements are used to measure the dielectric property of an asset in a very
wide frequency range, usually from the lower kHz region to a few mHz or even µHz. There are various
principles, using measurements in frequency as well as time domain. They are called frequency
domain spectroscopy (FDS), polarization depolarization current (PDC), recovery voltage method
(RVM)… Also combinations are possible and can help to combine advantages of different principles.
As all of those measurement principles, when performed in a similar and correct way, can measure
the dielectric properties of the asset in a certain frequency range, the results can be converted to each
other [4] [5]. The most used form of presenting the obtained data is in frequency domain, i.e. the
property is displayed in a chart versus the frequency.
The test devices, especially those who measure data in the frequency domain, usually use electronic
signal generators as transformers can’t be used at such low frequencies and the use also quite low

© OMICRON 2015 Page 8 of 21

 voltages (< 1 kV) for measurement. This makes them very small, lightweight and portable. Values for
line frequency are obtained via interpolation, achieving a very good signal to noise ratio.
The big advantage of using a very broad frequency range is the high sensitivity for different influence
factors. This makes the method highly sensitive for detection of e.g. water and aging [6].
This method is also capable of determining an absolute amount of the water content in oil paper
insulations. Therefore, the broadband dielectric measurement is compared to a simulated
measurement, generated from a database and including the influences of geometry and oil [1] [7] [8].
The latter is achieved by using the so called “X-Y-model” which represents a simplified transformer [9]
[10]. This way, also the dielectric properties of the oil are be determined.

3.5 DC measurements
Another kind of measurement is performed by applying a DC voltage to the asset and measuring the
current at certain times. Values obtained by this measurement are for example the polarization index
(PI), the Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) and the resistivity after a certain time.
Often, those measurements and their assessment are applied for various kinds of assets in exactly
the same way, regardless their completely different kind of insulation system (e.g. PI with same limits
on rotating machines as well as on power transformers), leading to questionable results.
Those “simple” DC measurements mustn’t be confused with broadband dielectric measurements
which also use a DC source like PDC or RVM. The latter allow a much more complex assessment
which considers the whole response to the DC stimulation and they can be treated similar to
broadband dielectric measurements if the correct parameters and evaluations are used.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 9 of 21

4 Types of power transformer
Depending on the connection, different parts of the power transformer insulation are measured. Some
of those are more important for assessing the conditions, others less. In order to visualize the
significant parts of the insulation as well as the best way to measure them, different types of power
transformers are presented. For each, the recommended test setups as well as possible problems are
shown.
It has to be noted that parameters which are important for other measurements like the vector, voltage
class, turn ratio, power rating etc. do not influence the way how a dielectric measurement is performed.
(Nonetheless those values might influence the permitted limits for certain measured parameters.)
Therefore, those aspects are not considered in the following classification. It also makes no difference
for the measurement principle if the transformer is single phase or three phase.

4.1 2 winding transformers

The 2 winding transformer is a very good example to show the different parts of insulations which can
be measured in a transformer, their construction and it is also used to explain the principle of guarding.
A 2 winding transformer with high and low voltage winding provides 3 different insulations which can
be measured (Figure 7): The insulation from the high- to the low-voltage winding CHL, the insulation
from the high-voltage winding to ground CH and the insulation from the low-voltage winding to ground
CL.

Figure 7: Insulation parts for dielectric measurement at a 2 winding transformer

The insulation CHL in case of core type transformer is made of barriers and spacers which give the
insulation mechanical stability and enable the oil flow to cool the windings. Compared to the other
insulation parts, the mayor amount paper is located in the CHL insulation so its properties are highly
influenced by those of the paper. Therefore, when properties of the paper like the water content should
be analyzed, CHL is of the highest importance. Additionally, due to the (from a dielectric point of view)
similar basic composition of this part of the transformer, quite regardless of the design and type, C HL
can be modelled quite well, allowing an assessment of the individual influence of paper and oil [8].
The insulation CH, which is from the high voltage windings to the tank mainly consists of oil. The paper
influence comes usually mainly from the parts of the clamping construction.
The insulation CL, which is mainly from the low voltage windings to the core also consists of oil and
paper, but usually much less paper is present than in the CHL insulation.
If the CHL insulation would be measured by only injecting a voltage at the HV side and measuring the
current at the low voltage side (or vice versa), also the current via the bushings and C H and CL would
be measured (Figure 8). The current via the bushings is also influenced by surface conductivity which
can be significant especially when the bushings are polluted and/or wet.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 10 of 21

 Figure 8: CHL measurement on a 2 winding transformer without guard

In order to eliminate those additional influences and to be able to measure the properties of C HL alone,
the technique of guarding is used. It uses an additional “guard” connection at the measurement device
via which unwanted currents can be “bypassed”. By connecting the tank to guard in the above
example, the currents via the HV bushings and CH can be bypassed (Figure 9). As the guard potential
is identical or at least close to the potential of the measurement input, there will be no current via C L
and the low voltage bushings. This way, only the current via the C HL insulation is measured. With
guarding, the influence of currents which would influence the measurement can be eliminated. This
makes the measurement of selected parts of the insulation possible.

Figure 9: CHL measurement on a 2 winding transformer with guard

4.2 3 winding transformers

In a 3 winding transformer, there are two parts of the insulation which are formed by barriers and
spacers, CHL and the insulation from the low- to the tertiary-voltage winding CLT. Both insulation parts
can be equally used analogue to CHL at a 2 winding transformer for assessing the conditions of oil and
paper.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 11 of 21

 Additionally to the insulation CH which is similar to CH of a 2 winding transformer, there is the insulation
from low-voltage to the tank CL, the insulation from the tertiary winding to the tank and the insulation
from the high voltage winding to the tertiary winding CHT. CT is similar to CL of a 2 winding transformer
whereas CL at a 3 winding transformer is mainly formed by the insulation from LV to the tank and not
to the core limb. CHT is very small and usually not of any specific importance as it is mainly formed by
the stray capacitance from HV to TV via the press construction above and below the winding.
If the measurement device has 2 channels as well as a guard, the insulations C HL and CLT can be
measured at the same time while the influence of bushing currents and C L is minimized by the guard
(Figure 10).

Figure 10: Insulation parts and dielectric measurement at a 3 winding transformer.

4.3 Autotransformers with accessible tertiary winding

An autotransformer with an accessible tertiary winding can be seen as a 2 winding transformer where
the high and low voltage winding are combined and shortened; CHT equals CHL and CT equals CL.
Therefore, for an autotransformer with an accessible tertiary winding, CLT is most relevant when
analyzing the properties of oil and paper.

4.4 Autotransformers without accessible tertiary winding

If an autotransformer has no tertiary winding or it is not accessible, there is only one insulation
available for dielectric measurement, CH. Compared to a 2 winding transformer, it is a combination of
CH and CL but no accessible equivalent to CHL exists.
When performing a dielectric measurement, HV and LV are shortened to prevent induced voltages.
The disadvantage in measuring such a type of transformer is that the insulation C H contains only a
small amount of paper and therefore is mainly dominated by the properties of oil. Additionally, no
guarding can be applied which means the measurement is always influences by the bushings.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 12 of 21

5 Performing dielectric measurements on power transformer

5.1 Preparations
Before any dielectric measurement is performed on a power transformer, all electrical connections to
the bushings have to be disconnected completely. This is not only for safety reasons but also as a
dielectric measurement will measure all parts connected to the system.
Any induced voltage in any winding would cause an induced voltage in the other which can lead to
disturbances of the measurement. Therefore, all windings of the same group (HV, LV, TV…) are
shorted before the measurement. Also the neutral bushing, if available, should be included in the
shorting.
It has to be noted that for all kinds of dielectric measurement the temperature will have a significant
influence on the result. Therefore, it is essential to measure and to note it.

5.2 Measurements at line frequency

Measurements at line frequency provide parameters which can be compared to reference values in
order to see if any differences are visible. Whereas the capacitances are usually not significantly
influenced by small temperature deviations between the measurement and the reference it is
compared to, tan(δ) measurements can only be compared if they have been performed at the same
temperature.
Although a big number of “correction factor tables” exist for various assets, they have proven to work
not reliably as they are not based on any physical principles but on experience values derived from
measurements on a few single assets at different temperatures. As the temperature dependency is in
turn strongly dependent on the condition of the asset and its individual parts, especially the oil
conductivity, it can be problematic to use such “corrected” values to determine the condition of the
asset. It is also possible to compare the measured values of tan(δ) to limits which are available in
various standards and recommendations but also here the temperature dependence has to be
considered.
A survey performed on over 100 power transformers showed the relation of the tan(δ) at 50 Hz to the
water content (Figure 11). This comparison was performed for the tan(δ) at the original temperature
(without any correction). Additionally, the tan(δ) at 20°C was simulated. It is obvious that the tan(δ)
values are highly affected by the temperature correction. Both values (original and corrected) tend to
increase for higher water contents but a clear correlation is not visible, i.e. it is not possible to derive
a specific water content from a measured tan(δ) value as a uncorrected tan(δ) of e.g. 1 % can occur
at transformer with a water content of 1,4 wt.% but also for 3,8 wt.%. Even with the temperature
correction, the span is about the same.

Figure 11: Ratio of tan(δ) at 50 Hz to the water content in the paper at over 100 power transformers. Displayed are the tan(δ)
at the actual temperature (left, blue) and the values simulated at 20°C (right, orange)

© OMICRON 2015 Page 13 of 21

5.3 Measurements at 15 Hz to 400 Hz
Measuring the tan(δ) at a small frequency range close to power frequency, e.g. from 15 Hz to 400 Hz
not only provides information about the losses at power frequency but also shows the slope of the
tan(δ) curve. This provides additional information about the oil conductivity and can help to analyze
whether the high tan(δ) is caused by the oil. Nonetheless, the information of this frequency value is
not sufficient to reliably determine the water content.
Figure 12 shows the tan(δ) curves between 15 Hz and 400 Hz of 4 different power transformers. At
50 Hz, the assets with 0,7 % and 2,3 % of water in the paper insulation show quite identical tan(δ)
values, but when the value is measured at different frequencies, the difference of the curves is clearly
visible. A high negative slope of the curve is an indicator for a high oil conductivity as the red curve
shows. Positive slopes in the whole frequency range indicate usually a very low oil conductivity.

Figure 12: Tan(δ) measurements between 15 Hz and 400 Hz at 4 power transformer at different water contents and oil
conductivities. Temperature is 20°C for all measurements.

5.4 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”)

As the test voltage of usual mobile equipment is much below the rated voltage of the tested power
transformer, there are usually no effects which can be detected by varying the voltage of the dielectric
test. Therefore, those “tip up tests” are usually not performed on the power transformer itself, but only
on the bushings where they can help to detect problems (see chapter 0).

© OMICRON 2015 Page 14 of 21

5.5 Broadband dielectric measurements
The dielectric properties of a large frequency range, including those at lower frequencies (mHz or µHz
region) allow to separate and identify the properties of oil and pressboard in a power transformer (see
chapter 0).
Figure 13 shows the tan(δ) of 4 power transformers in a frequency range from the µHz region up to
some hundred Hz. Each curve shows the characteristic shape which includes a more or less
pronounced “hump” at lower frequencies. The region below the “hump”, around 1 - 2 decades from
the “hump” peak, is highly influenced by the water in the paper insulation. Determining this frequency
region is essential and the measurement, typically starting at higher frequencies, mustn’t be stopped
before this data is obtained. Therefore, setting a sufficiently large frequency region is very important.

Figure 13: Broadband dielectric response of 4 different power transformers at 20°C.

A practical approach is to set the largest range which is possible and to stop the measurement once
the user recognized all the required data has measured. Another frequently used scheme is
performing the measurement over night after the required safety measures have been established.
A survey on over 100 measurements on power transformers clearly shows the stop frequency can’t
be derived from the asset temperature as even quite warm power transformers can require very low
stop frequencies in the µHz region (Figure 14). The stop frequency was defined as the frequency 1.5
decades below the frequency of the “hump”.

Figure 14. Required stop frequency, depending on the transformer temperature in a survey including over 100 power
transformers

© OMICRON 2015 Page 15 of 21

 The assessment of the curves is a complex process as many parameters are influencing the dielectric
properties (Figure 4). It is only possible by the assistance of a computer and a database which contains
dielectric properties of pressboard at various water contents and temperatures. The principle of the
assessment is to select the data set of the database which was measured at the same temperature
as the asset (Figure 15). An initial value for the water content is assumed. Then a certain amount of
barriers and spacers is assumed and a dielectric response of the X-Y-model, which represents a
power transformer with the assumed values of water content, barriers and spacers is simulated. The
simulated dielectric response is compared with the measured dielectric response. If the responses are
different, the parameters (assumed water content, amount of barriers and spacers) are changed and
the dielectric response is again simulated and compared to the measurement. This changing of
assumed parameters is repeated until the simulated response is “fitting” to the measured response,
i.e. until they are identical. Then, the assumed parameter of the “fitting” simulated curve are applied
to the measured curve. This procedure involves thousands of calculations but is performed within
seconds by the use of a computer.

Figure 15: Principle of the water content assessment of power transformers

This assessment only can provide good results if the dielectric measurement is representing the oil-
paper insulation of the transformer and is not highly influenced by other factors. Therefore, the
measurement has to be performed at a barrier-spacer insulation, which is CHL for 2 winding
transformers or CHL and CLT for 3 winding transformers. CL and CH are much less representative as
the paper influence in this insulation is less, therefore they should only be used as additional
information or in cases where CHL or CLT is not available like on autotransformers without an
(accessible) tertiary winding. Also guarding is important as it removes not only the influence of surface
currents but also of CH and CL so it is also important if surface currents are not an issue, e.g. on new
transformers.
A measurement device with 2 measurement inputs allows to measure 2 insulations at the same time.
However, some combinations like CHL and CH don’t allow for a guard. Therefore, such combinations
have to be avoided if one of the measurements should be used for water content determination. If all
3 capacitances of a 2 winding transformer should be measured, C HL should be measured alone (with
guarding of the tank) and CH and CL can be measured simultaneously in a second measurement. For
a 3 winding transformer, a simultaneous measurement of CHL and CLT (with guarding of the tank) in a
first and CH and CT in a second measurement can be performed. For the assessment of the water
content, only CHL (and CLT in case of a 3 winding transformer) should be used.
The temperature of the insulation is of essential importance for moisture analysis and therefore should
be carefully noted. Without insulation temperature, a reliable moisture assessment of the solid
insulation is impossible. The temperature is not uniform within the transformer tank. The top oil
temperature correlates best with the average insulation temperature. Therefore, it is recommended to
use this value for the moisture assessment.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 16 of 21

 If the transformer has been switched off prior to the measurement, the temperature will slowly
decrease. Typical temperature time constants for power transformers are 1-2 kelvin per hour. Since a
dielectric response measurement takes typically 1 hour to 3 hours, the decrease in temperature will
be of minor importance. However, the cooling systems of the transformer must be turned off.
In case the transformer was out of service for some time, the ambient temperature helps to estimate
the accuracy of the build-in temperature gauge. The relative humidity in the air and possible rain should
also be noted. Wet bushings increase the guard current and may lead to a changed or even negative
dissipation factor. This is especially important if an insulation system to ground is measured (C L or
CH).

6 Measurements on bushings
In a power transformer, usually more than one bushing of the same type and age is installed which
allows the comparison of dielectric properties between the identical units additionally to a comparison
to fixed limits. Thus, if for example, three identical bushings show identical dielectric properties, the
existence of a problem (which can be detected by dielectric measurements) is also unlikely in any of
them.
In addition, where dielectric measurements are performed on bushings, the temperature dependence
has to be considered. Investigations showed that even complex compensation techniques are not able
to perform such a compensation in all cases [11]. Therefore, the best way to compare dielectric values
of bushings, say to other bushings or to fixed limits, is to perform the measurements at the same or
similar temperature.

6.1 Measurements at line frequency on bushings

The measurement of the capacitance and the dissipation/power factor at line frequency has been a
very common procedure for many decades. Whereas a change in capacitance indicates a breakdown
between capacitive layers, an increase of the dissipation/power factor can also indicate problems such
as water, aging, carbonized parts or bad contacts. Both IEEE and IEC bushing standards require the
measurement of the dissipation factor at room temperature as a routine test on new bushings.
Table 1 shows the limits at line frequency according to IEC 60137 [12] and IEEE C57.19.01 [13] for
different kinds of new bushings.

Table 1. Limits and typical dissipation factor (tan(δ) ) and power factor (PF) values at line frequency according to IEC 60137
and IEEE C57.19.01 at 1.05 Um√3 and 20 °C / 70 °F

6.2 Measurements at 15 Hz to 400 Hz on bushings

The measurement of the dielectric properties, especially the dissipation/power factor at lower
frequencies increases the sensitivity towards moisture and aging. Figure 16 shows the dissipation
factor for a dry and a wet bushing between 20 Hz and 400 Hz. Although the difference is also visible
at line frequency and above, it is most significant at lower frequencies.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 17 of 21

 Figure 16. Frequency variable tan(δ) of a dry and a wet 33 kV OIP bushing at 30°C (data from [14])

Table 2 shows the indicative limits at different frequencies of the Cigre power transformer maintenance
guide [15].

Table 2. Indicative values of tan(δ) limits for bushings at 20 °C [15]

6.3 Measurements using variable voltage (“tip up test”) on bushings

Measurements of bushings at different voltages can reveal problems like bad contacts of
measurement tabs. If such a problem exists, the dissipation/power factor decreases towards higher
voltages (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Tan(δ) measurements of two 123 kV RBP bushings of the same type at different voltages with contact
problems at the measurement tap of bushing C (data from [14])

© OMICRON 2015 Page 18 of 21

6.4 Broadband dielectric measurements on bushings
As the low frequency area is most sensitive towards water and aging, broadband dielectric
measurements can be used to detect small changes in the water content and are therefore also
applicable for new bushings for example for quality control.
Broadband dielectric measurements of Oil Impregnated Paper (OIP) bushings also allow an
assessment of the absolute water content with a procedure which is similar to the assessment of
power transformers [16]. A determination of the absolute water content is not possible for other kinds
of bushings like RIP or RBP as the database is only valid for pure oil-cellulose insulations [8]. However,
the water content is also influencing the dielectric properties of those insulation systems so changes
can be detected by comparing different measurements.

7 Conclusion
Dielectric measurements help to detect various problems on power transformers and bushings. The
different types of dielectric measurements allow for the identification of specific problems (Table 3).
For the transformer insulation for example, a broadband dielectric measurement will provide not only
the absolute water content in the cellulose insulation but also the oil conductivity. On bushings, a “tip-
up”-test with increasing voltage could reveal possible contact problems which can hardly be detected
by other tests. By choosing the correct tests, engineers can detect issues on power transformers and
bushings and propose maintenance before failures occur.

Table 3. Summary of detectable problems with the different types of dielectric tests

© OMICRON 2015 Page 19 of 21

References

[1] M. Koch, Reliable Moisture Determination in Power Transformers, Sierke Verlag, 2008.

[2] CIGRE, "CIGRE Technical Brochure 254: Dielectric Response Methods for Diagnostics
of Power Transformers," CIGRE, 2002.

[3] M. K. M. K. A. T. Stephanie Raetzke, "Condition assessment of instrument transformers

using Dielectric Response Analysis," in CIGRE paper B2: PS2, Paris, 2012.

[4] W. S. Zaengl, "Dielectric spectroscopy in time and frequency domain for HV power
equipment. I. Theoretical considerations," IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 19,
no. 5, pp. 5-19, 2003.

[5] A. K. Jonscher, Dielectric relaxation in Solids, Chelsea Press, 1983.

[6] W. S. Zaengl, "Applications of Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time and Frequency Domain

for HV Power Equipment," IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 9-22,
2003.

[7] CIGRE, "CIGRE Technical Brochure 414: Dielectric Response Diagnoses For
Transformer Windings," CIGRE, 2010.

[8] M. Krueger and M. Koch, "A fast and reliable dielectric diagnostic method to determine
moisture in power transformers," in IEEE International Confrerence on Condition
Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), 2008.

[9] U. Graevert, "Dielectric Response Analysis of Real Insulation Systems," in Proceedings

of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on Solid Dielectrics (ICSD), 2004.

[10] T. Leibfried, A. J. Kachler, A. Küchler, W. S. Zaengl, V. D. Houhanessian and B.

Breitenbauch, "Ageing and Moisture Analysis of Power Transformer Insulation
Systems," in CIGRE Session, Paris, 2002.

[11] M. Puetter, I. Hong, M. Anglhuber, M. Krueger and M. Koch, "New Diagnostic Tools for
High Voltage Bushings by Considering the Temperature Dependency," in International
Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Jeju, Korea, 2014.

[12] IEC 60137: Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1000 V, 2008.

[13] IEEE Std C57.19.01: Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for Outdoor
Apparatus Bushings, 2000.

[14] M. Krueger, A. Kraetge, M. Puetter and L. Hulka, "New diagnostic tools for high voltage
bushings," in CIGRE VI Workspot – international workshop on power transformers, Foz
do Iguacu, Brazil, 2010.

[15] CIGRE, "Technical Brochure 445: Guide for Transformer Maintenance," 2011.

[16] S. Raetzke, M. Koch, M. Krueger and A. Talib, "Condition assessment of instrument

transformers using Dielectric Response Analysis," in CIGRE paper B2: PS2, Paris, 2012.

© OMICRON 2015 Page 20 of 21

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