UNIT 4

Levelling

Learning Objectives
• Understanding the concept and purpose of levelling.
• Terms like Level surface, datum reduced level, and bench make.
• Temporary adjustments of a dumpy level
• Recording the observations in the field book
• Reduction of levels by H.I. method and Rise and fall methods
• Errors , combined correction for curvative and refraction
4.0 Introduction
Levelling is the process of finding the difference in elevation between points
or relative heights and depths of the objects on the surface of the earth. It is the
part of surveying which deals with the measurements in vertical plane. Levelling
is very important to an engineer for the purpose of planning, designing, estimating
and executing various engineering works such as roads, railways, canals, dams,
irrigation , pipe lines, buildings and water supply and sanitary schemes .
4.1 Purpose of Levelling
Levelling is done for the following purposes.
1. To measure a contour map for fixing sites for reservoirs, dams, etc. and
to fix the alignment of roads, railways, irrigation canals and so on.
250 Construction Technology

2. To determine the altitudes of different important points on a hill or to

know the reduced levels of different points on or below the surface of the earth.
3. To measure a longitudinal section and cross section of a project (roads,
railways, irrigation canals etc) in order to determine the volume of earth work.
4. To prepare a layout map for water supply, sanitary or drainage schemes.
4.1.1 Defination of Terms
Level Surface: a level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal
surface of the earth, e.g., the surface of a still lake. Each point on the level
surface is perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
Datum: This is an arbitrary assumed surface with respect to the mean sea
level above which the elevations of points are measured.
Level line: A line lying through out on a level surface is a level line. This is
normal to the plumb line at all points.
Horizontal plane: Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to
the level surface at that point. It is, therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line
through the point.
Horizontal Line: It is a straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It
is also perpendicular to the plumb line.
Vertical Line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is commonly
considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.
Mean sea Level: Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all
stages of the tides. At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly
tide heights over a long period of 19 years.

Fig. 4.1
Paper - II Surveying Theory 251
Change Point
An intermediate staff station at which both back sight and fore sight are
taken with the purpose of changing the position of the instrument is called a
change point or turning point.
Reduced Level
Reduced level is the elevation of the point where the staff reading is taken
with respect to the assumed datum.
Back Sight: It is the reading taken on a staff held at a point of known
reduced level or elevation. If the reading is added to the reduced level of
the point or staff, the R.L of the height of the instrument, i.e., the height of
collimation will be obtained. Hence back sight is considered to be positive.
It is the first reading taken after the level is set up. In fig 4.2 if the R.L of station
A is 100.00 and B.S reading is 1.34, then the height of instrument is 100.00 +
1.34 = 101.34m.
Fore Sight: Fore sight is a staff reading taken on a point whose elevation
is not known and has to be determined. It is the last staff reading before shifting
the level to another position, if the fore sight reading is subtracted form the
height of instrument; the reduced level of the point is obtained. There fore it is
known as minus sight.
Ex: if the height of collimation is 101.34 (fig 4.2) and the F.S reading on
staff held at B is 2.21, then the R.L of the station B is 101.34 – 2.21 = 99.13m.

A B

Fig. 4.2

Intermediate Sight: Any reading other then the Back sight and the fore
sight are taken on a point whose reduced level is not known is called an
intermediate sight. For e.g. If the reading on a staff placed at an intermediate
station C is 2.21 and the height of collimation is 101.34, then the R.L of the
station C is 101.34 – 2.21 = 99.13.
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4.1.2. Bench Mark

Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation
with respect to some assumed datum is known.
Types of Bench Marks
There are four kinds of bench marks viz.
1. G.T.S bench marks.
2. Permanent bench marks.
3. Arbitrary bench marks and
4. Temporary bench marks.
1. G.T.S Bench Marks
These bench marks are established in the course of the great trigonometric
survey conducted by the survey of India department with sophisticated instruments
and under highly accurate and precise conditions of work They are established
all over the country. Their locations and reduced levels with reference to the
mean sea level at Karachi are published by the government of India in the form
of a catalogue.
2. Permanent Bench Marks
These bench marks are established by state government departments such
as the Irrigation and power, Roads and Buildings, Panchayat raj Engineering
etc. on well defined points such as the parapet wall of a bridge or culvert, corner
of a building, plinth etc. these are connected to G.T.S bench marks and their
levels are marked on the point.
3. Arbitrary Bench Marks
These are points of reference with any assumed level. These are used only
for limited purposes.
4. Temporary Bench Marks
In a continuous program of leveling work it is necessary to close a day’s
work on a reference point taken on a permanent location and continue the work
the next day. Such points of reference for leveling are known as Temporary
bench marks.
4.2 Types of Levelling Instruments
The instruments generally used in levelling are
Paper - II Surveying Theory 253

1. Level 2. Levelling staff.

Level: A level provides a horizontal line of sight from which the heights of
different points are determined. A level consists of the following essential parts.
a) A telescope to provide the line of sight.
b) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal.
c) A leveling head to bring the bubble to its center of run.
d) A tripod to support the instrument.
4.2.1. Types of Levels
There are chiefly four different types of levels.
a) Dumpy level
b) Wye level
c) Reversible level
d) Tilting level.
Dumpy Level
Fig 4.3 shows the component parts of a Dumpy level

Fig. 4.3
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Component Parts of Dump Level

1. Tripod Stand: The tripod stand consists of three legs which may be
solid or framed. The legs are made of light and hard wood. The lower ends of
the legs are fitted with steel shoes.
2. Leveling Head: The leveling head consists of two parallel triangular
plates having three grooves to support the foot screws.
3. Foot Screws: Three foot screws are provided between the trivet
and tribach. By turning the foot screws the tribach can be raised or lowered
to bring the bubble to the centre of its run.
4. Telescope: The telescope consists of two metal tubes, one moving
with in the other. It also consists of an object glass and an eye piece on
opposite ends. A diaphragm is fixed with the telescope just in front of the
eyepiece. The diaphragm carries cross hairs. The telescope is focused by
means of the focusing screw and may have either external focusing or
internal focusing.
5. Bubble Tubes: Two bubble tubes, one called the longitudinal bubble
tube and other the cross bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each
other. These tubes contain spirit bubble. The bubble is brought to the center
of its run with the help of foot screws. The bubble tubes are fixed on tow of
the telescope.
6. Compass: A compass is provided just below the telescope for taking
the magnetic bearing of a line when required.
4.2.2. Relationship betwen the fundamental lines of a Dumpy level
The following lines have been identified as the fundamental lines of leveling
instrument.
1. Line of collimation.
2. Axis of bubble tube.
3. Axis of telescope
4. Vertical axis.
Line of collimation: It is an imaginary straight line joining the intersection
of the cross hairs at diaphragm to the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation. It is also called the line of sight. When the bubble is in the center of
its run, the line of collimation will be horizontal.
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Axis of Bubble tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the curved surface

of the bubble tube at its middle point, it is also known as bubble line. When the
bubble is in the centre of its run, the bubble line will be horizontal.
Axis of Telescope: It is the imaginary line joining the center of the eye
piece and the optical center of the object glass.
Vertical Axis: The axis about which the telescope can be turned in a
horizontal plane is known as the vertical axis of the instrument.
Relationship between the fundamental lines of dumpy level.
1. Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to vertical axis.
2. The line of collimation of telescope is parallel to the axis of bubble
tube.
4.3 Types of Levelling Staffs
A leveling stave or staff consists of a straight rectangular piece of well
seasoned wood on which graduations are painted. Reading on the staff
with a leveling instrument shows the height of the station above or below
the line of sight of the level.
Levelling staffs are of two types.
1. Self reading staffs.
2. Target staffs.
In the self reading staff, the level man observes the staff reading where
the horizontal wire appears to intersect the face of the rod through the
level. The level man records the readings. The Target staff is provided with
a vernier which is adjusted by the staff man under the direction of the level
man who observes through the level, until the horizontal cross hairs of the
diaphragm coincides with the center of the vernier. The reading is recorded
by the staff man. Target staffs are used where the sights are long. How
ever, these are not commonly used in India.
Self reading staffs are available in 3 forms.
1. Sopwith telescopic staff.
2. Folding metric staff
3. Solid staff.
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Sopwith Telescopic Staff

The Sopwith telescopic staff is available in 3 parts which telescope into
one another. (Fig 4.4). It is 4 meter long when fully extended. The top length
1.25 meters is solid and slides into the bottom box 1.5m long. The extended
lengths are kept in position by means of brass spring catches. The smallest
division in this staff is 5mm. The meter numbers are marked on the left side and
are painted in red. The decimeter numbers are on the right and painted in black.
The graduations are marked erect and hence are seen inverted through the
telescope. This is the most commonly used staff in India.
Folding Metric Staff
The folding type staff is lighter, more convenient to handle and gives more
accurate readings. The folding staff (Fig 4.4) is made of well seasoned wood. It
is 75mm wide, 18mm thick and 4m long. It has two lengths of 2m each and
connected at the middle by means of a locking device. It can be detached into
two pieces or folded into two or can be attached together to form a rigid and
straight staff. It is fitted with a circular bubble of 25 minutes sensitivity at the
back and is provided with two handles. The minimum division on the staff is
5mm; each meter length is divided into 200 divisions. The meter numbers are
painted on the right in red. The lines dividing the tenths of meter lengths are also
painted in red. The tenths of meter numerals are marked on the left and painted
in black and the entire background is painted in white. The graduations are
inverted and hence when viewed through the telescope they appear erect.
Solid Staff
It has only one length and is usually 3m long. It is graduated in divisions of
5mm in the same way as the telescopic metric staff. It is used for precise leveling
work.
This is much used in America. It is graduated like a Sopwith staff, but is
fitted with a sliding vane or target of circular shape. The quadrants are painted
black and white alternately round a square central hole through which the staff
graduations are visible. The sighting vane is moved up and down until the center
of the target coincides with the horizontal cross hair in the telescope of the level.
The rod it self consists of two sliding lengths.
The target staff has the following advantages.
a) It can be used for long sights.
b) It is ideally suits to reciprocal leveling.
Paper - II Surveying Theory 257

c) The surveyor travels with the staff instead of the level. This enables the
surveyor to place the staff at all points on the ground where the slope changes.

TELESCOPE STAFF
Fig. 4.4

4.4 Temporary Adjustments of the Level

Temporary adjustments are those which have to be performed at every
instrument setting and are done before the observations are taken with the
instrument. Permanent adjustments are made when the fixed relationship
between the fundamental lines of an instrument is disturbed. Once these
adjustments are made, they last for a long time.
Temporary adjustments of dumpy Level
The temporary adjustments consist of the following two operations.
1. Setting up,
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2. Leveling up, and

3. Elimination of parallax
1. Setting up
First the instrument is fixed on the tripod, whose legs are then adjusted for
approximate leveling. The instrument is held in one hand and screwed onto the
tripod firmly. Next the legs are adjusted to bring the telescope to eye level, and
then further adjusted till the instrument is approximately level, judged by the eye
and the circular spirit- bubble or cross-level tube. In adjusting the tripod, two
legs are kept firmly in a convenient position, and the third is moved sideways in,
or out. As required.
2. Leveling up
The telescope is placed parallel to a pair of the foot screws and the long
bubble is brought to the center of its run by turning both these foot screws in or
out. The telescope is now turned through 90o, kept nearly over the third foot
screw, and the bubble brought to the centre again. The process is repeated until
the bubble remains central for all positions for permanent adjustment.
3. Elimination of parallax: Elimination of parallax involves two steps i)
Focusing of the eye piece for distinct vision of the cross hairs at diaphragm and
ii) focusing theobject glass for bringing the image of the object into the diaphragm.
i). Focusing the eye piece: The telescope is turned towards the sky or a
piece of white paper is held in front of the telescope the eye piece is adjusted
moving it in or out till a sharp and distinct image of the cross hairs is seen.
ii). Focusing the object glass: The telescope is directed towards the
staff and the focusing screw is turned until a clear and sharp image of the
staff graduations is obtained. The eye is moved up and down if the reading
is not changed, then parallax is completely eliminated, the object glass is
focused every time a staff reading is taken.
4.5 Field Work and Principles of Levelling
4.5.1 Simple levelling
The steps involved in the process of simple leveling are:
a) Finding the height of the instrument i.e. R.L of line of sight by taking a
sight on a known B.M.
b) Finding how much the next point is below or above the line of sight.
Suppose it is required to find the elevation of a point B (fig 4.5). Let A be a point
Paper - II Surveying Theory 259

whose elevation is known say 120.12m. The level is setup by approximately

mid way between the points A and B. A staff is held on the point A and the back
sight reading is taken say 1.52m. Next turn the telescope to the point B and take
the fore sight on B say 2.66m. Height of instrument = elevation of A + back
sight.
= 120.12 + 1.52 = 121.64m.
R.L of B = Height of instrument – foresight. = 121.64 – 2.66 = 118.98m.

Line of Collimation

1.52 2.66
121.64

120.12

118.98

Fig. 4.5

4.5.2 Differential Levelling

When the difference in elevations of points far apart is required, then this
cannot be found in one setting of the instrument. This is determined by differential
leveling. Differential leveling is done by dividing the distance into stages by change
points on which the staff is held and the difference of levels between successive
pair of change points is found. Let A and B be two points very far apart whose
difference in elevation is required (fig 4.6). The distance between the points has
been divided into 4 parts by choosing three change points.

102.465 102.130
101.015
10.015
2.325
1.990

1.105
2.150
0.700

B
CP1 CP2 CP3
A
Fig. 4.6
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Let R.L of the point A be 100.00m

The height of the first setting of the instrument is = 100 + 1.015 = 101.015m.
If the fore sight on first change point is 0.700.
The R.L of the C.P.1 = 101.015 – 0.700 = 100.315m.
Similarly R.L of C.P 2 is = 100.315 + 2.150 – 2.325 = 100.140m.
R.L of C.P.3 = 100.140 + 1.990 – 1.105 = 101.025m.
4.5.3 Level Book
The leveling field notes are entered in a note book called the level book.
The pages are ruled with tabulated form to facilitate the booking of readings and
reducing levels.
Booking Staff Readings
The following points should be noted while booking readings in a level
book.
1. The first entry in the level book is a back sight and the last is a fore
sight.
2. All the readings should be entered in the level book in the respective
columns as soon as they are taken.
3. At change points, the fore sight and back sight are recorded in the
same line.
4. The height of instrument should be noted on the same line as back
sight.
5. Brief descriptions with sketches of B.M’s, change points, and other
important points should be given in the remarks column.
4.5.4 Methods of Booking and Reducing Levels
There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevations of points
from the observed staff readings.
1. Height of instrument or collimation method.
2. Rise and fall method.
1. Height of Instrument or Collimation Method: In this method, the
height of the instrument and the reduced levels of points are found with reference
to the plane of collimation. The instrument is set up at a convenient point and
Paper - II Surveying Theory 261
back sight is taken on the starting point whose R.L. is known. The height of the
instrument is calculated by adding the back sight to the R.L of the starting point.
The R.L of the intermediate points and the first change point are then obtained
by subtracting the respective readings on staff held at these points from the
height of instrument. The instrument is then shifted and set up at the next change
point. The new height of instrument is found by adding the back sight reading
taken on the change point. The Reduced levels of the successive points and the
successive change points are found by subtracting the staff reading from the
new height of instrument. The process is repeated until the R.L of all the points
is found.
The arithmetical chick as given below is then applied. The difference between
the sum of back sights and sum of fore sights should be equal to the difference
between the last R.L and first R.L.
Thus B.S – F.S = last R.L – First R.L.
The method affords a check for the H.I and R.L of change points but not
for the intermediate points.
The method of booking levels is shown below for the example given below.
Station B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L Remarks
A 1.700 101.700 100.000 B.M
1 2.600 1.800 102.500 99.900 CP1
2 1.135 101.365
3 1.165 101.335
4 2.050 2.165 102.385 100.335 CP2
B 1.810 100.575
TOTAL 6.350 5.775
1.135

1.165
1.700

2.165
2.600
1.800

2.050

1.810

2 3
4 B
A 1
Fig. 4.7
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Arithmetical check
B.S – F.S = 6.350 – 5.775 = 0.575m
Last R.L – First R.L = 100.575 – 100.000 = 0.575m
Rise and Fall Method
In this method, the R.L’s of points are determined by the difference of level
between consecutive points by comparing each point with the point preceding
it. The difference between their staff readings indicates a fall or rise according as
the reading is greater on smaller than that of the preceding point. The R.L is then
determined by adding the rise or subtracting the fall from the preceding point.
Arithmetical Check: There are three checks on the accuracy of the
calculations. The difference between the sum of the back sights and the
sum of the fore sights is equal to the difference between the sum of the
rises and the sum of the falls which is also equal to the difference between
last R.L and the first R.L.
B.S – F.S = rise – fall = last R.L – First R.L.
The previous example will now be worked out by the rise and fall method.

Station B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Remarks

A 1.700 100.000 B.M
1 2.600 1.800 0.100 99.900 C.P.1
2 1.135 1.465 101.365
3 1.165 0.030 101.335
4 2.050 2.165 1.000 100.335 C .P2
B 1.810 0.240 100.575
Total 6.350 5.775 1.705 1.130

Arithmetical check
B.S – F.S = 6.350 – 5.775 = 0.575

Rise – fall = 1.705 – 1.130 = 0.575

Paper - II Surveying Theory 263

Last R.L – First R.L = 100.575 - 100.000 = 0.575

Example 4.1: The following staff readings were taken with a level, the
instrument having been shifted after the 4th, 7th and 10th readings .R.L of the
starting B.M is 100.00 enter the readings in the form of a level book page and
reduce the levels by the rise and fall method .Apply usual checks. The readings
are, 2.500, 3.700, 3.850, 3.250, 3.650, 0.370, 0.950, 1.650, 2.850, 3.480,
3.680 and 3.270m.
Solution: since the instrument was shifted after the 4th, 7th and 10th
readings, 3.250, 0.950,and 3.480 are the fore sights and the readings
immediately following them viz. 3.650,1.650 and 3.680are the respective
back sights. The readings are tabulated and levels are reduced as shown
below.

B.S = 11.480

 F.S = 10.950

RISE = 4.290

FALL = 3.760
LAST R.L = 150.530
FIRST R.L = 150.00
Arithmetical Check
B.S – F.S = 11.480 – 10.950 = 0.530

RISE – FALL = 4.290 – 3.760 = 0.530

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LATS R.L – FIRST R.L = 100.530 – 100.00 = 0.530

BS - FS = Rise – Fall = Last R.L - First R.L = 0.530
Hence Checked.
Example 4.2: The following staff readings were observed successively
with a level, the instrument was shifted after the second, forth and eighth
readings. 0.975,1.435,1.800,1.685,2.030,2.125,2.185,1.920,1.875,2.080
and 2.165. The first reading was taken with the staff held on a bench mark
of elevation 122.500. Enter the readings in a level book page and reduce
the levels by using Rise and Fall method. Apply the usual checks.

B.S = 6.680
 F.S = 7.205
RISE = 0.380
FALL = 0.905
LAST R.L = 121.975
FIRST R.L = 122.500
Arithmetical Check
B.S – F.S = 6.680 –7.205 = – 0.525
RISE – FALL = 0.380 – 0.905 = – 0.525
LAST R.L – FIRST R.L = 121.975 – 122.500 = – 0.525
BS - F.S. = RISE - FALL = LAST R.L. - FIRST R.L = -0.525
Hence Checked.
Paper - II Surveying Theory 265

Example 4.3: The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy
level.
0.795,1.655,2.890,3.015,0.655,0.625,0.955,0.255,1.635,0.860,2.375.
The instrument was shifted after the 4th and 8th readings. The first reading
was taken on a bench mark whose reduced level is 550.650 meters. Rule
out a page of level field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the
reduced levels by the rise and fall method apply arithmetical checks.
Solution: First reading is the back sight. The instrument shifted after 4th
and 8th readings.
4th and 8th readings and 11th, the last are the foresights. 5th, 9th readings are
back sights. All other sights are intermediate sights. The staff readings are tabulated
as below.

B.S = 3.085

 F.S = 5.645

RISE = 1.5.5

FALL = 4.065
LAST R.L = 548.045
FIRST R.L = 550.605
Arithmetical Check
B.S – F.S = 3.085 – 5.645 = -2.56

RISE – FALL = 1.5.0 – 4.065 = - 2.56

266 Construction Technology

LAST R.L – FIRST R.L = 548.045 – 550.625 = - 2.56

BS - FS = Rise – Fall = Last R.L - First R.L = -2.56
Hence Checked.
Example 4.4:
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and 5 meter
leveling staff on continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 20 meters,
0.890m, 1.535, 2.430, 3.330, 4.235, 5.190, 0.625, 2.005, 3.110, and 4.485.
The reduced level of the first point was 108.120. Rule out a page of a level field
book and enter above readings .calculate the reduced levels of the points by
H.I. method.
Solution
Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground, the
maximum staff reading can be F.S and therefore sixth reading will be a
fore sight taken on a turning point and the seventh reading will be a back
sight. Also, the first reading will be a back sight and the last reading will be
a fore sight. The levels can be entered as shown in the tabular form.
Station B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L Remarks
1 0.890 108.120 B.M
2 1.535 107.475
3 2.430 106.580
4 3.330 105.680
5 4.235 104.775 C .P1
6 0.625 5.190 104.445 103.820
7 2.005 102.440
8 3.110 101.335
9 4.485 99.960
Total 1.515 9.675
B.S = 1.515

F.S = 9.675
LAST R.L = 99.960
Paper - II Surveying Theory 267

FIRST R.L = 108.120

Arithmetical Check
B.S –  F.S = 1.515 – 9.675 = - 8.160
LAST R.L – FIRST R.L = 99.960 – 108.120 = - 8.160
BS - FS = Last R.L - First R.L = -8.160
Hence Checked
Example 4.5
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and 4
meter leveling staff on a continuously sloping ground at 30 m intervals
0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.885, 3.380, 1.058, 1.860, 2.245, 3.450, 0.835,
0.645, 1.530, 2.250. The R.L of the starting point was 80.750.
a) Rule out a page of level book and enter the above readings.
b) Carry out reductions of heights by Height of Collimation method
c) Apply the arithmetic check.

Check :
B.S = 2.520

 F.S = 9.170
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First R.L =80.750

Last R.L = 74.100.
 B.S-  F.S =2.520 -9.170 = -6.650
Last R.L – First R.L =74.100 -80.750 = - 6.650
BS - FS = = Last R.L - First R.L = - 6.650
Hence checked.
4.6 Curvature and Refraction
The surface of the earth is curved. Hence staffs readings will be get affected due
to the curvature of the earth. As the line of sight passes through air of different
densities, error will be introduced in staff readings due to refraction of light rays.
Due to curvature, we get larger staff readings than true readings and hence the
points sighted appear to be lower than their true positions. Due to the refraction,
we get smaller staff readings than true readings. Hence the points sighted appear
to be higher than their true positions. Errors due to Curvature and Refraction
correction should be considered in preciseleveling works involving sights longer
than about 100m.
Error due to Curvature and Correction
In fig. 4.8 given below, let the level be set up at A and let P be the staff
station which is at a horizontal distance of d km. from the instrument. The
line of sight through A which is horizontal cuts the staff held vertically at
the point B and hence the observed staff reading will be PB .But the level
line through A cuts the staff at C and hence PC should be the true staff
reading if error is not there due to curvature of the earth.

Staff

A’ Horizontal line
B

Level line
A
C

Fig. 4.8
Paper - II Surveying Theory 269

The error due to curvature in the staff readings is thus the difference of the
two is CB.
Reffering to the fig given below, let O be the centre of the earth .AC the
horizontal line at the instrument station A, CD the error due to curvature at
distance d km from A. Let R be the radius of the earth. Extend CD to cut the
great circle through AD at E ,CDE being the vertical at D assuming the section
of the earth to be circular.

Fig. 4.9

AC2=CD.CE=CD (CD+DE)
AC2=CD.DE neglecting CD2 which is small.
Assuming radius of the earth as 6370 km
CD=Error due to curvature=AC2 / DE=d2/12740
= 0.0000785 d2 km= 0.0785 d2 meters.
Correction for curvature for a distance of d km. = - 0.0785 d2 meters.
Error Due to Refraction and Correction.
The density of air is different at different levels of the earth surface .Hence
a ray of light from the staff reaching the instrument under goes refraction. The
error due to refraction is generally taken as about 1/7 of the error due to the
curvature.
The correction for refraction to the staff reading is positive.
Correction for refraction= +0.0785d2/7 = 0.0112 d2 meters.
Where d is distance of the staff in km.
270 Construction Technology

Combined correction due to curvature and refraction

= -0.0785 d2 + 0.0112 d2 = -0.0673 d2.
Summary
1. Levelling : Levelling is the process by which the relative heights of
points on the earth’s surface are determined. Levelling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane.
2. Datum : This is an arbitrary assumed surface with respect to the
mean sea level above which the elevations of points are measured.
3. Types Of Bench Marks
1. G.T.S bench marks.
2. Permanent bench marks.
3. Arbitrary bench marks and
4. Temporary bench marks.
4. Back Sight : It is the reading taken on a staff held at a point of
known reduced level or elevation. It is the first staff reading after setting
the level.
5. Fore Sight: Fore sight is a staff reading taken on a point whose
elevation is not known and has to be determined. It is the last staff reading
before shifting the level to another position.
6. Intermediate Sight: Any staff reading other than the Back sight and
the fore sight are taken on a point where reduced level is not known is called an
intermediate sight.
7. Change point : An intermediate staff station at which both back sight
and fore sights are taken with the purpose of changing the position of the instrument
is called a change point or turning point.
8. Reduced level: Reduced level is the elevation of the point where the
staff reading is taken with respect to the assumed datum.
9. Line of collimation: It is an imaginary straight line joining the intersection
of the cross hairs at diaphragm to the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation. It is also called the line of sight. When the bubble is in the center of
its run, the line of collimation will be horizontal.
Paper - II Surveying Theory 271

10. Curvature : Due to curvature, we get larger staff readings than true
readings and hence the points sighted appear to be lower than their true positions.
11. Rrefraction : Due to the refraction, we get smaller staff readings than
true readings. Hence the points sighted appear to be higher than their true
positions. Errors due to Curvature and Refraction correction should be
considered in precise leveling works involving sights longer than about 100m
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is levelling?
2. What is bench mark?
3. What is back sight?
4. Write the methods of reduction of levels?
5. Define curvature?
6. What is profile levelling?
7. What is check levelling?
8. What is change point?
9. What is intermediate sight?
10. Name the types of levels
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Draw the neat sketch of dumpy level and name the parts
2. Explain the temporary adjustments of dumpy level
3. Explain differential levelling
4. Write the types of levelling staffs and explain them.
5. Explain the procedure of reducing the levels by H.I method
6. Explain the procedure of reducing the levels by rise and fall method.
7. The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a
4m leveling staff on continuously sloping ground 0.470m BM, 1.500, 2.965,
3.980, 0.825, 1.925, 2.950, 3.675, 0.865, 1.950 and 2.990. The R.L of BM
was 150.00 enter the readings in a page of field book. Determine the R.L’s of all
the stations by rise and fall method.
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8. The following staff readings were taken with a level the instrument has
been shifted after the 4th, 7th, and 10th readings, R.L. of the starting BM is
100.00. Enter the readings in the form of a level book page and reduce the
levels by H.I., method. Apply usual checks 2.80, 3.60, 3.580, 3.250, 2.370,
1,950, 0.650, 1.850, 2.480, 3.860 and 3.720.
Activities
• Study the dumpy level and identify the parts.
• Study the levelling staff.
• Make temporary adjustments to the dumpy level and take staff
reading at a point.