Basic Engineering Drawing

PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY
KARAIKUDI
Syllabus
Surveyor (Subject code: 387)
Unit-1: Basic Engineering Drawing
1.1. Role of Surveyor:
Know about the role of a surveyor - State the importance of survey.
1.2. Layout of drawing sheets and title block:
State the measuring of the term ‘Layout’ of drawing sheet - List the different layout styles of drawing
sheets - Explain margin, frame, title block etc.
1.3. Free hand sketching:
State the need free hand sketching - List the situations wherein free hand sketching is useful.
1.4. Drawing equipment: Drawing board,T-Square:
State the construction and use of drawing boards and ‘T’ square - State the standard sizes of drawing
board as per IS:1444-1989 - State the standard sizes of ‘T’ square as per IS: 1360-1989 - State the
construction and uses of drafting machine - Select the pencil grades for different drawing application -
Select the purpose of erasing shield - State the use of set squares in drawing work.
1.5. Folding of sheets:
Explain the method of folding in different size of drawing sheets.
1.6. Lettering styles:
Recognise different lettering styles - Designate the letters and numerals as per IS norms - State standard
properties for height, width and spacing of letters.
1.7. Scales:
State the necessity of scales - Explain representative fraction (RF) - List the types of scales - Explain
plain, Diagonal scale, comparative scale and Vernier scale.
1.8. Dimensioning:
Explain the types of dimensioning - Explain the elements of dimensioning - Explain the methods of
indicating dimensioning - Explain the arrangement of dimensioning.
1.9. Types of lines and angles:
Define points and lines - State classification of lines - State the different types of angles - Explain the
method of measuring angles.
1.10. Triangles and their properties:
Define triangles - Name the different types of triangles and state their properties.
1.11. Quadrilaterals and their properties:
Define a quadrilateral - Name the quadrilaterals - State the properties of quadrilaterals.
1.12. Polygon and their properties:
Define a Polygon - Name the Polygon in terms of the number of sides - State the properties of Polygon
III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

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 He must know the methods of testing and
STUDY MATERIAL adjusting the instruments.
UNIT-1: BASIC ENGINEERING DRAWING  Very costly instruments such as theodolite,
1.1. ROLE OF SURVEYOR: Auto levels etc. must be handled with great
The role of a surveyor can be divided into three parts. care and accuracy.
1. Field work  Before taking of instruments such as
2.Office work level/theodolite from the box, the correct
3. Care and adjustments of instruments position of various parts should noted and a
1 Field work rough sketch to be made for replacing of
 Taking measurements for details instruments after finishing survey works.
 Recording the field notes  The lenses of the instruments should be
 Setting out of works. protected from the sun, dust and rain.
2 Office work  Movable parts should be cleaned and
 Preparing maps, plans and sections from the lubricated with refined oil at frequent interval.
data  Therefore a through knowledge of the theory
 Collected in the field. of surveying and still in practice, good
 Calculating the areas and volumes. judgement and organisation are the essential
requisites of a good surveyor which can be
 Designing of various structures.
acquired by taking more interest in the field
3 Care and adjustments of instruments work.
 The surveyor must be thoroughly familiar
with the instruments which he will be used
(handing)
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Importance of survey and selecting a suitable scale on the drawing
 The planning and designing of all civil sheet is known as layout of drawing sheet.
engineering projects such as construction of
bridges, tunnels route location and exploration
for highways, air fields, railways, power lines
and pipe lines are based upon the surveying
measurements.
 Moreover during execution project of any
magnitude is constructed along the lines and
points established by surveying. Thus surveying
is a basic requirement for all civil engineering
projects. The other principal works in which
surveying is primarily utilised are: DIVIDING DRAWING SHEET INTO ZONES:
 To fix the national and state boundaries.  The purpose of marking zone on drawing sheet
 To chart coast lines, navigable streams and is to indicate the relevant location in a drawing
lakes. where some modification or alteration has been
 To establish control points. subsequently incorporated.
 To execute hydrographic and oceanographic  The zoning system is popularly adopted on
charting commercial drawing to pin point change in
 and mapping. original drawing.
 To prepare topographic map of land surface of  For this purpose. the length of longer side o
the earth. drawing side is divided into equal number parts
 To determine the latitudes longitude and and marked 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. The shorter side (on
azimuth from astronomical observation. both sides) of drawing sheet is also divided into
 To carryout surveying specific for open cost and equal spaces and marked alphabetically (A, B,
underground mixing purposes C, D, E … etc.).
 Mapping as various scales and essential for the MARGIN
economic development of natural resources, The space between extreme outside boundaries and
industrialized areas and for administration the working space is a margin provided around the
national development and defence. Therefore, sheet by drawing margin lines.
Aerial photographs are used for surveying work Uses of margin
to attain the required degree of accuracy and at  The margin facilitates easy filing and
a minimum cost and in a minimum time. binding.
1.2. LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEETS AND  The margin ensures that if the sheet edge
TITLE BLOCK: becomes damaged by handling, the drawing
LAYOUT within the margin enables prints to be
 A layout for drawing sheet includes margin trimmed.
around the drawing sheet and setting the space As per IS IS 10711 :2001 it is recommended that these
for title block. borders have the minimum width of 20 mm for sizes
 The space for margin may vary on different AO and Al, and a minimum width of 10 mm for size
sizes of sheets, but the space for title block is A2, A3 and A4.
generally fixed. TITLE BLOCK
 The title block is repeatedly given on every The position of the title block should be within
drawing so that the information through the title the drawing space such that the portion of the title block
block facilitates easy and quick reading of containing the identification of the drawing
drawing. (registration number, title, origin, etc.) is situated in
 After selecting the size of the drawing sheet and the bottom right-hand comer of the drawing space, both
to divide the proper space for margin, title for sheets positioned horizontally (Type X) or
block, parts list, revision panel, folding marks vertically (Type Y).
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 It has maximum length of 170 mm drawings in order to facilitate the positioning of the
 It gives title of drawing, drawing number, scale, drawing when reproduced or microfilmed.
symbol denoting method of projection, name of FOLDING MARKS:
the company etc. Folding marks are to made on the drawing sheet to
The Title Block information is important information facilitate of prints in an easy manner.
about the ownership/Intellectual Property /design REVISION PANEL:
/processes /material and other related information  The revision panel means that the drawing
including propertier/patented information. should record all additions and alterations
which have been incorporated in the drawing
from time to time.
 To record the revision, one revision panel is
drawn at the top right-hand corner of the sheet.
 In the columns, the revision number or letter,
date zone and signature of approving authority
are given.
NUMBERING OF SHEETS:
 If there is more than one drawing sheets to
complete the assembly and detail to complete
one drawing, the numbering on each sheet
should show the numbers of the particular sheet.
 For instance, if there are four sheets to cover one
drawing, then the first sheet shall be numbered
CENTRING MARKS as Sheet 1 of 4 or 2 of 4
 Four centring marks shall be provided on all  This sheet number should be recorded below the
drawing in the space meant for sheet number.

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1.3. FREE HAND SKETCHING: MATERIALS FOR FREE HAND SKETCHING:
NEED OF FREE HAND SKETCHING  A4 size sheet (preferably a pad instead of loose
Free hand drawings are the drawings that are papers) pencils of soft grade.
made from the hand and these drawings are used to  Example H, HB, and a good quality eraser are the
transfer the idea of an engineer’s abstract world to the only materials required.
real world in 2D and 3D.  For drawing different darkness, the pencil points
In a graphical form to non-technical peoples should be sharpened to conical shape.
quickly present an idea, free hand drawings are also
used and between all the members of a team and also
between the customers, free hand drawings improve
communication.
Freehand sketching quickly translates the image
of the concept in the mind’s eye to paper. Engineers
often communicate via rough freehand sketches to
refine and improve the design. Sketches are much more
useful than detailed CAD drawings early in the design
process, because they are informal, quickly and easily
changed, and less restrictive.
Freehand sketching is one of the effective
methods to communicate ideas irrespective of the
branch of study. The basic principles of drawing used in 1.4. DRAWING EQUIPMENT: DRAWING
freehand sketching are similar to those used in drawings BOARD, T-SQUARE:
made with instruments. List of equipments used in Engineering drawing
Apart from making drawing using  Drawing board
instruments, often craftsmen will be required to make  T square
 Minidrafter
drawings with their free hand.
 Precision instrument box
Freehand sketching is the easiest method to
 45o set square and 30o -60o set square
express the shape of a piece part or a component by  Engineers’ Scales
an engineer or craftsman. Freehand sketches are not  Protractor
usually made to scale. However, they should be as  Irregular or French curve
nearly to the proportions as possible.  Drawing pins or clips
LIST OF SITUATION WHEREIN FREE HAND  Drawing paper
SKETCHES WILL HAVE TO BE  Pencils
NECESSARILY MADE.  Eraser
 On the site sketching for production/maintenance.  Duster
 Recording of initial idea of a design.  Drawing Sheet
 For quick exchange of ideas among designer, A. Drawing board
draughtsman, technician. 1. Drawing board is one of the main item of
 Urgency (free hand sketching takes less time) equipment for Draughtsman.
To make free hand drawings/sketches, the craftsman 2. It is used for supporting the drawing paper/tracing
has to acquire new skills and one has to have paper for making drawings.
3. It is made of well-seasoned wood strips of about
considerable practice to be able to make good free
25 mm thick or Masonite, free from knots and
hand sketches.
warping.
Ability to make good free hand sketches is an 4. It should be softer enough to allow insertion and
asset to any craftsman. Free hand sketches are not removal of drawing pins.
usually made to scale. However, they should be as 5. Two battens are fastened to the board by screws,
nearly to the proportions as possible in slotted joints. They prevent warping and at the
same time permit expansion and contraction of the

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strips due to the change of moisture in the 2. Material
atmosphere. The working surface of the board and the battens
shall be constructed from any one of the following
species of timber
Working surface
Ben teak , Blue pine, Fir, Cypress, Oak and Red
cedar
Battens
Aini, Anjan, Bijasal, Black chuglam, Padauk, Safed
siris, Salai, Sissoo, Teak and Walnut.
Note: The wood used shall be thoroughly seasoned
and shall have attained a moisture content of not more
than 12 percent, which may be 14 percent in the case
of teak
3. CONSTRUCTION
Working Surface
 The boards shall have a smooth and true working
surface. They shall not twist or bow by more than
1 mm.
 The entire board shall be manufactured from the
same species of timber
 Pieces, 100 to 150 mm in width, shall be used in
the construction of the board and the grain of the
wood shall run along the length of the board.
Battens
One of the shorter edges of the drawing board  Two battens, smoothly finished and with
chamfered or rounded edges shall be fitted to the
is provided with an "ebony edge" (hardwood) fitted
back of the board.
perfectly straight.
 The battens shall be 114 mm wide in case of size
Now-a-days drawing boards are available
DO, and 74 mm wide in case of sizes Dl, D2 and
with laminated surfaces. D3. The thickness of the battens shall be 20 mm.
The flatness can be checked by placing a B.T- Squares (IS 1360-1989)
straight edge on its surface. If no light passes between  Four sizes of engineers’ pattern tee squares,
them, the surface is perfectly flat. designated as TO, Tl, T2 and T3.
SPECIFICATION OF IS 1444-1989  Blade and stock shall be made of any one of the
1.Type of Drawing board following species of timber: Mahogany, Teak
Five sizes of engineers’ pattern drawing Rosewood, Sissoo and Bijasal.
boards designated as DOO, DO, Dl, D2 and D3.  The working edges of the stock and blade shall be
made of well-seasoned, dense, close- and fine-
Designation Size (mm) Sheet size
grained ebony or padauk or shisham except in
D00 1525 x 1220 x22 -
cases where the material used for the fabrication
D0 1270 x 920 x22 A0 of tee square is a hardwood. Alternatively suitable
D1 920 x 650 x 22 A1 rigid plastic material may be used for this purpose.
D2 650 x 470 x 22 A2 CONSTRUCTION OF T SQUARE
D3 500 x 350 x 22 A3  The back edge of the blade shall taper by a
uniform 5 mm per 100 mm in length to give
Thickness of the blockboard type drawing boards increased width towards the stock.
shall be between 20 and 25 mm with a tolerance of 5  The working edge of the blade shall not be
percent. more than 11 mm in width and shall be
bevelled to leave an edge of not more than 2
mm nor less than 1 mm.

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 The scales are bevelled on both sides,
graduates to 1:1 & 1:2. They can be reversed
with the help of dovetail slide fitting.
 There is a fine adjusting mechanism on the
drafting head to set the scale parallel to the
edge of the board. The scales also can be
adjusted if there is an error in measuring 90°
between them.
Designation Length (mm) Sheet size

T0 1270 A0
T1 920 A1
T2 650 A2
T3 500 A3
C. Drafting in the machine:
 It serves the functions of a Tee square, set
square, protractor and scale.
 They come in different sizes and have a pattern
called the 'Pantograph' type.
 It is fitted on the top left side, edge of the drafting
board, mounted on an adjustable frame or table.
 It requires a large area of working place. The angle
of the drafting board can be adjusted by the pedal
operating system. There are two counterweights to
balance the angular position of the board and the
drafting head.
 It is more suitable for the production drawing
office.
 On the other end, a protractor head H with
swivelling and locking arrangement is fitted with
two scales at right angles.
 The protractor head has a spring-loaded clutch
relieving handle, which rotates and locks at 15°
intervals automatically.
 It is capable of rotating 180°, thereby any angle
can be set.

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D.PENCILS E. ERASING SHIELD:
Grades of pencils:  When, on a drawing, if a part of a line or some
 Pencils are graded according to the hardness or lines among many other lines needs to be erased
softness of the lead. or modified, in a normal way erasing will
 The hardness or softness of the lead is indicated damage the other nearby lines.
by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc.  In such a situation an erasing shield is
 The grade HB denotes medium hardness oflead effectively useful. It is a thin metallic sheet
used for general purpose. having small openings of different sizes and
 The hardness increases as the value of the shapes.
numeral before the letter H increases. The lead  A suitable opening is aligned to the line to be
becomes softer, as the value of the numeral before erased and the line is removed by the eraser.
B increases  A soft India rubber should be used to erase
 The hardest pencil is 9H grade and the softest unwanted lines. If the rubber is hard, it destroys
pencil is 7B grade.
the surface of the paper.
 The duster, which should be a clean soft piece
of cloth, is used to flick off the rubber crumbs
formed while erasing lines. The set squares,
protractor, minidrafter and so on should also be
cleaned with the duster when beginning the
work as well as frequently during work.
The selection of the grade depends on the line quality
desired for the drawing.
 Pencils of grades H or 2H may be used for
finishing a pencil drawing as these give a sharp
black line.
 Softer grade pencils are used for sketching work.
 HB grade is recommended for lettering and
dimensioning.
Softer lead pencils are used to produce thicker and
darker line work, but they wear out quickly. Medium F.SET SQUARE:
grades of H and 2H are used for general line work as  Transparent celluloid /Plastic set squares are
well as for lettering. preferred and are commonly used rather than
MECHANICAL PENCILS ebonite ones.
 Nowadays mechanical pencils are widely used  They are two in number, each having one corner
in place of wooden pencils. with 90°.
 When these are used, much of the sharpening  The set square with 60° & 30° of 250 mm long
time can be saved. The number 0.5,0.70 of the and 45° of 200mm long is convenient for use.
pen indicates the thickness of the line obtained
with the lead and the size of the lead diameter.
 Micro-tip pencils with 0.5 mm thick leads with
the following grades are recommended.
 HB Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and
free sketching
 H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible
edges and boundary line
 2H Hard grade for construction lines,
Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension lines,
Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.

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G.ENGINEERS’ SCALES: H. PROTRACTOR:
 They are used to mark required measurements  A protractor is an instrument for measuring
on lines. angles.
 Scales are used to transfer and or measure the  It is semi-circular or circular and is made of a
dimensions. flat celluloid sheet.
 They are made of wood, steel, ivory, celluloid  The angles can be set or measured from both
or plastic, stainless steel scales are more sides, aligning the reference line and point '0'
durable. with the corner point of the angle.
 They are either flat, bevel-edged or triangular
cross-sections.
 Scales of 15cm long, 2cm wide or 30cm long
3.5cm wide are in general use.
 Depending upon the size of the object and that
of the paper, drawings are made to full size,
reduced size, or enlarged size.
 No computations are required to be made for
reducing or enlarging the size of the drawing if
a proper engineers' scale is used. I. French curves:
 These are made in many different shapes,
Reducing scale Enlarging scale Full size scale
normally come in sets of 6,12,16 etc.
1:2 2:1 1:1
 French curves are best suited to draw smooth
1:2.5 5:1
curves/ arcs (which cannot be drawn by a
1:5 10:1
compass) with ease.
1:10
 To draw a smooth curve using a french curve
first set it by trial against a part of the line to be
drawn, then shift it to the next portions.
 They are made of transparent celluloid (no
bevel edge).
BIS recommends eight set-scales in plastic/cardboard

with designations MI, M2 and so on.
TYPE SCALE ON ONE SCALE ON OTHER
EDGE EDGE
M1 1:1 1:2
M2 1:2.5 1:5
M3 1:10 1:20
M4 1:50 1:100
M5 1:200 1:400
M6 1:300 1:600
M7 1:400 1:800
M8 1:1000 1:2000

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J. INSTRUMENT BOX
 An instrument box contains the following:
 Large compass (with attachment facility) (a)
 Large divider (b)
 Bow compasses(pencil/ink), bow divider (c)
 Lengthening bar (d)
 Pen point for attachment (e)
 Screwdriver (f)
 Lead case (g)
 Liner (h)

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K. Drawing Sheet
These are of two types:
 Hand-made paper
Hand-made papers have rough surfaces, pale in
colour and not used for regular work, but meant for
charts.
 Mill-made paper
Mill-made papers are most commonly used for
regular work, and are available in different sizes and
rolls. They are specified by their weight in kg per
ream or density in grams per square meter.
Size of drawing sheets
The area of the biggest size (A0) is 1m2 and
its length and breadth are in the ratio 1:√2. Let x and
y are the sides of the paper. The surface area of A0 is
Toppers – 2015
1m2, then the sides are x = 0.841 m and y = 1.189 m.
Rank 2 384.50 Rank 3 384.00 367.75 364.50 SARATH

SIVA CHARLES KUMAR
RAGHUL C. SHANMUGAVEL
362.00
RANJITH
359.5 359.25 355.00 JAMES
RAJENDRAN VENKATESH BABU MARTIN. A
Two series of successive sizes are obtained by either

354
halving or doubling along the length. The area of the MANIKANDAN
352.5 RIYAZ
MOHAMMED
351. 25
PRASANTH 350.000
RAMESH
successive sizes are in the ratio of 1:2.
Designation of sheets: The drawing sheets are
designated by symbols such as A0,A1,A2,,A3,A4 and
A5. A0 being the largest.
Designation Trimmed size Untrimmed size

345.50 344.75
A0 841 x 1189 880 x 1230 346.50
PRAVEEN
PARVATHA
PERIYATHIRUMAL NISHANTHI 344.50
A1 594 x 841 625 x 880 ANBARASU
A2 420 x 594 450 x 625

A3 297 x 420 330 x 450
A4 210 x 297 240 x 330
A5 148 x 210 165 x 240 342.5
342.00
342.00
SATHIS
NANDHINI SRI ELAVARASU 341.00
PANDIAN
VIJAY

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1.5. FOLDING OF SHEETS: [ Based on IS a) all large prints of sizes higher than A4 are
11664: 1986] folded to A4 sizes;
Two methods of folding of drawing prints. b) the title blocks of all the folded prints appear
 Drawing prints to be filed or bound, in topmost position;
 Drawing prints to be kept individually in filing c) the bottom right corner shall be outermost visible
cabinet. section and shall have a width not less than 190
When drawings sheets are in more numbers, they mm.
have to be folded and kept in order to save the trace Note: Depending on the method of folding adopted,
required for preserving them in drawing cabinet. suitable folding marks are to be introduced in the
Basic Principles of folding of drawing sheetThe tracing sheets as guide.
basic principles in each of the above methods are to
ensure that:

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1.6. LETTERING STYLES:  Guidelines of both top and bottom should
Range of Nominal Sizes of Lettering: always be drawn with a sharp pencil.
The standard heights recommended by BIS SP: Dimension of lettering
46-2003 [Based on IS 9609 (Part O):2001/1S03098- 1.Lettering height-h
0 : 1997] 2. Height of lower-case letters (x-height)- c1
 The range of nominal height (h) of lettering is 3. Tail of lower-case letters-C2
specified as follows: 1.8 mm; 2.5 mm; 3S mm; 4. Stem of lower-case letters- C3
5 mm; 7 mm; 10 mm; 14 mm; 20 mm i.e.) The 5. Area of diacritical marks (upper-case letters)- f
multiple of √2 . 6. Spacing between characters - a
 The height of lower case letter (without tail or 7. Minimum spacing between base line (Upper-case
stem) are 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10 and 14 mm. & lower-case letters with diacritical marks)-b1
 The lettering may be vertical (upright), or 8. Minimum spacing between base line (Upper-case
inclined (sloped) to the right at 75° from the & lower-case letters without diacritical marks)-b2
horizontal 9. Minimum spacing between base line (Upper-case
letters only)-b3
10. Spacing between words – e
11. Line width of letter- d
Types of Lettering
Lettering Type Angle
A Vertical (AV)
Points to be consider
 For curved letters use a smooth freehand
Sloped (AS)
curve. B Vertical (BV)
 Print straight line letters using either scale or Sloped (BS)
set-squares. In Type A, height of the capital letter is divided into
 To maintain the uniform thickness of the line, 14 equal parts, while in Type B, height of the capital
use a conical point soft grade pencil and avoid letter is divided into 10 equal parts. Type B is
too much sharpness. preferred for easy and fast execution, because of the
division of height into 10 equal parts.

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Characteristic Not Type A Type B Type of alphabet (“L”, “G” or “C’’)
atio Many styles of lettering are in use today. However, a
n few styles which are recommended by BIS standard
Lettering height h H h are
Height of lower-case c1 10h/14 7h/10  Latin (L) alphabet
 Cyrillic (C) alphabet &
letters (x-height)  Greek (G) alphabets.
Tail of lower-case C2 4h/14 3h/10 Designation
letters The designation of lettering types A and B shall
Stem of lower-case C3 4h/14 3h/10 comprise the following elements in the given order:
letters a) ‘‘Lettering”;
b) “IS 9609”;
Area of diacritical f 5h/14 4h/10
c) The type of lettering (“A” or “B”);
marks (upper-case d) The inclination of lettering (’ ‘V” or “S”);
letters) e) The kind of alphabet (“L”, “G” or “C’’ ); and
Spacing between a 2h/14 2h/10 f) The nominal size of the lettering, in mm.
characters Examples
Minimum spacing b1 25h/14 19h/10 A graphic character set of lettering Type B, vertical,
Latin alphabet, of nominal size 5 mm, shall be
between base line
designated as follows:
(Upper-case & lower- Lettering IS 9609- BVL -5
case letters with A graphic character set of lettering Type A, sloped,
diacritical marks) Greek alphabet, of nominal size 3.5 mm, shall be
Minimum spacing b2 21h/14 15h/10 designated as follows:
between base line Lettering IS 9609- ASG -3.5
(Upper-case & lower- TNPSC AE Exam
case letters without TOPPERS-2008 EXAM
diacritical marks)
Minimum spacing b3 17h/14 13h/10
between base line
(Upper-case letters
only)- J.Solaimurugan M.M.PoongodiI. Vaithilingam
Overall II rank WRO I rank Buildings I rank
Spacing between words e 6h/14 6h/10 267 267 261
Line width of letter d h/14 h/10
Uppercase Lettering BIS SP: 46-2003
Width (mm) Capital letters
1 I
4 J A.Antogeethab S.Elavarasan R.Anbalagan
261 261 259.5
5 C,E,F,L
6 B,D,G,H,K,N,O,P,R,S,T,U & Z
7 A,M,Q,V,X,Y
9 W
Lower case letters and numerals
Width (mm) Capital letters G.Kalidas(258) R.Samuel(256.5) N.Elanchelian(256.5)
1 I
2 l
3 j, l
4 c, f, r, t
5 a, b, d, e, g, h, k, n, o, q, s, u, v, x, y,x
0,2,3,5 to 9 M.Kalaiselvi (253.5) S.Parthiban (253.5) M.S.Nanthini (253.
0,2,3,5 to 9
6 m,4
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1.7. Scales: Metric Measurements
Scale  10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre( cm)
Ratio of the linear dimension of an element of  10 centimetres (cm) = 1 decimetre(dm)
an object as represented in the original drawing to the
 10 decimetre (dm) = 1 metre(m)
real linear dimension of the same element of the
object itself.  10 metres (m) = 1 decametre (dam)
1.Necessity of scales  10 decametre (dam) = 1 hectometre (bm)
 It is difficult to draw the components to their  10 hectometres (bm) = 1 kilometre (km)
actual sizes, because they may be too large to  1 hectare = 10,000 m2
be accommodated on the drawing sheet or too Construction of scales
small to draw and cannot be effectively used To construct a scale the following information is
in the shop floor. essential
 RF of the scale
 So, depending on the situation drawings are  Units which it must represent example mm;
drawn smaller or larger than the actual sizes. cm; m; ft; inches etc.
 When we say that the drawings are smaller or  The maximum length it must show.
larger, we mean that a given length in the Minimum length of the scale = RF x the maximum
drawing will be smaller or larger than the length required to be measured.
corresponding length in the object.  Here RF is expressed as a fraction.
 For example, think of making the drawing of Recommended length of the scale is 15 or 30
a motor car. It is too long and wide to be cm but prefer 15 cm.
drawn on the drawing sheet to its original size. Type of scales
Similarly small component like wheel of a 1.Based on size of object
a. Full Size scale
wrist watch or its needle (hands) if drawn to  A scale with the ratio 1:1.
its original size will not be legible enough for  If the actual linear dimensions of an object are
use in the shop floor. shown in its drawing, the scale used is said to
2. Representative Fraction (RF). be a full-size scale.
The ratio of the dimension of the object shown  Wherever possible, it is desirable to make
on the drawing to its actual size is called the drawings to full size.
Representative Fraction (RF). b. Enlargement Scale
 A scale where the ratio is larger than 1:1. It is
Drawing size of an object
R.F= (in same units) said to be larger as its ratio increases.
Its actual size
 For drawing small objects such as watch parts,
For example, if an actual length of 3 metres of an instrument components etc., use of full scale
object is represented by a line of 15mm length may not be useful to represent the object
on the drawing clearly. In those cases enlarging scales are
used.
R.F=
Drawing size of an object 15 𝑚𝑚 1
=3X1000mm = 200 or 1:200  An enlarging scale, say 10: 1 means one unit
Its actual size length on the object is represented by 10 units
on the drawing.
Depending on the situation the term scale implies
c. Reduction Scale
either RF or a measuring device itself made for a
 A scale where ratio is smaller than 1:1. It is
particular RF.
said to be smaller as its ratio decreases.
 RF has two elements of which one of the  Objects which are very big in size cannot be
element is always '1'. Example of RF: 1:5; represented in drawing to full size.
1:22; 10:1; 150:1 etc.  In such cases the object is represented in
 First element in the RF always represents the reduced size by making use of reducing
size in the drawing while the second element scales. Reducing scales are used to represent
represents the corresponding size of the objects such as large machine parts, buildings,
object. town plans etc.

18
 A reducing scale, say 1: 10 means that 10 2. Diagonal scales
units length on the object is represented by 1  Plain scales are used to read lengths in two
unit length on the drawing. units such as metres and decimetres,
Designation of scale centimetres and millimetres etc., or to read to
The designation of a scale consists of the word. the accuracy correct to first decimal.
SCALE, followed by the indication of its ratio as  Diagonal scales are used to represent either three
follows. units of measurements such as metres, decimetres,
 Scale 1: 1 for full size scale centimetres or to read to the accuracy correct to
 Scale 1: x for reducing scales (x =10,20 ..etc.,) two decimals.
 Scale x: 1 for enlarging scales.  Principle of diagonal scale is based on the
 Note: For all drawings the scale has to be principle of similar triangles.
mentioned without fail. Construction of diagonal scales.
Scales for Use on Technical Drawings
Category Recommended Scales
Enlargement Scales 50:1, 20:1, 10:1 ,5:1 ,2:1
Full size 1:1
Reduction Scales 1:2, 1:5, 1:10
1:20, 1:50, 1:100
1:200, 1:500, 1:1000
1:2000, 1:5000, 1:10000
2.Based on accuracy
The types of scales normally used are:
1. Plain scales.
2. Diagonal Scales.
3. Vernier Scales.
1. Plain Scales
 A plain scale is simply a line which is divided 1. Draw a line AB and erect a perpendicular at B.
into a suitable number of equal parts, the first 2. Mark 10 equi-distant points (1,2,3, etc.) of any
of which is further sub-divided into small suitable length along this perpendicular and mark C.
parts. 3. Complete the rectangle ABCD
 It is used to represent either two units or a unit 4. Draw the diagonal BD.
and its fraction such as km and bm, m and dm, 5. Draw horizontals through the division points to
cm and mm etc. meet BD at l’, 2’, 3' etc.
 Scales are drawn in the form of rectangle, of 6.Thus, the lines 1-1',2 - 2', 3 - 3' etc., measure 0.1
length 15 cm (can be upto 30 cm) and width CD, 0.2CD, 0.3CD etc. respectively.
15 mm. 7.Thus, CD is divided into 1/10 the divisions by the
 It is divided into suitable number of parts. diagonal BD, i.e., each horizontal line is a multiple of
 The first part of the line is sub-divided into 1/10 CD.
smaller units as required. Note: B C must be divided into the same number of
Every scale should have the following salient parts as there are units of the third dimension
features: in one unit of the secondary division.
 The zero of the scale is placed at the end of
the first division from left side.
 From zero, mark further divisions are
numbered towards right.
 Sub-divisions are marked in the first division
from zero to left side.

19
2019 TNPSC AE Exam TOPPERS 3. Comparative scale
 Comparative scales are scales by similar
representative fraction but graduate to
examine dissimilar units.
 A map or a drawing drawn by a scale reading
miles and furlongs can be calculated off
directly in kilometers and hectometers
through a comparative scale construct by
same representative fraction.
 Comparative scales can be construct as plain
Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3 scales or diagonal scales depending upon
Tharini.S Prasannan.B Logaraja M M necessity.
18KB161 18KE006 18KA210  The comparative scale has an advantage of
taking measurements directly from the plan in
the desired units without any calculation
work.
Venkatesh.S Shyamsundar R Pradeep.R

18KA118 17KA266 15KB029
4.Vernier Scale
 The vernier is a device used for determining the
fractional parts of the smallest division of the main
scale more accurately than it can be done by
simply estimating by eye.
 It consists of a small scale called the vernier scale
Tamil selvan.N Dinesh which moves with its graduated edge along the
Rahul.KS
18KA258 kumar.S 16KG115 graduated edge of a long fixed scale called the
17KA371 main scale.
 The scale may be either straight or curved.
Ranjitha.G Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N

18KA343 18KD195 17KB185
 The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale

constructed along the plain or main scale, which
can read upto two decimal places.
 The smallest division on the main scale and
vernier scale are 1 msd (main scale division) or 1
vsd (vernier scale division) respectively.
 Generally (n+ 1) or (n-l) divisions on the main
Jeyadhanusha.G Ponmani.B Sivakumar.L scale is divided into n equal parts on the vernier
18KA240 18KA221 18KC104 scale.

20
 The least count (LC) is the smallest dimension  Functional dimension (F)
correct to which a measurement can be made  Non-functional dimension (NF)
with a vernier.  Auxiliary or Reference dimension (AUX/REF)
Functional dimension
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Least Count= A dimension that is essential to the function of
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟
the piece or space (see F in Figure).
Forward or direct vernier:When 1 VSD < 1 it is Non-functional dimension
called forward or direct vernier. The vernier A dimension that is not essential to the function of the
divisions are numbered in the same direction as piece or space (see NF in Figure).
those on the main scale. Auxiliary dimension
𝑛−1
1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 =  A dimension given for information purposes only.
𝑛  It does not govern production or inspection
For forward vernier, L C = (1 MSD - 1 VSD)
Backward or retrograde vernier. operations and is derived from other values shown
When 1 VSD > 1 , it is called backward or on the drawing or in related documents.
retrograde vernier. The vernier divisions are  An auxiliary dimension is given in parenthesis and
numbered in the opposite direction compared to no tolerance applies to it. (see AUX in Figure)
those on the main scale.
𝑛+1
1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛
For backward vernier, LC = (1VSD – 1 MSD)
1.8. Dimensioning: [Based onIS11669: 1986/1S0 129:

1985]
Dimension: It is a numerical value expressed
appropriate unit of measurement and indicated
graphically on technical drawings with lines, symbols
and notes.
Dimension line: These are thin continuous lines,
terminated at ends by arrowheads, dots or oblique lines
touching the extension line.
Importance of dimensioning:
 Any Component or product manufactured
should be confirm to its specification. In fact,
without specification of product, there cannot Size dimensions: Give the size of a component, part,
be production. hole, slot, depth, width, radius etc. eg: L1, L3, H, h1,
 In engineering industry, all manufacturing is S etc. in the following figure
controlled by the technical specification of Location dimension: Give or fixes the relationship
product or components. of the features. viz centre of holes, slots and any
 Technical specification provides complete significant forms. eg: L4, L5, L6 in the following
information on the shape, size, tolerance, finish, figure.
material and other technical aspects such as heat
treatment, surface coating and other relevant
information required to manufacture a
component.
 In most cases technical specifications of
components are given in the form of a technical
drawing while shape is described by various
types of views i.e.) Orthographic, pictorial and
perspective projection and size is given by
dimensions.
Types of dimensioning:
21
Principles of Dimensioning 7. No gap should be left between the feature and the
Some of the basic principles of dimensioning are start of the extension line.
given below.
1. All dimensional information necessary to describe
a component clearly and completely shall be written
directly on a drawing.
2. Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a
drawing, i.e., dimension marked in one view need
not be repeated in another view.
3. Dimension should be placed on the view where 8. Crossing of centre lines should be done by a long
the shape is best seen dash and not a short dash.
Elements of dimensioning
The elements of dimensioning include the
projection line (Extension line)(a), dimension line
(b), leader line(c), dimension line termination (d), the
4. As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed origin indication (e), and the dimension itself. The
in one unit only preferably in millimeters, without various elements of dimensioning are illustrated in
Fig.
showing the unit symbol (mm).
5. As far as possible dimensions should be placed
outside the view
6. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines

rather than from hidden lines. Projection Lines, Dimension Lines and Leader
Lines
 Projection lines, dimension lines and leader
lines are drawn as continuous narrow lines.
 Projection lines shall extend slightly beyond
the respective dimension line.
 Projection lines should be drawn
perpendicular to the feature being
dimensioned.
22
 In general, projection lines and dimension
lines should-not cross other avoidable
 A dimension line shall be shown unbroken

where the feature to which it refers is shown
broken
 Intersecting projection and dimension lines

should be avoided. Where unavoidable,
however, neither line shall be shown with a
break
 A centreline or the outline of a part shall not
 Where necessary, however, they may be
be used as a dimension Iine but maybe used in
drawn obliquely, but parallel to each other.
place of a projection line
 Intersecting construction and projection

lines shall extend slightly beyond their point
of intersection.
Terminations and Origin Indication
 Dimension lines shall show distinct
terminations (that is either arrowheads or
oblique strokes), or, where applicable, an
origin indication.
2D line terminations and an origin indication the are
 arrowhead, drawn as short lines forming
barbs at any convenient included angle
between 15° and 90°. The arrowhead may be
23
open, closed, or closed and filled.
 the oblique stroke, drawn as a short line
inclined at 45°
 Only one arrowhead termination, with its

point on the arc end of the dimension line,
shall be used where a radius is dimensioned.
The arrowhead termination may be either on
the inside or on the outside of the feature
outline (or its projection line) depending
upon the size of the feature.
Methods of indicating values: There are two

 The origin indication, drawn as a small open methods used for indicating the values. Only one
circle of approximately 3 mm in diameter. method should be used on any one drawing.
 Method 1 : Aligned system:
 Method 2 : Unidirectional system
Note: Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to
place the dimension in both cases.
 One style of arrowhead termination only shall Method 1 : Aligned system: Dimensions should be
be used on a single drawing However, where placed parallel to and above their dimension lines and
space is too small for an arrowhead, the oblique preferably at the middle, and clear of the line
stroke or a dot may be substituted
 Arrowhead terminations shall be shown within

the limits of the dimension line where space is
available. Where space is limited, the
arrowhead termination may be shown outside
the intended limits of the dimension line that is
extended for that purpose.

24
 Angular dimensional values may be oriented as
Method 2 : Unidirectional system

Dimensions should be indicated so that they can be
read from the bottom of the drawing only. Non-
horizontal dimension lines are interrupted, preferably
in the middle for insertion of the dimension

25
Arrangement of Dimensions 3. Combined dimensioning.
The arrangement of dimensions on a drawing must Dimensions are given in chain dimensioning and
indicate clearly the purpose of the design of the parallel dimensioning. Common feature is combined.
object. They are arranged in three ways.
1. Chain dimensioning
2. Parallel dimensioning
3. Combined dimensioning.
4.Superimposed running dimensioning (Progressive
dimensioning)
5.Dimensioning by co-ordinates:
6.Dimensioning of geometrical features.
1. Chain dimensioning
Chain of single dimensioning should be used only
where the possible accumulation of tolerances does 4.Superimposed running dimensioning
not endanger the fundamental requirement of the (Progressive
component. dimensioning):
 It is a simplified dimensioning also
Cumulative error is controlled.
 It starts from one origin with arrow heads in
one direction only.
 This may be used where there are space
limitations and where no legibility problems
would occur.
 The origin indication is placed appropriately
and the opposite ends of each dimension line
shall be terminated only with an arrow head.
It may be advantageous to use superimposed
running dimensions in two directions.
2. Parallel dimensioning
In parallel dimensioning, a number of dimension lines
parallel to one another and spaced out, are used. This
method is used where a number of dimensions have a
common datum feature.
6.Dimensioning by co-ordinates:
 This system is much used for components,
produced on jig boring machine.
 Two edges are taken as datum. (references)
Instead of dimensioning in superimposed
way, same may be tabulated and given.

26
2019 TNPSC AE Exam TOPPERS
Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3

Tharini.S Prasannan.B Logaraja M M
18KB161 18KE006 18KA210
Venkatesh.S Shyamsundar Pradeep.R

6.Dimensioning of geometrical features 18KA118 R 15KB029
Diameter may be indicated by any one of 17KA266
the abbreviation D, Dia, d, dia or φ and radius
may be indicated by R, r, Rad or rad by
square.
Any one abbreviation or symbol on a
drawing may be indicated by SQ or . The
length if any required to give alongwith dia, if
it is shown as φ...x... long. Dinesh
Tamil selvan.N Rahul.KS
kumar.S
 φ – Diameter 18KA258
17KA371
16KG115
 R - Radius
 - Square
 SR - Spherical radius
 Sφ - Spherical diameter
Ranjitha.G
Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N
18KA343
18KD195 17KB185
Jeyadhanusha.G Ponmani.B
Sivakumar.L
18KA240 18KA221
18KC104

27
1.9 Plane Geometrical construction: List of Geometrical shapes
The essence of Geometrical Constructions: 2D Shapes 3 D Shapes
 Geometry is a concept that deals with lines,  Triangle  Sphere
angles, shapes of objects, sizes, and  Circle  Cube
dimensions.  Semi-Circle  Cuboid
 To represent shapes on paper we need to  Square  Cone
draw them accurately with the help of tools  Cylinder
 Rectangle
like rulers, protractors, or compasses.
 Parallelogram
 The simplest construction is that of a line.
 Rhombus
 A line can have a fixed measurement or an
 Trapezium
infinite length.
 Polygons
 Similarly, angles, circles, and other shapes
can be constructed with the correct procedure (Pentagon,
and the given dimensions. Hexagon, Octagon,
Geometrical Construction Definition Nonagon, Decagon,
 Geometrical construction means drawing etc.)
lines, line segments, shapes, circles, and other
figures accurately using a ruler, a compass, or
a protractor.
 Most of the geometrical figures involve
drawing a line segment, drawing parallel and
perpendicular lines, perpendicular bisectors,
circles, and even drawing tangents to circles
SHAPES
S
Terms and Definitions Used in Geometrical
Constructions
REGULAR IRREGULAR
 Bisect: In geometrical constructions, bisect
SHAPES SHAPES
means dividing into two equal parts. We can
bisect a line, an angle, and even shapes.
 Parallel: When two lines are drawn on a
 Shapes are also classified with respect to plane that does not meet each other, they are
their regularity or uniformity. called as parallel lines.
 A regular shape is usually symmetrical  Perpendicular: When two lines are drawn
meet each other at a right angle or 90°, they
such as a square, circle, etc.
are called perpendicular lines.
 Irregular shapes are asymmetrical. They  Tangent: Tangent is defined as a straight line
are also called freeform shapes or organic that touches a curve at a point.
shapes. For example, the shape of a tree is  Inscribed: When a polygon is fully drawn
irregular or organic. inside a circle, we can say that the polygon is
 In plane geometry, the two-dimensional inscribed in the circle. It can also be said
shapes are flat shapes and closed that the circle is circumscribed by the
figures such as circles, squares, polygon.
rectangles, rhombus, etc.  Circumscribed: When a polygon surrounds
another geometrical figure (say, a circle) such
that all the vertices of the inner figure touch
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE
the sides of the outer polygon, then the
ACADEMY
EXTENSIVE AND WELL INFORMATIVE CLASSES BY polygon is said to be circumscribed about the
HIGHLY QUALIFIED (FROM IIT CHENNAI) AND circle.
EXPERIENCED TECHNICAL EXPERTS The following figures describe each of the
COMPLETE GUIDANCE FOR WRITTEN TEST
TIMELY COMPLETION OF FULL SYLLABUS WITH
geometric terms discussed above.
STRSSING ON VITAL AREAS
WELL PLANNED TEST SERIES AND REGULAR
ASSEMNET OF PERFORMANCE III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,
28
3.Square
A Square is a quadrilateral where all the four
sides and angles are equal and the angles at all
the vertices are equal to 90° each.
GEOMETRICAL SHAPES
1. Triangle 4. Rectangle or oblong
Triangle is a polygon, which is made of three A quadrilateral has two pairs of opposite sides
sides and consists of three edges and three equal in length and interior angles are at the
vertices. Also, the sum of its internal angles right angles.
5. Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs
of parallel sides and opposite angles are equal in
equals 180o.
measure.
Types:
 Equilateral,
 Isosceles
 Scalene. (A scalene triangle has three
unequal sides).
2.Circle
The locus of all points at a fixed distance from a
reference central point is called a Circle.
6. Polygons
These are made up of line segments and no
curves. They are enclosed structures based on
different lengths of sides and different angles.

29
8. Rhomboid- Opposite sides equal and parallel,
but angles are not right angles.
Sides Name of Polygon 9. Trapezoid- Only two sides parallel.

3 Triangle
4 Tetragon
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon 10. Trapezium- No sides parallel, but may have
two of its sides equal. When two of the sides are
9 Nonagon
equal, it is called a trapezium or kite.
10 Decagon
11 Hendecagon
12 Dodecagon
13 Tridecagon
14 Tetradecagon
15 Pentadecagon
16 Hexadecagon
17 Heptadecagon
18 Octadecagon
19 Ennedecagon
20 Icosagon
7. Rhombus- All sides are equal, but angles are
not right angles.

30
2019 TNPSC AE Exam TOPPERS 1.9.1 Types of lines and Angles:
Point:
 A point represents a location in space,
having no width or height.
 It is represented by drawing intersection
of lines or a dot.

18KB161 18KE006 18KA210
Line:
 Line is the path of a point when it moves.
 It has no thickness and are of two types.
Venkatesh.S They are
Shyamsundar Pradeep.R
18KA118 R 15KB029  Straight line
17KA266  Curved line
Straight line:
 It is the path of a point when it is moving
in a particular direction. It has only length
and no width.
 Also a straight line is the shortest distance
Dinesh
between two points.
Tamil Rahul.KS
selvan.N kumar.S 16KG115  Straight line, depending on its orientation
18KA258 17KA371 are classified as
 Horizontal,
 Vertical,
 Inclined or Oblique line.
 Horizontal line:
Ranjitha.G  Horizontal lines are those which
Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N
18KA343 18KD195 17KB185 are parallel to a horizontal plane.
 Example of horizontal plane is the
surface of a still water.


Jeyadhanusha. Ponmani.B 
Sivakumar.L
G 18KA221 18KC104 
18KA240

31
 Vertical line: Perpendicular lines:
 Lines which are perpendicular to  When two lines meet at 900, the two lines
horizontal lines are called vertical are said to be perpendicular to each other.
lines.  One of this line is called as reference line.
 It can be treated as a line along the
plumb line of the plumb bob or
parallel to a plumb line.
Angles:
 Angle is the inclination between two
straight lines meeting at a point or meet
when extended.
 AB and BC are two straight lines meeting
at B.
 Inclined line or Oblique line:  The inclination between them is called an
 A straight line which is neither angle.
horizontal nor vertical is called an  The angle is expressed in degrees or
inclined line. radians.
Curved line:
 It is the path of a point which always
changes its direction.
Parallel lines: Concept of a degree:

 They are the lines with same distance  When the circumference of a circle is
between them. divided into 360 equal parts and radial
 They may be straight lines or curved lines are drawn through these points, the
lines. inclination between the two adjacent
 Parallel lines do not meet when extended. radial lines is defined as one degree.
 Thus a circle is said to contain 360o.
Acute angle:
 If an angle which is less than 90o is called
an acute angle.

32
Right angle:  Protractor can also be used to divide a
 Angle between a reference line and a circle or drawing sectors.
perpendicular line is called right angle.
Obtuse angle:
 This refer to an angle between 90o and
180o.
Straight angle:
 This refers to an angle of 180o. This is also
called as the angle of a straight line.
Complementary angles:
 When the sum of the two angles is equal
1.10 Triangle:
to 90o, angle POQ + angle QOR = 90o
 Triangle is a closed plane figure having
angle POQ and angle QOR are three sides and three angles.
complementary angles to each other.  The sum of the three angles always equals
to 180°.
 To define a triangle, we need to have a
minimum of three measurements as
follows:
o 3 sides (or)
o 2 sides and one angle (or)
o 2 angles and one side
Types of Triangle:
Supplementary angle:  Equilateral triangle
 When the sum of the two adjacent angles  It is a triangle having all the three
sides equal.
is equal to 180o, example angle SOT +
 Also all the three angles are equal
angle TOY = 180o, angle SOT and angle
(60°)
TOY are supplementary angles to each
other.
Protractor:
 Protractor is an instrument for measuring
angles.
 It is semi-circular or circular in shapes
and is made of flat celluloid sheet.
 The angles can be set or measured from
both sides, aligning the reference line and
point `0' with the corner point of the
angle.
33
 Area of triangle is equal to half of its
product of base and height.
 Perimeter of triangle is equal to the sum
of all its three sides.
 Isosceles triangle
 It is triangle which has two of its
sides equal.
 The angles opposite to the two
equal sides are also equal.
 Scalene triangle
 It is a type of triangle which has all
the three sides unequal in lengths.
 All the three angles are also
unequal.
 Right angled triangle
 It is one in which one of the angles
is equal to 90° (Right angle).
 The side opposite to right angle is
called hypotenuse.
 Acute angled triangle
 It is one in which all the three
angles are less than 90°.
 Obtuse angled triangle
 It has one of the angles more than
90°.
Properties of Triangle: 1.11 Quadrilaterals and their properties:
 The sum of the three angles in any  Quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded
triangle is equal to 180°. by four sides and four angles.
 The sum of any two sides is more than the  Sum of the four angles in a quadrilateral
third side. is of interior angles is equal to 360°.
 Similarly, the difference between the two  The side joining opposite corners is called
sides of a triangle is less than the length diagonal.
of the third side.  To construct a quadrilateral out of four
 The side opposite to the largest angle of a sides, four angles and two diagonals a
triangle is the largest side. minimum of five dimensions are required
 The exterior angle of a triangle is always of which two must be sides.
equal to the sum of interior opposite  Quadrilaterals are also referred as
angles. This property is called an exterior Trapezoid.
angle property.

34
Types of Quadrilaterals: Rhombus
Square  In rhombus all the four sides are equal, but
 In a square all the four sides are equal and only the opposite angles are equal.
its four angles are right angles.  If ABCD is the rhombus where AB = BC = CD
 The two diagonals are equal and = AD.
 Angle ABC = Angle ADC and Angle BAD =
perpendicular to each other.
Angle BCD.
 To construct a square we need to know
 Diagonals AC and BD are not equal but
length of the side, length of the diagonal. bisecting at right angles.
 AO = OC and BO = OD.
 To construct a rhombus we need to know
(a) two diagonals (or)
(b) one diagonal and an opposite angle (or)
(c) one side and its adjacent angle.
Rectangle
 In a rectangle, opposite sides are equal and
parallel and all four angles are right angles.
 To construct a rectangle we need to know the Rhomboid/Parallelogram
length of two adjacent sides (or) diagonal and  In a parallelogram opposite sides are equal
one side. and parallel.
 In rectangle ABCD, Sides AB = DC and BC  Opposite angles are also equal.
= AD.  Diagonals are not equal but bisect each other.
 Diagonals AC and BD are equal, bisect but  Parallelogram is also known as rhomboid.
not at right angles.  To construct a parallelogram we need
(a) two adjacent sides and the angle
between them (or)
(b)one side, diagonal, and angle between
them (or)
(c) two adjacent sides and a perpendicular
distance between the opposite sides.
 In the parallelogram ABCD, AB = DC; AD =
BC
 Angle DAB = angle DCB, angle ABC = angle
ADC
 Sides AB, CD and AD, BC are parallel.
 Diagonals AC and BD are not equal but bisect
at 0.

35
 When all the sides and included angles are
equal, it is called a regular polygon.
1.12. Properties of polygon
 All corners of a regular polygon lie on the
circle.
 The sides of a regular polygon will be
tangential to the circle drawn on the side.
 The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is
equal to (2 x n - 4) x rt angle, where n is the
number of sides.
 The sum of exterior angles of a polygon is
equal to 360°.
 The sum of the interior angle and the
corresponding external angle is 180°.
Trapezoid
 It is a quadrilateral, all the four sides are
different and only two sides are parallel, all
the four angles are different.
 The diagonals do not bisect at right angles.
 ABCD is a trapezoid, sides AB and DC are
parallel but not equal.
 Diagonals AC and BD and AO = OC need not Basic formula:
be equal. 1) RECTANGLE
 Sides AD and BC may sometimes equal. a
b
a = length
b = breadth
 Area : a x b (sq. unit)
 Perimeter : 2(a+b) (unit)
 Length of Diagonal : √𝑎2 + 𝑏² (unit)
2) SQUARE
a
a a = side of square
 Area : a² (sq. unit)

 Perimeter : 4a (unit)
 Length of Diagonal : a√2 (unit)
3) SCALENE TRIANGLE
a b Where,
Trapezium
a, b, c are unequal sides
 It is a plane figure of 4 sides, and any two
c
sides equals each other.
 Area : √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) (sq. unit)
2.5 Polygon and their properties:  Perimeter : (a+b+c) (unit)
 A polygon is a plane figure bounded by 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
 S= (unit) , S is semiperimeter
many (usually five or more) straight lines. 2

36
4) RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE 10) SEMICIRCLE
d
a = base whre r = radius
b c b = height r d = diameter
c = hypotenuse
a 𝜋𝑟²
 Area : 2 (sq. unit)
1
 Area : 2 a x b (sq. unit)  Circumference : 𝜋r (unit)
 Perimeter : (a+b+c) (unit)  Perimeter : (𝜋r + 2r) (unit)
5) EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE 2019 TNPSC AE Exam TOPPERS

a a where all sides are equal
and all the angles is 60º
a
√3
 Area : 4 a² (sq. unit)
6) TRAPEZIUM
b
where a & b are parallel to,
h each other. 18KA210
18KB161 18KE006
a
1
 Area : h (a+b) (sq. unit)
2
 Perimeter : Sum of all 4 sides (unit)
7) RHOMBUS
a
𝒅𝟏 Rhombus is also called as an
a a equilateral parallelogram.
𝒅𝟐 Venkatesh.S
a Shyamsundar Pradeep.R
1
18KA118 R 15KB029
 Area : 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (sq. unit)
17KA266
8) PARALLELOGRAM
a parallelogram is a simple
quadrilateral with opposite
h b sides parallel to each other
 Area : a x h (sq. unit) Tamil selvan.N Dinesh Rahul.KS

 Perimeter : 2(a+b) (unit) 18KA258 kumar.S 16KG115
17KA371
9) CIRCLE
r where, r = radius
d d = diameter
Ranjitha.G Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N

𝜋𝑑²
 Area : 𝜋r² (or) (sq. unit) 18KA343 18KD195 17KB185
4
 Circumference : 2𝜋r (or) 𝜋d (unit)

37
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PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Designation Length (mm) Sheet size

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

BIS recommends eight set-scales in plastic/cardboard

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Rank 2 384.50 Rank 3 384.00 367.75 364.50 SARATH

Two series of successive sizes are obtained by either

Designation Trimmed size Untrimmed size

A2 420 x 594 450 x 625

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Venkatesh.S Shyamsundar R Pradeep.R

Ranjitha.G Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N

 The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

1.8. Dimensioning: [Based onIS11669: 1986/1S0 129:

6. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines

 A dimension line shall be shown unbroken

 Intersecting projection and dimension lines

 Intersecting construction and projection

 Only one arrowhead termination, with its

Methods of indicating values: There are two

 Arrowhead terminations shall be shown within

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Method 2 : Unidirectional system

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3

Venkatesh.S Shyamsundar Pradeep.R

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Sides Name of Polygon 9. Trapezoid- Only two sides parallel.

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

Parallel lines: Concept of a degree:

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

 Area : a² (sq. unit)

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

5) EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE 2019 TNPSC AE Exam TOPPERS

 Area : a x h (sq. unit) Tamil selvan.N Dinesh Rahul.KS

Ranjitha.G Jeyagomathi.K Muthumani.N

III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR,

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