R. L. Geiger and E.

Sánchez-Sinencio, "Active Filter Design Using Operational Transconductance Amplifiers: A Tutorial,"

IEEE Circuits and Devices Magazine, Vol. 1, pp.20-32, March 1985.

Active Filter Design Using Operational

Transconductance Amplifiers: A Tutorial
Randall L. Geiger and Edgar Sánchez-Sinencio

This question is currently difficult to answer for two

reasons. First, there is a near void in the literature of active
filter structures employing the alternative amplifier types.
Abstract
Second, the evolution of good integrated transresistance,
Basic properties of the Operational Transconductance transconductance, and current amplifiers has not kept pace
Amplifier (OTA) are discussed. Applications of the OTA in with that of the voltage amplifiers, although a few devices
voltage-controlled amplifiers, filters, and impedances are in these alternate categories are commercially available (e.g.,
presented. A versatile family of voltage-controlled filter transconductance amplifiers such as the CA 3080 and LM
sections suitable for systematic design requirements is 13600 and transresistance amplifiers such as the LM 3900)
described. The total number of components used in these
[l]-[5]. Comparisons of some characteristics of these
circuits is small, and the design equations and voltage-control
characteristics are attractive. Limitations as well as practical
amplifiers were recently discussed by Brugger et al. [40].
considerations of OTA based filters using commercially In this paper, basic first- and second-order structures
available bipolar OTAs are discussed. Applications of OTAs using the transconductance amplifier (often termed the
in continuous-time monolithic filters are considered. operational transconductance amplifier: OTA) are
discussed. It is shown that these structures offer
improvements in design simplicity and programmability
when compared to op amp based structures as well as
Introduction reduced component count.
Many of the basic OTA based structures use only OTAs
The conventional operational amplifier (op amp) is used as and capacitors and, hence, are attractive for integration.
the active device in the vast majority of the active filter Component count of these structures is often very low
literature. For design purposes, the assumption that the op (e.g., second-order biquadratic filters can be constructed
amp is ideal A v = ∞ , R in = ∞ , R o = 0 is generally with two OTAs and two capacitors) when compared to
made, and large amounts of feedback are used to make the VCVS designs. Convenient internal or external voltage or
filter gain essentially independent of the gain of the op amp. current control of filter characteristics is attainable with
A host of practical filter designs have evolved following this these designs. They are attractive for frequency referenced
approach. It has also become apparent, however, that (e.g., master/slave) applications. Several groups have
operational amplifier limitations preclude the use of these recently utilized OTAs in continuous-time monolithic filter
filters at high frequencies, attempts to integrate these filters structures [28] - [40].
have been unsuccessful (with the exception of a few non- From a practical viewpoint, the high-frequency
demanding applications), and convenient voltage or current performance of discrete bipolar OTAs, such as the CA
control schemes for externally adjusting the filter 3080, is quite good. The transconductance gain, gm, can be
characteristics do not exist. varied over several decades by adjusting an external dc bias
With the realization that the BJT and MOSFET are current, IABC. The major limitation of existing OTAs is the
inherently current and transconductance amplifiers, restricted differential input voltage swing required to
respectively, the following question naturally arises. Can maintain linearity [5]. For the CA 3080, it is limited to
any improvements in filter characteristics, performance, or about 30 mV p-p to maintain a reasonable degree of
flexibility be obtained by using one of the other basic types linearity. Although feedback structures in which the
of amplifiers (e.g., transconductance, current, or sensitivity of the filter parameters are reduced (as is the
transresistance) in place of a voltage amplifier (or goal in op amp based filter design) will be discussed, major
specifically the operational amplifier) as the basic active emphasis will be placed upon those structures in which the
device in a filter structure? standard filter parameters of interest are directly
proportional to gm of the OTA. Thus, the gm will be a
design parameter much as are resistors and capacitors. Io = gm(V+ - V-) (2)
Since the transconductance gain of the OTA is assumed
proportional to an external dc bias current, external control
of the filter parameters via the bias current can be obtained. As shown in the model, the input and output impedances in
Most existing work on OTA based filter design the model assume ideal values of infinity. Current control of
approached the problem by either concentrating upon the transconductance gain can be directly obtained with
applying feedback to make the filter characteristics control of IABC- Since techniques abound for creating a
independent of the transconductance gain or modifying current proportional to a given voltage, voltage control of
existing op amp structures by the inclusion of some the OTA gain can also be attained through the IABC input.
additional passive components and OTAS. In either case, Throughout this paper, when reference is made to either the
the circuits were typically component intense and current or voltage controllability of OTA based circuits' it is
cumbersome to tune. Some of the earlier works are listed in assumed to be attained via control of gm by IABC.
the Refs. [6]-[16]. Some of the most practical circuits can
be found in the manufacturer's application notes [3]-[5].
Basic OTA Building Blocks

Some of the basic OTA building blocks [6] are introduced

in this section. A brief discussion about these circuits
follows.
Voltage amplifiers using OTAs are shown in Fig. 2, along
with voltage gain and output impedance expressions. The
basic inverting and non-inverting configurations of Figs. 2a
and 2b have a voltage gain directly proportional to gm,
which makes current (voltage) control of the gain via IABC
straightforward. Furthermore, observe that a differential
amplifier can be easily obtained by using both input
terminals of the OTA in Figs. 2a or 2b. The major
limitation of these circuits is the relatively high output
impedance.
A voltage buffer, such as used in Figs. 2c and 2d, is often
Fig.1 OTA. (a) Symbol. (b) Equivalent circuit of ideal OTA. useful for reducing output impedance.* Although the gain
characteristics of these circuits are ideally identical, the
OTA Model performance of the two circuits is not the same. The
performance differences are due to differences in the effects
The symbol used for the OTA is shown in Fig. 1, along of parasitics in the circuits. Specifically, the parasitic
with the ideal small signal equivalent circuit. The output capacitance of the OTA in Fig. 2c, along with
transconductance gain, gm, is assumed proportional* to instrumentation parasitics, parallel the resistor RL in
IABC. The proportionality constant h is dependent upon discrete component structures, thus causing a roll-off in the
temperature, device geometry, and the process [2]. frequency response of the circuits. In the circuit of Fig. 2d,
the parasitic output capacitance of the OTA is connected
gm = hIABC (1) across the null port of an op amp and thus has negligible
effects when the op amp functions properly. Likewise,
instrumentation parasitics will typically appear at the low
* A linear dependence on bias current is typically obtained impedance output of the op amp, and thus not have a major
for bipolar OTAs and MOS configurations operating in effect on the performance. As with conventional amplifier
weak inversion. MOS structures operating in the saturation design using resistors and op amp's, the amplifier
region typically exhibit a quadratic dependence on IABC. bandwidth of these structures warrants consideration. For
the circuits of Figs. 2c and 2d, the major factor limiting
The output current is given by
 the bandwidth is generally the finite gain bandwidth
product of the op amps. If the op amps are modeled by the
popular single-pole roll-off model, A(s) = GB/s, and the
OTAs are assumed ideal, it follows that the bandwidth of
the circuits of Fig. 2c and Fig. 2d is GB, independent of the
voltage gain of the amplifier. This can be contrasted to the
bandwidths of GB/K and GB/1 + K for the basic single op
amp non-inverting and inverting amplifiers of gains K and -
K, respectively.
Note that the circuits of Figs. 2a and 2b differ only in the
labeling of the “+” and “-” terminals. In all circuits
presented in this paper, interchanging the “+” and “-”
terminals of the OTA will result only in changing the sign
of the gm coefficient in any equation derived for the original
circuit. Henceforth, it will be the reader's responsibility to
determine when such an interchange provides a useful
circuit.
The circuits of Figs. 2e and 2f are feedback structures.
The circuit of Fig. 2e offers gains that can be continuously
adjusted between positive and negative values with the
parameter gm. By interchanging the + and - terminals of the
OTA, very large gains can be obtained as gm R1 approaches
1 (as Zo approaches infinity). Gain is nonlinearly related to
gm. Control range via gm is reduced in these structures when
compared to the amplifiers of Figs. 2a and 2b. If
components are sized fitly, the gain of these structures can
be made essentially independent of gm (as in the
conventional op amp inverting and non-inverting
configurations) and the output impedances can be made
reasonably small.
The amplifier of Fig. 2g is attractive since it contains no
passive components. Gain adjustment can be attained with
either gm1 or gm2. The total adjustment range of the gain of
this structure is double (in dB) that attainable with the
single OTA structures considered in Figs. 2a and 2b.
Furthermore, if both OTAs are in the same chip, the
variations with temperature of the gm’s are cancelled.
Several standard controlled impedance elements are
shown in Fig. 3, along with the input impedance expression.
These controlled impedances can be used in place of
passive counterparts (when applicable) in active RC
structures to attain voltage control of the filter
characteristics or as building blocks in OTA structures.
The circuit of Fig. 3a is a grounded Voltage Variable
Resistor (VVR). The circuit of Fig. 3b behaves as a floating
VVR, provided gm1 and gm2 are matched. If a mismatch
occurs, the structure can be modeled with a floating VVR
between terminals 1 and 2 of value gm1, along with a voltage
Fig. 2 Voltage amplifiers. (a) Basic inverting. (b) Basic
dependent current source of value (gm1-gm2) V1 driving
noninverting. (c) Feedback amplifier. (d) Noninverting
node 2.
feedback amplifier. (3 Buffered amplifier. (f) Buffered VCVC
feedback. (g) All OTA amplifiers.
Fig. 3 Controlled impedance elements. (a) Single-ended voltage variable resistor (VVR). (b) Floating VVR. (c) Scaled VVR. (d)
Voltage variable impedance inverter. (e) Voltage variable floating impedance. (f) Impedance multiplier. (g) Super inductor. (h)
FDNR.

The circuit of Fig. 3c acts as a scaled VVR. Higher A floating impedance inverter is shown in Fig. 3e. Note
impedances are possible than with the simple structure of that it is necessary to match gm2 and gm3 for proper
Fig. 3a, at the expense of the additional resistors. operation. The circuit of Fig. 3f serves as an impedance
A voltage variable impedance inverter is shown in Fig. 3d. multiplier. That of Fig. 3g behaves as a super inductor and
Note the doubling of the adjustment range of this circuit, as that of Fig. 3h as a FDNR.
with the amplifier of Fig. 2g. Of special interest is the case
where this circuit is loaded with a capacitor. In this case, a First-Order Filter Structures
synthetic inductor is obtained. The doubling of the
adjustment range is particularly attractive for the synthetic A voltage variable integrator structure with a differential
inductor since cutoff frequencies in active filter structures input is shown in Fig. 4a. The integrator serves as the basic
generally involve inductor values raised to the 1/2 power. building block in many filter structures. Two different lossy
By making gm1 = gm2 and adjusting both simultaneously, integrators (first-order lowpass filters) are shown in Figs.
first-order rather than quadratic control of cutoff 4b and 4c. The
frequencies is possible.
 The 3dB cutoff frequency of the lowpass filter of Fig. 5a
is given by the expression
gm
f 3 dB = (3a)
2π C
Linear adjustment of f3dB with gm is attainable with this
circuit while maintaining a unity dc frequency gain. The
structure of Fig. 5b has a fixed pole location and adjustable
dc gain with the transconductance gain gm . If the resistor in
this circuit is replaced with the controlled resistor of Fig.
3a, the circuit would have independently adjustable gain and
break frequency. The highpass structure of Fig. 5c also has
a 3dB cutoff frequency given by

gm
f 3 dB = (3b)
2π C

It can be observed that the characteristic networks for the

Figure 4. Integrator structures. (a) Simple. (b) Lossy. (c) lowpass and highpass structures of Figs. 5a and 5c are
Adjustable. identical, and thus they have the same pole structures.
They differ only in where the excitation is applied.
circuit of Fig. 4b has a loss that is fixed by the RC product
and a gain controllable by gm. The circuit of Fig. 4c offers The circuits of Figs. 5d and 5e act as shelving equalizers.
considerably more flexibility. The pole frequency can be The response of both circuits can be continuously changed
adjusted by gm2 (interchanging the input terminals of OTA from lowpass to allpass to highpass by adjusting gm as can
2 actually allows the pole to enter the right half plane), and be seen from Fig. 6. The basic difference in the two circuits
the dc gain can be subsequently adjusted by gm1. It should is that the former has a fixed pole and adjustable zero,
be noted that the structure of Fig. 4c contains no resistors whereas the circuit of Fig. 5e has an adjustable pole and
and can be obtained from the circuit of Fig. 4b by replacing fixed zero. As for the circuit of Fig. 5b, additional flexibility
the resistor R with the controlled impedance of Fig. 3a. can be obtained if the grounded resistor in the circuit of Fig.
Another lossy integrator without adjustable gain but with 5d is replaced with the controlled resistor of Fig. 3a.
adjustable pole location and a very simple structure is
shown in Fig. 5a. The circuit of Fig. 5f acts as a lowpass filter with high-
When designing cascaded integrator-based filter frequency gain determined by the C1: C2 ratio. Both the
structures, it may be the case that the input impedance to pole and zero in this circuit are adjustable through the
some stages is not infinite. If that be the case, a unity gain parameter gm but the ratio is held constant. This preserves
buffer would be required for coupling, since the output the shape in the transfer characteristics and thus represents
impedances of all integrators in Fig. 4 are nonzero. Note, only a frequency shift in the response, as shown in Fig. 6f.
however, that no buffer is needed for the cascade of any of
the integrators of Fig. 4, since the input impedance to each The circuit of Fig. 5g utilizes an additional OTA and
circuit is ideally infinite. offers considerable flexibility. If either gm1 or gm2 fixed, the
First-order filters can be readily built using OTAS. circuit behaves much like the shelving equalizers discussed
Considerable flexibility in controlling those specific filter above. If gm1 and gm2 are adjusted simultaneously, then a
characteristics that are usually of interest is possible with fixed pole-zero ratio and, hence, shape preserving response
these structures. Several first-order voltage-controlled filters is possible. In this case, the circuit can be lowpass, allpass,
are shown in Fig. 5, and a functional plot of the transfer or highpass, depending upon the gm1 : gm2 ratio. If the “+”
characteristics as a function of the transconductance gains is and “-” terminals of gm1 are interchanged and the
shown in Fig. 6. transconductance gains are adjusted so that gm1 =gm2, the
circuit behaves as a phase equalizer.
 Fig. 5 First-order voltage-controlled filters. (a) Lowpass, fixed dc gain pole adjustable. (b) Lowpass fixed pole, adjustable dc
gain. (c) Highpass, fixed high-frequency gain, adjustable pole. (d) Shelving equalizer, fixed high-frequency gain, fixed pole,
adjustable zero. (e) Shelving equalizer, fixed high-frequency gain, fixed zero, adjustable pole. (f) Lowpass filter adjustable pole and
zero, fixed ration. (g) Shelving equalizer, independently adjustable pole and zero. (h) Lowpass or highpass filter, adjustable zero
and pole, fixed ratio or independent adjustment. (i) Phase shifter, adjustable with gm.
 The circuit of Fig. 5h also preserves the shape of the is changed, all poles and all zeros of the approximating
transfer function, provided gm1 and gm2 are adjusted in such function must be moved simultaneously and with the
a manner that their ratio remains constant. In this case, the appropriate ratio in a constant-Q manner.
shape of the response is determined by the gm1:gm2 and
Cl:C2 ratio. Depending upon these ratios, the response is A group of second-order voltage-controlled filter
either lowpass or highpass in nature, as indicated in Fig. 6h. structures are discussed in this section. Circuits with
constant-Q pole adjustment, circuits with constant
If gm2R = 1, the circuit of Fig. 5i behaves as a phase bandwidth ωo, adjustment, and circuits with independent
equalizer, gm1 can be used to adjust the phase shift. For pole and zero adjustment are presented. Some circuits with
monolithic applications, the resistor R can be replaced with simultaneous constant-Q adjustment of both the poles and
a third OTA, using the configuration of Fig. 3a. zeros are also presented along with a general biquadratic
structure. These structures have immediate applications in
voltage-controlled Butterworth, Chebyschev, and Elliptic
Second-Order Structures designs.

A simple second-order filter structure is shown in Fig. 7a

Second-order filter structures find widespread
[17], [19]. This structure is canonical in the sense that only
applications directly and in the design of higher-order
four components are needed to obtain second-order transfer
filters. Although the emergence of practical voltage or
functions. The output voltage, Vo, is given by the
current-controlled first-order filters and amplifiers has been
expression
slow, even fewer techniques exist for the design of
controlled second- and higher-order structures. Switched-
s 2 C1 C 2 VC + sC1 g m 2 VB + g m1 g m 2 VA
capacitor techniques have been successfully used to build Vo1 = (4)
voltage-controlled filter structures by building a voltage- s 2 C1 C 2 + sC1 g m 2 + g m1 g m 2
controlled oscillator and using the output as the required
clock for the switching of the capacitors. Although useful
The transfer function for the specific excitations at VA, VB,
in some applications, these structures are not continuous
and VC are listed in the Table. Note that for gm1 = gm2 = gm,
time in nature, have limited dynamic range, and are limited
the lowpass, bandpass, highpass, and notch versions of this
to reasonably low-frequency applications. Concentration
circuit all behave as ωo adjustable circuits with fixed pole
here will be on continuous-time voltage controlled
Q's. The pole Q's are determined by the capacitor ratio,
structures.
which can be accurately maintained in monolithic designs. It
is interesting to note that the zeros of the notch circuit also
One common requirement in the design of voltage
move in a constant-Q (i.e. along the jw axis) manner with
controlled filter structures is that the filter characteristics be
the poles, as gm is adjusted.
adjusted in a manner that essentially results in frequency
Occasionally, it is desirable to have circuits in which ωo
scaling. In all-pole applications, such as the lowpass
and Q of the poles can be independently adjusted. Two
Butterworth and Chebyschev case, as well as the bandpass
circuits with these characteristics are shown in Fig. 7b [18],
and highpass versions of these approximations, the
[19], [24] and Fig. 7c [18], [24]. The output voltages for
frequency scaling is tantamount to moving all poles a
these circuits are, respectively,
prescribed distance in a constant-Q manner. Those familiar
with active filter structures will recall that pole movement
s 2 C1 C 2 VC + sC1 g m 2 VB + g m1 g m 2 VA
in second-order structures through the adjustment of a Vo 2 = (5)
single component is always on a circular path (constant ωo) s 2 C1 C 2 + sC1 g m 2 g m 3 R + g m1 g m 2
or on a straight line (constant bandwidth) parallel to the
imaginary axis in the s-plane. The challenges associated
and
with constant-Q pole adjustment through the simultaneous
tuning of two or more components should be obvious.
s 2 C1 C 2 VC + sC1 g m 2 VB + g m1 g m 2 VA
Vo 3 = (6)
A seemingly more difficult situation exists when s 2 C1 C 2 + sg m3 C1 + g m1 g m 2
considering the design of the popular elliptic filters. To
maintain the elliptic characteristics as the cutoff frequency
Fig. 6 Transfer characteristics for first-order structures of Fig. 5. (a) Circuit of Fig. 5a. (b) Circuit of Fig. 5b. (c) Circuit of Fig.
5c. (d) Circuit of Fig. 5d. (e) Circuit of Fig. 5e. (f) Circuit of Fig. 5f. (g) Circuit of Fig. 5g. (h) Circuit of Fig. 5h. (i) Circuit of Fig.
5i.

Table Transfer functions for biquadratic structure of Fig. 7a.

 The circuits of Figs. 7b and 7c can be also used to
implement lowpass, bandpass, highpass, and notch transfer
functions through the proper selection of the inputs as for
the circuit of Fig. 7a.
In the circuit of Fig. 7b, the expressions for ωo and
Q of the poles of the circuit are given by

g m1 g m 2
ωo =
C1 C 2
(7)

and

1 C 2 g m1
Q= (8)
g m 3 R C1 g m 2

The poles can be moved in a constant-Q manner if gm3 is

fixed, and if gm1 = gm2 = gm is adjusted; whereas movement
in a constant ωo manner is attainable if gm3 is adjusted when
gm1 and gm2 remain constant. The independent adjustment
of ωo, and Q is apparent.
For the circuit of Fig. 7c, the expressions for ωo and Q of
the poles become

g m1 g m 2
ωo = (9)
C1 C 2

 C 2  g m1 g m 2
Q =  
 g (10)
 C 1  m3

ωo can be adjusted linearly with gm1 = gm2 = gm and gm3

constant. Such movement is often termed constant
bandwidth movement. If gm1, gm2, and gm3 are adjusted
simultaneously, constant-Q pole movement is possible.
Adjusting gm3 (for Q > 1/2) moves the poles along vertical
lines parallel to the jw axis in the s-plane.

The circuit of Fig. 7d has an output given by

VC C1 C 2 s 2 + VB g m 3 sC1 + g m1 g m 2 VA
Vo 4 = (11)
s 2 C1 C 2 + sC1 g m 3 + g m1 g m 2

The ωo and Q of the poles are, respectively,

Fig. 7 Second-order filter structures.

 g m1 g m 2 Vo  C 2 
ωo = = 
Vi  C 2 + C 3
(12)
C1 C 2 
1 g m1 g m 2 C 2
Q= (13)
 
g m3 C1  s2 + g m1 / C1C 2  (14)
 s2 + sg / (C + C ) + g g / C (C + C ) 
 m2 2 3 m1 m 2 1 2 3 
Although the transfer function is similar to that above,
note that since the coefficient of the s term in the numerator
equals that in the denominator, adjustment of the bandpass
version of this circuit with gm1 = gm2 = gm will result in a
constant bandwidth, constant gain response.
For monolithic structures, it may prove useful to replace
the resistor in Fig. 7b with the OTA structure of Fig. 3a.
Likewise, if the bandwidth adjustment with gm3 is not
needed, it may be desirable to replace the third OTA shown
in Fig. 7c with a fixed resistor in some applications.
Phase equalizers are also possible with the structures
shown in Fig. 7. For example, interchanging the “ + ” and “
- ” terminals of the first two OTAs in Fig. 7c, setting VA =
VB = VC = Vi, and making gm1 = gm2 = gm3 = gm results in a
second-order gm adjustable phase equalizer.

Fig. 9 General biquadratic structure.

This circuit has applications in higher-order voltage-

controlled elliptic filters. For higher-order structures
obtained by cascading these second-order blocks, all gm's
would be made equal and adjusted simultaneously.
Buffering between stages using a standard unity gain buffer
is required to prevent interstage loading. Modifications of
the other circuits in Fig. 7 to obtain ωo and Q adjustable
features is also possible. Although the ratio of the zero
location to pole location can be controlled with the C2/C3
ratio in discrete designs, this may pose some problems in
monolithic structures. One convenient way to control the
pole-zero ratio is to insert the voltage-controlled amplifier
Fig. 8 Elliptic Filter structure. of Fig. 2g between the points x and x' in Fig. 8 and use the
transconductance gain of either of these additional OTAs as
the control variable.
The circuit of Fig. 8 has both poles and zeros that can be The final second-order structure considered here is the
adjusted simultaneously in a constant-Q manner. The general biquad of Fig. 9. The output for this circuit is given
circuit is similar to those shown in Fig. 7a with the by
exception that the capacitor C2 in the previous circuits has
been split to allow for adjusting the pole-zero ratio. The s2 C1C2 VC + sC1g m 4 VB + g m 2 gm 5 VA
Vo = (15)
transfer function of the circuit is given by s2 C1 C2 + sC1g m3 + g m2 g m1
 tuning algorithms that are unwieldy. Alternatives to these
earlier designs using conventional operational amplifiers
have proven to be much better.

Practical Considerations

Although all circuits presented up to this point in this

paper are practical with ideal operational transconductance
amplifiers, existing discrete OTAs are far from ideal. As
mentioned in the introduction, the major limiting factor with
commercially available OTAs is the limited differential
input voltage swing. Recent activity in the literature has
concentrated upon designing OTAs with improved input
characteristics [27]-[28]. Significant improvements in
performance over what is currently available with discrete
OTAs have been demonstrated. An alternative is to use
Fig. 10 Signal conditioner for OTAs. voltage attenuators and buffers at the input of existing
OTAS. This technique is often suggested in the
The potential for tuning the w. and Q for both the poles manufacturer's application notes and is illustrated in Fig.
and zeros (when Vi = VA = VB = VC) to any desired value 10. This technique can be used to obtain reasonable signal
should be apparent. Although somewhat component swings with all circuits discussed up to this point.
intense, it can be argued that if there is to be capability for Although such circuits are useful, a rather high price is paid
completely arbitrary location of a pair of poles and a pair of for this modification. First, the circuit requires many more
zeros via adjustment of the transconductance gain of the components. Second, the finite bandwidth of the op amps
OTA, then at least 4 degrees of freedom and, hence, 4 will limit the frequency response of the OTA structures.
OTAs are required. This circuit uses only one more than Finally, the attenuation of the input signal to the OTA
the minimum! The capability for various types of pole causes
and/or zero movement through the simultaneous adjustment
of two or more of the transconductance gains should also be
apparent. Many other biquadratic structures, some of
which offer more flexibility at the expense of additional
complexity, also exist but are not discussed here.
Emphasis in this section has been placed entirely upon
second-order structures in which the desired filter
characteristics depend directly upon the transconductance
gain of the OTA. Very simple structures in which the filter
characteristics are adjustable through the parameter gm
resulted. As stated in the introduction, gm is readily
controllable by a dc bias current over a wide range of values,
thus making these circuits directly applicable to voltage- Fig. 11 Macromodel of bias current port on bipolar
controlled applications. Several of the more recent works on OTA.
OTA applications [18]-[24] have followed this approach.
Most of the earlier works [7]-[16] and the circuits a serious loss in dynamic range. From a topological point
presented in the manufacturer's application notes [3]-[5] of view, some OTA based structures are inherently more
concentrated upon topologies in which the filter susceptible to differential voltage limitations than others.
characteristics are independent or only mildly dependent This parallels the concern for op amp based active RC
upon the transconductance gain. Most of these structures and switched-capacitor
are very complicated, very component-intense, and require
 Fig. 12 Schemes for obtaining voltage control with the OTA.
thus, the gm of the OTA by an external control voltage, Vc ,

are shown in Fig. 12. The

Fig. 14 Single input-multiple output bias current

generator for monolithic applications.

Fig. 13 Schemes for simultaneous gm adjustment.

structures that the signal amplitudes at the output of Fig. 15 gm attenuator.

internal op amps assume acceptable values. These
considerations become more serious for high Q and high first circuit is the simplest but is very sensitive to small
dynamic range applications. changes of Vc as Vc approaches .6v + V-. In the second
A macro model of the bias current (IABC) input port of a circuit, the control voltage is referenced to zero but the
typical bipolar OTA is shown in Fig. 11. This actually small Vc is sensitive to mismatches between the B-E voltage
forms part of an internal current mirror that is discussed of the transistor and the forward diode voltage drop. In the
later. Several schemes for controlling the current (IABC) and, circuit of Fig. 12c, the control voltage is also referenced to
ground and is not dependent upon the matching or
cancellation of voltages across external forward biased pn
junctions. The zener diode is used to maintain the common more complicated circuits with the same problem are
mode voltage at a reasonable level. The frequency response suggested in the literature [17].
of the op amp is not of concern here since it is used only in Numerous nonlinear applications of OTA structures
the dc control path. It should be noted that the amplifier exist. Suffice it to say that since the amplifier bias current,
bias current is proportional to Vc for all schemes shown in IABC can be considered as a third signal input, simple
Fig. 12. Since IABC can typically be adjusted over several multipliers, modulators, and a host of other nonlinear
decades, all schemes will be very sensitive to small changes circuits are possible. The reader is referred to the
in Vc toward the low current end of the IABC range. application notes for a discussion of some of the nonlinear
Logarithmic amplifiers are often used to control IABC with applications. Some of the structures that use only OTAs
an external control voltage if the wide adjustment range of and capacitors show promise for monolithic applications in
IABC is to be effectively utilized. MOS or bipolar processes. The circuits should offer high-
Many of the filter circuits discussed in the previous frequency continuous-time capabilities. Either external
sections of this paper require the simultaneous adjustment voltage-control or an internal reference circuit to
of matched gm's. Several schemes for achieving this are compensate for process and temperature variations will be
shown in Fig. 13. In the first circuit, it is easy to adjust the necessary to make these circuits practical in demanding
gm's by trimming the resistors for a fixed gm. The circuit is applications.
quite sensitive to the slight differences in the voltage Vd of Finally, it should be noted that some of the filter
Fig. 11a for small values of IABC. The circuit of Fig. 13b structures presented earlier in this paper have a non-infinite
again has Vc referenced to ground and is essentially input impedance, and that the output impedance is
independent of the matching of Vd for the individual OTAs. generally quite high. Cascading of such structures will
The scheme of Fig. 13c is useful if an external single require interstage buffer amplifiers, which will tend to
package pnp current mirror with n outputs is available. A degrade the bandwidth of the overall filter structures.
discrete component version of this mirror would not be Output buffers are also generally required to drive external
practical. loads.
For integrated circuit applications, the amplifier bias
currents of several OTAs are particularly easy to match and Conclusions
control. For monolithic applications, the simultaneous
adjustment of the gain of a large number of OTAs with a A group of voltage-controlled circuits using the OTA as
single dc bias current can be easily attained by using a single the basic active element have been presented. The
input-multiple output current mirror such as is shown in characteristics of these circuits are adjusted with the
Fig. 14. This structure actually replaces the bias current externally accessible dc amplifier bias current. Most of
mirrors on each of the OTAS. The transconductance gains these circuits utilize a very small number of components.
can be ratioed, if desired, by correspondingly ratioing the Applications include amplifiers, controlled impedances, and
emitter areas (or width length ratio for MOS structures) in filters. Higher-order continuous-time voltage-controlled
the outputs of the current mirror. filters such as the common Butterworth, Chebyschev, and
With conventional operational amplifiers, the slew rate, Elliptic types can be obtained. In addition to the voltage-
input impedance, output impedance, and maximum output control characteristics, the OTA based circuits show
current are essentially fixed at the design stage. For OTAS, promise for high-frequency applications where
it is generally the case that these parameters are either conventional op amp based circuits become bandwidth
proportional or inversely proportional to IABC. Thus limited.
adjusting gm via IABC causes all of these parasitic parameters The major factor limiting the performance of OTA based
to change accordingly. Although the user should be filters using commercially available OTAs is the severely
cognizant of the changes in these parameters, the problems limited differential input voltage capability inherent with
they present are manageable. The output capacitance of an conventional differential amplifier input stages. Recent
OTA does cause concern at low output currents and high research results suggested significant improvements in the
frequencies. input characteristics of OTAs can be attained [27]-[28].
Much as in the design of conventional op amp based
circuits, the designer must allow for a dc bias current path
for both input terminals of the OTA. Although the
amplifier of Fig. 15 serves as an effective gm attenuator,
which will prove useful in some applications, the circuit is
References
useless since the required input bias current will cause an
accumulation of charge on the capacitors and eventual
saturation of the OTA. The reader should be cautioned that
[1] H. A. Wittlinger, "Applications of the CA3080 and Amplifiers," Proc. IEEE/ISCAS, pp. 594-597, May
CA3080A High Performance Operational 1983.
Transconductance Amplifiers," RCA Application Note [20] A. R. Saha and R. Nandi, "Integrable Tunable Sinusoid
ICAN-6668. Oscillator Using DVCCS," Electron. Lett., vol. 19, pp.
[2] C. F. Wheatley and H. A. Wittlinger, "OTA Obsoletes 745-746, Sept. 1983.
OP. AMP," P. Nat. Econ. Conf. pp. 152-157, Dec. [21] G. M. Wierzba and S. Esmeliogiu, "Techniques for
1969. Designing Enhanced-Gain-Bandwidth-Product Circuits,"
[3] RCA Electronic Components, Linear Integrated Proc. 26th Midwest Symp. on Circuits and Syst., pp.
Circuits, Model CA3060: Data File 404, Mar. 1970. 602-606. Aug. 1983.
[4] National Semiconductor, Linear Applications [22] R. W. Newcomb and S. T. Liu, "A Voltage Tunable
Handbook, 1980. Active-R Filter," Proc. IEEE/ISCAS, pp. 409-412,
[5] RCA Solid-State Division, Data Book, Linear Integrated May 1984.
Circuits, File No. 475, Mar. 1975. [23] J. Hoyle and E. Sánchez-Sinencio, "Sinusoidal
[6] M. Bialko and R. W. Newcomb, "Generation of All Quadrature OTA Oscillators," Proc. 27th Midwest
Finite Linear Circuits Using the Integrated DVCCS," Symp. on Circuits and Syst., June 1984.
IEEE Trans. on Circuit Theory, vol. CT -18, pp. 733- [24] H. S. Malvar, "Electronically Controlled Active Active-
736, Nov. 1971. C Filters and Equalizers with Operational
[7] M. Bialko, W. Sienko, and R. W. Newcomb, "Active Transconductance Amplifiers," IEEE Trans. Circuits
Synthesis Using the DVCCS/DVCVS," Int. J. of Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-31, pp. 645-649, July 1984.
Theory App., vol. 2, pp. 23-28, 1974. [25] F. Krummenacher, "High -Voltage Gain CMOS OTA for
[8] S. Franco, "Use Transconductance Amplifier to Make Micropower SC Filters," Electron. Lett., vol. 17, pp.
Pro- 160-162, Feb. 1981.
grammable Active Filters," Electronic Design, vol. 24, [26] M. G. Degrauwe, J. Rijmenants, E. A. Vittoz, and J.
pp. 98-101, Sept. 1976. deMan, "Adaptive Biasing CMOS Amplifiers," IEEE J.
[9] F. Atiya, A. Soliman, and T. Saadawi, "Active RC Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-17, pp. 522-528, June
Bandpass and Lowpass Filters Using the 1982.
DVCCS/DVCVS," Electron. Lett. vol. 12, pp. 360-361, [27] K. D. Peterson and R. L. Geiger, "CMOS OTA
July 1976. Structures with Improved Linearity," Proc. 27th
[10] F. Anday, "On the Analysis and Synthesis of Active Midwest Symp. on Circuits and Syst., June 1984.
Networks Containing DVCCS/DVCVS," Proc. IEEE, [28] A. Nedungadi and T. R. Viswanathan, "Design of Linear
pp. 375-376, Mar. 1976. CMOS Transconductance Elements," IEEE Trans. on
[11] F. S. Atiya, A. M. Soliman, and T. N. Saadawi, "Active Circuits and Syst., vol. CAS-31, pp. 891-894, Oct.
RC Nominum Phase Network Using the 1984.
DVCCS/DVCVS," Proc. IEEE, vol. 65, pp. 1606-1607, [29] K. S. Tan and P. R. Gray, "Fully Integrated Analog
Nov. 1977. Filters Using Bipolar-JFET Technology," IEEE J.
[12] A. M. Soliman, "A Grounded Inductance Simulation Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-12, pp. 814-821, Dec.
Using the DVCCS/DVCVS," Proc. IEEE, vol. 66, pp. 1978.
1089-1091, Sept.1978. [30] A. P. Nedungadi and P. E. Allen, "A CMOS Integrator
[13] R. Nandi, "New Ideal Active Inductance and Frequency- for Continuous-Time Monolithic Filters," Proc.
Dependent Negative Resistance Using DVCCS/DVCVS: IEEE/ISCAS, vol. 2, pp. 932-935, May 1984.
Applications in Sinusoidal-Oscillator Realization," [31] G. Tröster and W. Langheinrich, "Monolithic
Electron. Lett., vol. 14, pp. 551-553, Aug. 1978. Continuous Time Analogue Filters in NMOS
[14] I. M. Filanovsky and K. A. Stromsmoe, "More Active- Technology," Proc. IEEE/ISCAS, vol. 2, pp. 924-927,
RC Filters Using DVCCS/DVCVS," Electron. Lett., vol. May 1984.
15 pp. 466-467, Aug. 1979. [32] H. Khorramabadi and P. R. Gray "High-Frequency
[15] D. Patranabis and A. Paul, "Floating Ideal Inductor with CMOS
One DVCCS," Electron. Lett., vol. 15, pp. 545-546, Continuous-Time Filters," Proc. IEEE/ISCAS, vol. 3,
Aug. 1979. pp. 1498-1501, May 1984.
[16] T. Deliyannis, "Active RC Filters Using an Operational [33] K. Fukahori, "A Bipolar Voltage-Controlled Turnable
Transconductance Amplifier and an Operational Filter," IEEE J. Solid -State Circuits, vol. SC-16, pp.
Amplifier," Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl., vol. 8, pp. 39- 729-737, Dec. 1981.
54, Jan. 1980.
[17] A. Urbas and J. Osiwski, "High-Frequency Realization [34] K. W. Moulding, "Fully Integrated Selectivity at High
of C-OT A Second-Order Active Filters," Proc. Frequency Using Gyrators," IEEE Trans. Broadcast.
IEEE/ISCAS, pp. 1106-1109, 1982. Telev, Reg., vol. BTR-19, pp. 176-179, Aug. 1973.
[18] H. S. Malvar, "Electronically Controlled Active Filters [35] H. 0. Voorman and A. Biesheuvel, "An Electronic
with Operational Transconductance Amplifiers," IEEE Gyrator," IEEE J. Solid -State Circuits, vol. SC-7 pp,
Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-29, pp. 333-336, May 469-474, Dec. 1972.
1982. [36] K. W. Moulding and P. J. Ranking, "Experience with
[19] R. L. Geiger and J. Ferrell, "Voltage Controlled Filter High-Frequency Gyrator Filters Including a New Video
Design Using Operational Transconductance
 Delay-Line IC," Proc. 6th European Conf. on Circuit
Theory and Design, pp. 95-98, Sept. 1983.
[37] J. 0. Voorman, W. H. A. Brüls, and J. P. Barth,
"Bipolar Integration of Analog Gyrator and Laguerre
Type Filters (Transconductance-Capacitor Filters),"
Proc. 6th European Conf. on Circuit Theory and
In April 1967, he joined the Petroleum Institute of Mexico,
Design, pp. 108-113, Sept. 1983.
where he was associated with the design of instrumentation
[38] J. 0. Voorman, W. H. A. Brills, and P. J. Barth,
equipment until August 1967. He worked as a Research
"Integration of Analo g Filters in a Bipolar Process,"
Assistant at the Coordinated Science Laboratory at the
IEEE J. of Solid -State Circuits, vol. SC-17, pp. 713-
University of Illinois from September 1971 to August 1973.
722, Aug. 1982.
In 1974, Dr. Sánchez-Sinencio held an industrial post-
[39] K. W. Moulding, J. R. Quarterly, P. J. Rankin, R. S.
doctoral position with the Central Research Laboratories,
Thompson, and G. A. Wilson, "Gyrator Video Filter IC
Nippon Electric Company, Ltd., Kawasaki, Japan. From
with Automatic Tuning," IEEE J. of Solid -State
1976 to 1983, he was the Head of the Department of
Circuits, vol. SC-15, pp. 963-968, Dec. 1980.
Electronics at the Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, Optica y
[40] V. W. Burgger, B. J. Hosticka, and G. S. Moschytz, "A
Electrónica (INAOE), Puebla, Mexico. Dr. Sánchez-Sinencio
Comparison of Semiconductor Controlled Sources for
was a Visiting Professor in the Department of Electrical
the Design of Active RC Impedances," Int. J. of Circuit
Engineering at Texas A&M University during the academic
Theory and Appl., vol. 10, pp. 27-42, 1982.
years of 1979-1980 and 1983-1984, where he is currently a
Professor. He was the General Chairman of the 1983 26th
Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems. He is the
coauthor of the book Switched-Capacitor Circuits (Van
Nostrand-Reinhold, 1984). Dr. Sánchez-Sinencio's present
interests are in the areas of active filter de sign, solid-state
Randall L. Geiger was born in Lexington, Nebraska, on circuits, and computer-aided circuit design. He is a Senior
May 17, 1949. He received the B.S. degree in electrical Member of the IEEE.
engineering and the M.S. degree in mathematics from the
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, in 1972 and 1973,
respectively. He receiv ed the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from Colorado State University, Fort Collins, in
1977.
In 1977, Dr. Geiger joined the Faculty of the Department
of Electrical Engineering at Texas A&M University, College
Station, and currently holds the rank of Associate Professor.
His present research is in the areas of integrated circuit design
and active circuits. He received the Meril B. Reed Best Paper
Award at the 1982 Midwest Symposium on Circuits and
Systems, served as Conference Chairman at the 1983 UGIM
conference, and is currently serving as an Associate Editor for
the IEEE Transactions for Circuits and Systems.
Dr. Geiger is a member of Eta Kappa Nu, Sigma Xi, Pi Mu
Epsilon, and Sigma Tau; he is also a Senior Member of the
IEEE.

Edgar Sánchez-Sinencio was born in Mexico City,

Mexico, on October 27, 1944. He received the degree in
communications and electronic engineering (professional
degree) from the National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico,
Mexico City; the M.S.E.E. degree from Stanford University,
Califomia; and the Ph.D. degree from the University of
Illinois at Champaign -Urbana, in 1966, 1970, and 1973,
respectively.
During his graduate studies, he was awarded with fellowships
from the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization; the Mexican Atomic Energy Commission; and
the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia of Mexico.
From January 1965 to March 1967, he worked with the
Mexican Atomic Energy Commission, as a Design Engineer.