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MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

L T P J C
2 1 2 0 4

Dr. Bibhuti B. SAHOO

Associate Professor,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
VIT University, Vellore, TN, India – 632 014.

MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

IC Engines: Working principle of 2 stroke and 4 stroke SI and CI engines with PV and Valve
Module – 1 Timing Diagrams, Combustion process - Knocking and detonation, Cetane and Octane
numbers, Comparison of fuel system of diesel and petrol engines, Cooling system, Lubrication
system, Ignition system - Battery, Magneto and Electronic systems.

IC Engines Performance: Performance test - Measurement of brake power, Indicated power,

Module – 2 Fuel consumption, Air consumption; Heat balance test, Morse test and retardation test on IC
engine.

Steam Boilers: Types of boilers, Reheating-Regeneration - Modern features of high-pressure

Module – 3 boilers - Heat Recovery Boilers - Mountings and accessories. Steam Nozzles – One-dimensional
steady flow of steam through a convergent and divergent nozzle.

Steam Turbine: Impulse and Reaction principle. Gas Turbine – Open and Closed cycle gas
Module – 4 turbine, Reheating, regeneration and intercooling.

Contd. …..

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MEE2003 THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Positive Displacement Compressors: Reciprocating compressors - Construction - Working -

Module – 5 Effect of clearance volume – Multi-staging - Volumetric efficiency - Isothermal efficiency.

Refrigeration: Vapor compression system - Components - Working - P-H and T-S diagrams -
Calculation of COP - Effect of sub-cooling and super-heating - Vapour absorption system - NH3 -
Module – 6 water system, Vapour adsorption system.

Cryogenic engineering: Introduction, Application, Cryocoolers

Module – 7 Air-conditioning: Types, Working Principles - Psychrometry, Psychrometric chart, cooling load
calculations.

Module – 8 Contemporary Discussion

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TEXT BOOKS

1. Rajput R.K., (2010), Thermal Engineering, Eighth Edition, Laxmi Publications (P)
Ltd.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Mathur. M.L & Sharma R.P (2009), Internal Combustion Engine, Dhanpat Rai
Publications.
2. Manohar Prasad., (2007), Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, New Age
International.
3. Soman.K, (2011), Thermal Engineering, PHI Learning Private Ltd.

RECOMMENDED TABLES

1. Steam Table
2. Refrigeration Table & Psychrometric Chart

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Module – 1

INTERNAL COMBUSTION (I.C.) ENGINES

1. Working principle of 2 stroke and 4 stroke SI and CI engines with PV

and Valve Timing Diagrams,

2. Combustion process - Knocking and detonation, Cetane and Octane

numbers,

3. Comparison of fuel system of diesel and petrol engines,

4. Cooling system,

5. Lubrication system,

6. Ignition system - Battery, Magneto and Electronic systems.

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Module – 2

I.C. ENGINES PERFORMANCE

1. Performance test –

• Measurement of – Brake Power (BP),

– Indicated Power (IP),
– Friction Power (FP),
– Fuel consumption,
– Air consumption.

2. Heat balance test.

3. Morse test.

4. Retardation test on IC engine.

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Engine
• Energy Conversion Device.
• A machine with moving parts that converts power into motion.

Heat Engine
• Converts Thermal Energy into Mechanical Energy for motion.

o Heat Engines Classification is based on:

 The location of the combustion – Internal / External

 The type of combustion – Intermittent / Continuous

 The type of internal motion – Reciprocating / Rotational

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External Combustion
• Use of heat exchanger to transfer
energy to the working fluid.
• Open or Closed cycle.

Intermittent Combustion

Continuous Combustion

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CLASSIFICATION

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Internal Combustion Engines

• Combustion occurs in the working fluid.

• Open cycle (working fluid is replenished in each cycle).

Reciprocating Engines
 Motion that is defined on a linear path.
 up-and-down; back-and-forth.
• Examples: lawn mowers, cars, trucks, etc...

Rotary Engines
 Has continuous rotation of the parts that are moving.
 Motion in a circular path.
• Examples: Wankel engines, Turbine engines, etc..

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Classifications of Reciprocating IC Engines

1. Engine Cycle: 4 – stroke / 2 – stroke

2. Method of Ignition: Spark Ignition (SI) / Compression Ignition (CI)
3. Position & Number of Cylinders: Opposed piston / Inline / V engine / Radial

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Thermodynamic Principles
• All internal combustion
– Open cycle heat engine

• Gasoline (Otto) engine

– Spark ignition
– Compresses air-fuel mixture

• Diesel engine
– Compressed ignition
– Compresses air only

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Parts of a SI Engine

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Parts of a CI Engine

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Components of IC Engine

• Structural Components:
 Cylinder block, Cylinder Head/Assembly, Crank case, Oil sump

• Moving Components:
 Reciprocating only (pistons and valves)
 Reciprocation & rotary (connecting rods)
 Rotary only (crankshafts and camshafts)

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Some Definitions

• Stroke - the number of times the piston travels the length of the cylinder
• Cycle - composed of 4 parts
 Intake - working substance is introduced
 Compression - working medium compressed by upward movement of piston
 Power - ignition forcing the piston down
 Exhaust - removal of exhaust gases

• Top Dead Center - when the piston is at its highest point in the cylinder. The
volume of the working fluid is a minimum.
• Bottom Dead Center - when the piston is at its lowest point in the cylinder.
The volume of the working fluid is a maximum.

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Some Engine Terms

• Bore- diameter of the cylinder

• Engine Displacement- the volume of air

that is displaced by all the pistons during
one upward stroke.

• Compression Ratio- the comparison of the

cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC
and the volume when the piston is at TDC.

• Engine stroke
– A stroke is a single traverse of the cylinder
by the piston (from TDC to BDC)
– 1 revolution of crankshaft = 2 strokes of
piston

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Parts of IC Engine

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4 – stroke & 2 – stroke IC Engines

4 – stroke ICE
• A 4-stroke engine requires 2 rev’s of crankshaft to complete the cycle.
• 1 power stroke per 2 crankshaft rev.

2 – stroke ICE
• A 2-stroke requires 1 revolution of the shaft complete the same cycle.
• 1 power stroke per 1 crankshaft rev

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WORKING OF 4 – STROKE IC ENGINE

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AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE (SI ENGINE)

Qin

Qout

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 1 Constant volume heat rejection

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ACTUAL OTTO CYCLE

• Losses – in Actual cycles

 Time Loss
 Heat Loss
 Blow-down Loss
 Blow-by Loss
 Rubbing Friction Loss
 Pumping Loss

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INSTANTANEOUS VOLUME (Vi)

 2
D  L  r 1  Cos   L2  rSin    Vc
2
Vi 
4  

Where D= Bore diam.

L= Connecting rod length,
θ= Angle from TDC,
r= Crank radius,
Vc= Clearance volume.

Actual compression ratio= Vi / Vc

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Valve Timing for Low Speed & High Speed SI engine

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Valve Timing Diagram in relation to P-V Diagram

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AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE (CI ENGINE)

Qin

Qout

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 1 Constant volume heat rejection

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ACTUAL DIESEL CYCLE

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DUAL CYCLE

• Both Otto cycle (Constant volume heat addition) and Diesel cycle
(Constant pressure heat addition) are over-simplistic and
unrealistic. In actual case, combustion takes place neither at
constant volume nor at constant pressure.

• Dual cycle is used to model the combustion process. It is a

compromise between Otto and Diesel cycles, where heat addition
takes place partly at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure. This cycle is also known as mixed cycle. In fact, Otto
and Diesel cycles are special cases of Dual cycle.

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DUAL CYCLE

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3 4 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 4 5 Isentropic expansion
Process 5 1 Constant volume heat rejection

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Comparison Between Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycle

• For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:

ηOtto >ηDual >ηDiesel

• For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure P3:

ηDiesel >ηDual >ηOtto

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2 – STROKE IC ENGINE

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WORKING OF 2 – STROKE IC ENGINE

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2 – STROKE IC ENGINE

- No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations.

- Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase or by a blower.
- Induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion through exhaust ports.
- Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into combustion chamber.

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SCAVENGING PROCESS

• Short Circuiting: Loss of fresh charge through the exhaust port without
combustion. This is reduced by proper scavenging process.

Cross Scavenging Loop Scavenging Loop Scavenging

(M.A.N. type) (Curtis type)

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ENERGY FLOW THROUGH IC ENGINES

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ENERGY DISTRIBUTION in IC ENGINES

Energy losses in
friction, pumping
etc.

• The power produced in the cylinder is termed the Indicated Power (IP).
• The term Brake Power (BP) is used to specify that the power is measured at
the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load.
• The BP < IP due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil pump, air
conditioner compressor, etc…)

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Engine Geometry

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Torque & Power

• Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is the rate at
which work is done.
b

 Torque is measured off the output shaft Stator Force F

using a dynamometer. Rotor

N
The torque exerted by the engine is T: Load cell

T  F b units : J

 The power, W delivered by the engine turning at
a speed N and absorbed by the dynamometer is:

 rad  rev 
W    T  (2  N )  T units :   ( J )  Watt
 rev  s 
Note: w is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s

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MEASUREMENT OF IP
• Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine
one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as P vs V.

• The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi   PdV

• Gross indicated work per cycle (Wgp):

Net work delivered to the piston over the
compression and expansion strokes only.
• Pump work (Wp): Net work delivered to the
gas over the intake and exhaust strokes.
• Net indicated work per cycle (Wnet) – work
delivered over all strokes.
Wnet = Wgp – Wp = area A – area B

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Indicated Power

 Net Work Transfer : Wnet   pd (mv)

Wnet   pd (mv) upper  cycle

  pd (mv)
lower  cycle

• This is net work done by working fluid on the piston, also called as
Indicated Work.
• Power generated by gas on piston (Indicated Power).

IP  Wnet n J / cyclecycle / min , J / min

where n – number of working cycle/min
= N/2 for 4-stroke
= N for 2-stroke

where, N – engine speed or crankshaft speed in rev/min

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IP in terms of Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim)

• pim is a fictitious constant pressure that

would produce the same work per cycle if it
acted on the piston during the power stroke.

• pim is a better parameter than torque to

compare engines for design and output
because it is independent of engine speed,
N, and engine size, Vd.

Wnet Wnet where A – piston area

pim  
Vd A L L – length of stroke

Area of indicator diagram (cm2 )

Also, pim   Spring constant (bar/cm)
Length of indicator diagram (cm)
pim  L  A  n  K
 IP for K number of cylinders, IP  , kW
60000
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MEASUREMENT OF BP

• The brake power measurement involves the determination of the

torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft.
• The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
• A rotor driven by the engine under test is electrically, hydraulically or
magnetically coupled to a stator.

 Work done per revolution of the shaft = 2πRF

 Moment balance, W×LA = R×F

 Hence, Work done/ rev = 2πWLA

 Work done/ min = 2πWLAN

 Hence, 2  NT
BP  , kW
60000

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Brake Power

 Also, BP  W  N , kW where C – dynamometer constant

C = 60000/2πLA

 In terms of brake mean effective pressure (pbm),

pbm  L  A  n  K
BP  , kW
60000
• pbm is very useful in comparing engines or in establishing engine
operating limits.

• Four stroke engines:

SI engines: pbm = 850-1050 kPa (at WOT)

CI engines: pbm = 700 -900 kPa

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Importance of pbm in Engine Design

 Can use maximum pbm in design calculations to estimate engine

displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified
speed.

 The maximum pbm is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed.

 Closing the throttle decreases the pbm.

 For a given displacement, a higher maximum pbm means more torque.

 For a given torque, a higher maximum pbm means smaller engine.

 Higher maximum pbm means higher stresses and temperatures in the

engine hence shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.

 For the same pbm, 2-strokes have almost twice the power of 4-stroke.

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I.C. Engine Test Rig

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DYNAMOMETER
• Dynamometers are used to measure brake torque and power over
the engine operating ranges of speed and load.
• They do this by using various methods to absorb the energy output
of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.

• Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake

(prony brake).
• These are the simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible and
accurate as others at higher energy levels.
• Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in water or
oil pumped through orifices or dissipated with viscous losses in a
rotor-stator combination.

• Large amounts of energy can be absorbed in this manner, making

this an attractive type of dynamometer for the largest of engines.

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Absorption Dynamometers

Prony Brake
Rope Brake

• Mechanical Brake Dynamometer.

• Uses mechanical friction to absorb power

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Hydraulic Dynamometer

Eddy Current Dynamometer

Electrical Dynamometer
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• Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the engine being

tested, rotating in a magnetic field of controlled strength.
• The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor cutting the lines of
magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk.
• With no external circuit, the energy from the induced currents is
absorbed in the disk.

 One of the best types of dynamometers is the electric dynamometer,

which absorbs energy with electrical output from a connected generator.
 In addition to having an accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed,
the load is easily varied by changing the amount of resistance in the
circuit connected to the generator output.
 Many electric dynamometers can also be operated in reverse, with the
generator used as a motor to drive (or motor) an unfired engine.
 This allows the engine to be tested for mechanical friction losses and air
pumping losses, quantities that are hard to measure on a running fired
engine.
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Transmission Dynamometer

 Also called torque meters.

 Very accurate and used where continuous transmission of load is
necessary.
 Used mainly in automatic units.

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MEASUREMENT OF FP
1. Willan's Line Method (Fuel Rate Extrapolation):

 The drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from

data measured between 5 & 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input.
 The directional margin of error is rather wide because of the graph which
may not be a straight line many times.
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2. Morse Test:

 The Morse test is applicable only to multi-cylinder engines.

 The engine is first run at the required speed and the output is measured.

 IP of ‘K’ cylinders is given by, IPK = BPK + FP ……. (1)

 Then, one cylinder is cut out by short circuiting the spark plug or by
disconnecting the injector as the case may be.
 Under this condition all other cylinders ‘motor’ this cut-out cylinder. The
output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original value.

 IP for (k − 1) cylinders is given by, IPK – 1 = BPK – 1 + FP ……. (2)

 IP of the kth cylinder is given by, (IP)kth = BPk − BPk – 1 ….. (3)

 The total IP of the engine, IPk = Ʃ (IP)kth ……. (4)

 FP= IPk – BPk ……. (5)
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3. Motoring Method:

• An approximate value of FP may be found immediately following a

period of running, by measuring the power required to motor the engine
(the engine is driven by an electric motor) at the requisite speed and
with the ignition switched off.

• Such a test should be carried out as near as maximum operating

temperature possible, the viscosity of the lubricant rising very
considerably with a fall of temperature.

4. Difference between IP and BP:

FP = IP – BP

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5. Retardation Test:

• Principle – Method of retarding the engine by

cutting the fuel supply.
• Run the engine at no-load under stable
conditions.
•

• Cut-off the fuel & record the time of fall of

speeds by say 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% of the
rated speed.
• Repeat the above test for 50% engine load.
• Plot a graph with time of fall in speed (x-axis)
& speed (y-axis) for both loads.

 t3  where Tf – torque load

 Frictional load, T f  Tl  , Nm
t2 – time of fall at no-load
 t2  t3 
t3 – time of fall at load
2NT f Tl = Tl/2 (torque at 50% load)
 Frictional power, FP  , kW
60000
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HEAT BALANCE TEST


Energy transfer with shaft work  P 
shaft
 

Energy transfer with cooling water (Q cw )

 
Energy input from fuel,  Q in  
  Energy transfer with exhaust gas (Q eg )

Uncounted loss (Q uncounted )
(Loss due to friction, radiation, heat transfer
to surrounding, auxiliary equipment etc.)

1. Qin   m d / 3600   LHVd  , kW 2. Pshaft  Brake power output , kW

3. Qcw   m cw / 3600  C pw   T   , kW 4. Qeg   m eg / 3600   C peg   T   , kW

 cw   eg 

 
5. Quncounted  Qin  Pshaft  Qcw  Qeg  , kW
 
o Cpeg is determined from the energy balance of exhaust gas calorimeter.
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Components of Heat Balance in % at Full Load

SI Engine CI Engine
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FUEL MEASUREMENT

 Volumetric type
• Fuel consumption is measured by determining the volume flow in
a given time interval.
• Ex: Burette method, Automatic Burette flow meter and Turbine flow
meter.
 Gravimetric type
• Measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel.
• Ex: Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Orifice flow meter, etc.

Burette flow meter Turbine flow meter Orifice flow meter

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AIR MEASUREMENT

• In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is

quite difficult because the flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of
the engine and because the air a compressible fluid.
Viscous-flow air meter
Air box method


• Orifice meter, ma  Cd A2 2   p1  p2  , kg/s

where Cd – coefficient of discharge

A2 – area of orifice (m 2)
ρ – fluid density (kg/m3)
p1 – fluid upstream pressure (Pa)
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p2 – fluid downstream pressure (Pa)
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SPEED MEASUREMENT

1. Mechanical tachometer
• It utilizes the centrifugal force on
a rotating mass which depends
on the speed of the rotation.

2. Electrical tachometer
• Electrical tachometer is a three phase
permanent magnet alternator to which
voltmeter is connected.

3. Magnetic pickup sensors can be used

for accurate and continuous measurement.

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PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Power developed
 At the same speed, Engine Load 
Maximum usable power

mf
 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc): sfc  kg/kW-hr
P
• It is the fuel flow rate per unit power output.
• sfc is a measure of how efficiently the fuel supplied to the engine is used
to produce power.
• Depending upon whether it is brake power or indicated power, the terms
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc), or indicated specific fuel
consumption (isfc) is used.
  
mf mf where m f – fuel flow rate (kg/hr)
bsfc  isfc 
BP IP P – power (kW)

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Some more ………

 Calorific Value (CV): (Heating value/ Heat of combustion)

• Thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel when fuel is burned
completely & products of combustion cooled to atmospheric pressure.
• Higher calorific value (HCV) – Products of combustion cooled to 250C & all
the water vapour condensed.
• Lower calorific value (LCV) – Water vapour in products of combustion is
not condensed and remains in vapour form.


 Mean Piston Speed ( S ) :  2 LN
p Sp  ,m/ s
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 Mean piston speed is a much more important (and limiting) feature of an
engine than its RPM.
 Fuel consumption will be the limiting factor for most engines, so their
mean piston speeds are kept as low as possible. For racing engines,
power is the goal, so the higher mean piston speed.

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Some more ………

 Specific Energy Consumption (SEC):

– It is the fuel energy required (kJ/s) to produce unit kW power output.

m f  CV
BSEC  , ( kJ / s ) fuel /( kW ) output
BP

 Specific Power Output (Ps):

– It measures the effectiveness with which piston area is used
regardless of cylinder size.

BP p LAnK / 60000 pbm 2 LN

Ps   bm   K
Piston area A 4000 60
p 
 bm  S p  K ......  4 - stroke engine
4000
p 
 bm  S p  K ......  2 - stroke engine
2000
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Some more ………


 Air-Fuel Ratio, A ma ma
 
F m f m
f

• SI engines may have A/F ratio in the range of 12 to 18.

• CI engines may have A/F ratio in the range of 18 to 70.
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Some more ………

 Chemically Correct or Stoichiometric F/A ratio:
– The mixture that contains optimum proportion of fuel air ratio.

F
Actual   ratio Φ = 1 ----- Chemically correct
  Euievalence ratio  A
F Φ < 1 ----- Lean mixture
Stoichiome tric   ratio Φ > 1 ----- Rich mixture
A

 Stoichiometric A/F ratio or Excess air ratio:

A
Actual   ratio λ = 1 ----- Chemically correct
  Excess air ratio  F
λ < 1 ----- Rich mixture
A
Stoichiome tric   ratio λ > 1 ----- Lean mixture
F

• For a typical hydrocarbon fuel, CH n   1  n 

 O2 
79  n  n
N 2   CO2  H 2O   1   N 2
 4  21  2  4

  n 
   32  3.76  28  1   / 12  n 
  4 
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ENGINE EFFICIENCIES

• Efficiency is the relation between the power delivered and the power that
could be obtained if the engine operates without loss of power.

1. Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of power produced to the energy in the

fuel burned to produce this power, and can be expressed as,

P
th  
m f  CV

• Depending upon whether it is BP or IP , the terms brake thermal

efficiency or indicated thermal efficiency is used.

IP BP
 ith    bth  
m f  CV m f  CV

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Some more ………

BP  bth Pbm isfc

2. Mechanical Efficiency: m    
IP ith Pim bsfc
• Mechanical efficiency usually lies between 80 to 90 %.

3. Air Standard Efficiency (ηair): It is the thermal efficiency of theoretical

engine or thermodynamic efficiency.

th
4. Efficiency Ratio/ Relative Efficiency:  rel 
air
Actual heat liberated
5. Combustion Efficiency:  combustion 
Theoritica l heat liberated in the fuel
• ηcombustion varies from 92 – 97% due to due to dissociation or due to lack of
available oxygen.
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Some more ………

6. Volumetric Efficiency (ηvol) :

• Indication of breathing ability of the engine.
• For SI engines it is 80 – 85% where as it is 85 – 90% for CI engines.

Volume of sucked air at ambient conditions

On volume basis,  vol 
Stroke volume (Vs )

Mass of sucked air at ambient conditions m
On mass basis,  vol   a
Theoritica l mass of air based on Vs math

where  

ma 
pV
, kg/s (at suction conditions) math   a nVs , kg/s
RT
n = N/2 for 4-stroke engine
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ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

1 bhp = 0.7457 kW
= 1.0142 PS
• PS or Pferrdestarke
(horse strength in Germany)

 Torque is max. at a speed a which the charge inducted per cylinder per
cycle will be max.
 IP of the engine increases with the speed due to more no. of cycles
executed per unit time when speed increases. Increase in air
consumption means that increased quantities of fuel can be added per
unit time that increases the power output.
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Sankey Diagram

 It is a method of representing heat balance of IC engines.

 This is a stream type diagram in which the width of the stream
represents the heat quantity as a percentage of heat supplied.

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PROBLEM – 1

Question – 1. A 4-cylinder 4-s cycle SI engine with 80 mm bore & 130 mm

stroke develops 27.6 kW while running at 1500 rpm. Using 20% rich

mixture if the volume of air drawn into cylinder when measured at 762mm of

Hg and 150C is found to be 70% of swept volume. Stochiometric A:F is

14.8:1. CV of fuel is 46057 kJ/kg, ηm=90%. Find, (a) the rate of air

consumption in kg/min, (b) ηith and (c) pbm.

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Solution – 1

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PROBLEM – 2

Question – 2. A 4-s petrol engine has 6 cylinders of 7.5 cm bore & 9 cm

stroke. A Morse test is carried out and the engine is coupled to a brake

having a torque arm of radius 38 cm. At 3300 rpm, with all cylinders

operating the net brake load is 323 N. When each cylinder in turn is

rendered in-operative, the average net brake load produced at the same

speed by the remaining five cylinders is 245 N. Estimate the mechanical

efficiency & indicated mean effective pressure.

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Solution – 2

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PROBLEM – 3

Question – 3. The observations recorded after the conduct of a

retardation test on a single-cylinder diesel engine are as follows :
Rated power = 10 kW
Rated speed = 500 rpm

Find FP & IP of the engine.

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Solution – 3
First we draw a graph of drop in speed versus time taken for the drop.

From graph;
Time for the fall of 100 rpm at no-load, t2= 8.3 sec.
Time for the fall of the same 100 rpm at 50% load, t3= 3.4 sec.

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Solution – 3 ………
2NT
BP  , kW
60000
2  500  T
 10   T  191.083, Nm
60000

Torque at 50% load, Tl/2= 95.5415, Nm.

Frictional torque, t3
Tf   Tl / 2  66.294, Nm
t 2  t3

2NT f 2  500  66.294

FP  , kW   3.469, kW.
60000 60000

IP= BP+FP= 13.469, kW (Answer)

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PROBLEM – 4

Question – 4. A two stroke diesel engine was motored when the

meter reading was 1.5 kW. Then the test on the engine was carried
out for one hour and the following observations were recorded:
Brake torque = 120 Nm; Speed = 600 rpm; Fuel used = 2.5 kg;
calorific value of fuel = 40.3 MJ/kg; Cooling water used = 818 kg;
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 10°C. Exhaust gas
temperature = 345°C. Room temperature = 25°C; A/F = 32 :1.
Determine : (i) bp, (ii) ip, (iii) Mechanical efficiency, (iv) Indicated
thermal efficiency, and (v) Draw heat balance sheet on minute basis
and also in percentage.

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Solution – 4

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Tutorials

Q – 1.
During the trial (60 minutes) on a single cylinder oil engine having cylinder
diameter 300mm, stroke 450mm and working on the 4-s cycle, the following
the observations were made:

Total fuel used = 9.6 litres; A/F = 32 :1; CV of fuel = 45000 kJ/kg; total no. of
revolutions = 12624; gross indicated mep = 7.24 bar; pumping indicated
mep = 0.34 bar; net load on the brake = 3150 N; diameter of the brake
wheel drum = 1.78 m; diameter of the rope = 40mm; cooling water
circulated = 545 litres; cooling water temperature rise = 25oC; exhaust gas
temperature = 345°C; room temp. = 25°C; specific gravity of fuel = 0.8.

Determine: (i) Indicated power, (ii) brake power, (iii) mechanical efficiency.
Draw up the heat balance sheet on the minute basis & also in percentage.

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Tutorials

Q – 2.
The following data were recorded from a test on a single cylinder four
stroke oil engine. Cylinder bore 150 mm, Stroke 250 mm, Area of indicator
diagram 450 mm2, Length of indicator diagram 50 mm, Spring constant
0.81 bar/mm. Engine speed 420 rpm, Brake torque 217 Nm, Fuel
consumption 2.95 kg/hr, Calorific value of fuel 44000 kJ/kg, Cooling water
flow rate 0.068 kg/s, Rise in temperature of cooling water 45C, Specific
heat capacity of cooling water 4178 J/kgK. Estimate mechanical efficiency,
brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption. Also draw energy
balance for useful energy, energy in cooling water, and rest as energy in
exhaust and radiation.
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COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE
 Normal Combustion: When the flame
travels evenly or uniformly across the
combustion chamber.
 Abnormal Combustion: When the
combustion gets deviated from the normal
behavior resulting in loss of performance
or damage to the engine.
 Combustion is dependent upon the rate of
propagation of flame front (or flame
speed).
 Flame Front: Boundary or front surface of
the flame that separates the burnt charges
from the unburnt one.
 Flame Speed: The speed at which the
flame front travels.
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THEORITICAL STAGES OF COMBUSTION

a → b : Compression
b → c : Combustion
c → d : Expansion
 Ideally, entire pressure rise during combustion occurs at constant volume,
i.e., when the piston is at TDC.

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COMBUSTION MEASUREMENT SETUP

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ACTUAL STAGES OF COMBUSTION

I. Ignition lag (A→B): Flame front begins to travel.

II. Spreading of Flame (B→C): Flame spreads throughout the Combustion

Chamber.

III. Afterburning (C→D): C is the point of max. pressure, a few degrees after
TDC. Power stroke begins.
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NORMAL COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE

 Flame travels from A→D and compresses the end charge BB´D and raises
its temperature. Temperature also increases due to heat transfer from the
flame front.

 Now, if the final temperature is less than the auto-ignition temperature,

Normal Combustion occurs and charge BB´D is consumed by the flame
itself.
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ABNORMAL SI ENGINE COMBUSTION: SPARK KNOCK

 Now, if the final temperature is greater than

and equal to the auto-ignition temperature, the
charge BB´D auto-ignites.

 A second flame front develops and moves in

opposite direction, where the collision occurs
between the flames.

 This causes severe pressure pulsation, and

leads to engine SPARK KNOCKING.

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ABNORMAL SI ENGINE COMBUSTION: SURFACE IGNITION

 Ignition of fuel-air mixture by a hot-spot on the combustion

chamber wall.
 Hot-spots: Exhaust valve, Spark plug, Carbon deposits on CC, etc.
 It occurs before the occurrence of the spark (pre-ignition) or after
(post- ignition).
 A turbulent flame develops at each surface ignition location and
starts to propagate across the CC.

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Engine Damage due to Knocking

To avoid Knocking:
 Use high auto-ignition temp. fuel.
 Use a long ignition lag fuel.

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Variables Affecting Knock in SI Engine

Increase in Variable Knocking Tendency

Compression ratio Increase
Mass of charge inducted Increase
Inlet temperature Increase
Spark advance Increase
Turbulence Decrease
Engine speed Decrease

• Spark plug is located in CC in such way that the flame travel should
be minimum to avoid spark-knocking. The flame travel can also be
reduced by using two or more spark plugs in large engines.

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COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE

• Combustion in a CI engine is quite different from that of an SI engine. While

combustion in an SI engine is essentially a flame front moving through a
homogeneous mixture, combustion in a CI engine is an unsteady process
occurring simultaneously in many spots in a very non-homogeneous mixture
controlled by fuel injection.

• Air intake into the engine is unthrottled, with engine torque and power output
controlled by the amount of fuel injected per cycle.

• Only air is contained in the cylinder during compression stroke, and a much
higher compression ratios (12 to 24) are used in CI engines.

• In addition to swirl and turbulence motion, a high injection velocity is needed

to spread the fuel throughout the cylinder and cause it to mix with the air.

• Fuel is injected into the cylinders late in the compression stroke by one or
more injectors located in each cylinders. Injection time is usually about 200 of
crankshaft rotation (150 bTDC and 50 aTDC).

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Air Swirl in CI Engine

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STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI DI ENGINE

I. Ignition delay: A→B

II. Premixed combustion (Rapid or Uncontrolled combustion): B→C
III. Controlled combustion: C→D
IV. Late combustion or After burning: D →E
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Heat Release Analysis

dQn   dV   1 dP 
  P  V  
dt    1 dt    1 dt 

where, Qn = Net heat-release rate,

V = Instantaneous volume of the cylinder,
P = Cylinder pressure.
γ for diesel heat-release analysis is 1.3 to 1.35.

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IGNITION DELAY IN CI ENGINE

• Ignition delay is defined as the time (or crank angle interval) from
when the fuel injection starts to the onset of combustion.

• Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a

significant fraction of the chemical energy of the injected liquid is
released.

• Physical processes are fuel spray atomization, evaporation and

mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air.

• Chemical processes similar to that described for auto-ignition

phenomenon in premixed fuel-air, only more complex since
heterogeneous reactions (reactions occurring on the liquid fuel
drop surface) also occur.

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EFFECT OF IGNITION DELAY PERIOD (DP)

DP is SHORT

DP is LONG

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KNOCKING IN CI ENGINE

 Knock in CI engines is related to delay period. When DP is longer, there will

be more and more accumulation of fuel droplets in combustion chamber.
This leads to a too rapid a pressure rise due to ignition, resulting in
jamming of forces against the piston and rough engine operation. When the
DP is too long, the rate of pressure rise is almost instantaneous with more
accumulation of fuel.

DP is TOO LONG

Video Demo

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FACTORS AFFECTING DELAY PERIOD

1. Compression Ratio: DP decreases with increase of CR.

2. Engine Speed: DP increases with increase of engine speed.

3. Power Output: DP decreases with increase of power output.

4. Fuel Atomization: DP decreases with fineness of atomization.

5. Fuel Quality: DP decreases with higher cetane number.

6. Intake Temp. & Pressure: DP decreases with increase of

Temperature and pressure.

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KNOCK IN SI & CI ENGINE

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SI ENGINE FUEL RATING

• To provide a standard measure of a fuel’s ability to resist knock, a scale has
been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane number ON.
• The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock for a
specified engine at a specified operating condition.
• An ON scale is in place where normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value
of zero and iso-octane (i-C8H18) has a value of 100.
• The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.
• Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate
octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% iso-octane has an
octane number of 90.
• Performance Number (PN) = klimep of test fuel / klimep of iso-octane
• Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR):
Compression ratio at which a fuel can be used without detonation in a
specified test engine under specified operating condition and the ignition and
mixture strength being adjusted to give best efficiency.
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Octane Number (ON)

• Definition: It indicates the % by volume of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-
octane and heptane which exhibit the same characteristics of the fuel in a
standard engine under a set of operating conditions.

• Common octane numbers for gasoline fuels used in automobile range from
87 to 95, with higher values for special high performance and racing cars.

• Two most common methods of rating gasoline and other SI engine fuels are
the Motor Method and the Research Method. These give the motor octane
number (MON) and research octane number (RON).

• Another less common method is the Aviation Method used for aircraft fuel,
and this gives an Aviation Octane Number (AON).

• There are a number of gasoline additives that are used to raise the octane
number. For many years, the standard additive was tetraethyl lead (TEL). A
few millilitres of TEL in several litres of gasoline could raise the ON several
points.

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Octane IMPROVERS
• Chemical additives are used to raise the octane number of gasoline.

• The most effective antiknock agents are lead alkyls;

(i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb was introduced in 1923
(ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb was introduced in 1960
(iii) Mixture of TEL & TML

• Lead compound reacts with the chain carrier O to reduce its

concentration.
• Alcohols such as ethanol and methanol have high knock resistance.

• Since 1970 another alcohol, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), has
been added to gasoline to increase octane number. MTBE is
formed by reacting methanol and isobutylene.

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UNLEADED PETROL

o It does not contain any lead compound (like TEL).

o Concentration of high octane components like isooctane, isopentane,

ethylbenzene, isopropylbenzene, etc., is increased by the process of
reforming.

o In addition methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is added to improve the

octane number of unleaded petrol.

o This compound provides oxygen for combustion of petrol.

o This in turn reduces the pollution level of lead in the atmosphere.

o It permits the attachment of catalytic converters (containing rhodium

catalyst) to the exhaust pipe in automobiles.

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Cetane Number (CN)

• Ignition quality of diesel fuel is determined in terms of CN.

• The cetane number scale is defined by blends of two pure hydrocarbon
reference fuels.
• By definition, isocetane (heptamethylnonane, HMN) has a cetane number of
15 and cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a value of 100.
• In the original procedures α-methyl naphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane
number of zero represented the bottom of the scale. This has since been
replaced by HMN which is a more stable compound.
• The cetane no. is given by, CN = (% cetane) + 0.15 (% isocetane)
• Diesel usually has a cetane number between 40-60, whereas gasoline has a
cetane number of 10-20. This is why ‘A good diesel engine fuel is a bad
gasoline engine fuel’.
• Some cetane improver: nitrates, nitroalkanes, nitrocarbonates and peroxides etc.

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ASTM Distillation Curve

PETROL FUEL

DIESEL FUEL
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FUEL SYSTEM OF PETROL ENGINE

CARBURETION
 The process of mixture preparation in an SI engine is called carburetion.
This air-fuel mixture is prepared outside the cylinder in a device called
CARBURETOR.
 The carburetor atomizes the fuel and mixes with air in different
proportions for various LOAD conditions.
 Factors affecting Carburetion:
 Engine speed
 Vaporization characteristics of the fuel
 The temperature of the incoming air
 Design of the carburetor

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Air – Fuel Ratio



 Air-Fuel Ratio, A ma ma
 
F m f m
f

• SI engines may have A/F ratio in the range of 12 to 18.

• CI engines may have A/F ratio in the range of 18 to 70.
 Chemically correct or Stoichiometric mixture is the mixture that contains
just enough of air for the complete combustion of available fuel.

 Equivalence F/A ratio:

F Φ = 1 ----- Chemically correct
Actual   ratio
  Equivalenc e Ratio   A Φ < 1 ----- Lean mixture
F
Stoichiome tric   ratio Φ > 1 ----- Rich mixture
 A

 A/F ratio or Excess Air Ratio:

 A
Actual   ratio λ = 1 ----- Chemically correct
  Excess air ratio  F
 A λ < 1 ----- Rich mixture
Stoichiometric   ratio
F λ > 1 ----- Lean mixture
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Air – Fuel (A/F) Mixtures

 Chemically Correct (15:1)

 Rich Mixture (10:1)
 Lean Mixture (17:1)

 Maximum Output = 12:1

(Best power mixture)

 Minimum Fuel Consumption = 16:1

(Best economy mixture)

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CARBURETOR PERFORMANCE

I. Idling/Starting: Engine runs without load. Produces power only to

overcome friction between the parts. Rich mixture is required to sustain
combustion.
II. Normal Power/Cruising/Medium Load: Engine runs for most of the period.
Therefore, fuel economy is maintained. Low fuel consumption for
maximum economy. Requires a lean mixture.
III. Maximum power/Acceleration: Overtaking a vehicle (short period) or
111
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University up a hill (extra load). Requires a rich mixture.

SIMPLE CARBURETOR

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DRAWBACKS OF SIMPLE CARBURETOR

• It cannot provide the variation in mixture ratio for different load &
speed engine operations.

• It cannot compensate for transient phenomena in the intake manifold.

• It cannot provide a rich mixture during engine starting & warm-up.

• It cannot adjust to changes in ambient air density due to changes in

magnitude.

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MORDERN CARBURETOR

• Main metering system: Constant lean or stoichiometric mixture over 20

– 80% of the air flow range.

• Idle system: To meter the fuel flow at idle and light loads to provide a
rich mixture.

• Enrichment system: The engine can get a rich mixture as WOT

condition is approached and maximum power can be obtained.

• Accelerator system: Additional fuel can be introduced into the engine

only when the throttle is suddenly opened.

• Choke: To enrich the mixture during cold starting and warm-up to

ensure that a combustible mixture is provided to each cylinder at the
time of ignition.

• Altitude compensation: To adjust the fuel flow which makes the mixture
rich when air density is lowered.

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CARBURETOR TYPES

1. Down-draught – High engine speed

2. Up-draught – It must lift the sprayed fuel droplets by air friction.

• Designed for small mixing tubes and throat.

3. Cross-draught: Low resistance to flow

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PRACTICAL CARBURETOR

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DIMINISH OF CARBURETOR

 Mal-distribution problem in multi-cylinder SI engine.

 Need of careful control of the A/F ratio for catalytic converter.

 Complication of Electronic controlled carburetor.

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FUEL INJECTION IN SI ENGINES

Port Injection
 Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
- Manifold injection or
Single-point injection

 Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)

Single Cylinder

• Power delivery depend on air supplied and petrol is added accordingly.

Quantity of air depend on opening of throttle valve (Quantity Control).

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Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

• Throttle valve is always opened leading always sufficient supply of air and
output power depend on amount of fuel injected and time of injection
(Quality Control).

• Direct multi point fuel injection.

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FUEL SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE

• In a diesel engine, fuel is ignited by being suddenly exposed to the high

temperature and pressure of a compressed gas containing oxygen
(usually atmospheric air).

• The device responsible for supplying diesel fuel into the engine is the
‘FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM’.

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FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM – REQUIREMENTS

 The fuel injection should occur at the correct moment.

 It should supply the fuel in correct quantity as required by the

varying engine loads.

 The injected fuel must be broken into very fine droplets.

 The spray pattern should ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.

 It should supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all the

cylinders in a multi cylinder engines.

 The beginning and the end of injection should be sharp.

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ELEMENTS OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

 Distribution elements: to divide the metered fuel equally among

the cylinders.
 Pumping elements: to supply fuel from fuel tank to cylinder.
 Metering elements: to meter fuel supply as per load and speed.
 Timing controls: to adjust the start and the stop of injection.
 Mixing elements: to atomize and distribute the fuel within the
combustion chamber.

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TYPES OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

1. Air (Blast) Injection System

o In air blast injection system, fuel is forced into the

cylinder by means of compressed air.

o This method is capable of producing better atomization

and penetration of fuel resulting in higher brake mean
effective pressure.

o This system is little used universally at present,

because it requires a multistage air compressor, which
increases engine weight and reduces brake power.

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2. Solid Injection System

 In solid injection, the liquid fuel is injected directly

into the combustion chamber without the aid of
compressed air. Hence, it is termed as airless
mechanical injection or solid injection.

 Every solid injection system must have

 a pressuring unit (the pump)

and
 an atomizing unit (the injector)

 Classification depends upon the location of the

pumps and injectors, and the manner of their
operations.
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Common Rail Unit Injector

Individual Pump & Nozzle system

Individual Pump

Pumps in Cluster

Distributor system

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COMPONENTS of INJECTOR NOZZLE

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Types of NOZZLEs

Injection pr.: 8-10MPa Injection pr.: 18MPa Injection pr.: 8-10MPa Inj. pr.: 8-10MPa
spray cone: 15 deg. spray cone: >20 deg. spray cone: 60 deg. spray cone: 60 deg.

Nozzles
Nozzle Holders
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IGNITION SYSTEMS

• The job of an ignition system is to create an environment, which

can help few fuel molecules to reach their self ignition state.

• Simply saying pouring of few ions into cylinder !!!

• This environment is called spark.

• This will provoke self ignition of the air/fuel mixture at lower

temperatures.

• The ignition system provides a spark of sufficient intensity to

ignite the air-fuel mixture at the predetermined position in the
engine cycle under all speeds and load conditions.

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Battery Ignition Systems

o The primary circuit consists of the battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary coil
winding, capacitor, and breaker points.

o The secondary circuit converts magnetic induction into high voltage electricity to
jump across the spark plug gap, firing the mixture at the right time.

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Magneto Ignition Systems

 The basic components of a magneto ignition

system consist of a magneto, breaker points,
capacitor, ignition switch, distributor, spark plug
leads, and spark plugs.

 Magneto can either be rotating armature type or

rotating magneto type.

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Electronic Ignition Systems

• In this system, the contact breaker points are replaced by an angular sensor of
some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more
commonly using a hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted
on a suitable shaft.

• The sensor output processed by a suitable circuitry is then used to trigger a

switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a large flow of current through
the coil.
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Transistorized Coil Ignition (TCI) System

Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI) System

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OTHER IGNITION SYSTEMS

1. Ignition by an electrically heated wire

2. Ignition by flame or hot jet

3. Plasma jet ignition

4. Photochemical ignition

5. Microwave ignition

6. Laser ignition

7. Puff-jet ignition
Glow plug ignition

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SPARK PLUGS

 A cold plug has the advantage of quicker heat transfer. It has a shorter
insulator, and thereby allowing heat to travel a shorter distance.

 A hot plug has a longer insulator, and therefore, heat travel path from
firing tip to electrode is longer. This enables it to operate at higher
temperature to compensate for the cooler running engine.

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FIRING ORDER

o Firing order indicates the sequence or order in which the firing

impulses occur in a multi-cylinder spark ignition engine. It is
chosen to give a uniform torque of the engine.
o Three factors decide the optimum firing order of the engine.
i. Engine vibrations,
ii. Engine cooling, and
iii. Development of back pressure.

 Four-cylinder engine: 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-2.

 Six-cylinder inline engine: 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5.
 Seven-cylinder radial engine: 1,3,5,7,2,4,6
 8 Cylinder V shape Engine: 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
 12 Cylinder V shape Engine: 1-4-9-8-5-2-11-10-3-6-7-12

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SPARK ADVANCE MECHANISM

 It assures that ignition takes place at most favourable time in terms of
engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust gas dilution.
 Engine speed and engine load are the control quantities for the automatic
adjustment of ignition timing.
 Most of the engines are fitted with mechanism which are integral with the
distributor and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance.

Centrifugal Advance Mechanism

– Controls ignition timing at full-load
Vacuum Advance Mechanism
– Controls ignition timing at part-load
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COOLING SYSTEMS

 Cooling is a matter of equalization of internal temperature to prevent local

overheating as well as to remove sufficient heat energy to maintain a practical
overall working temperature.

Reasons for Cooling

 to promote a high volumetric efficiency.
 to ensure proper combustion.
 to ensure mechanical operation & reliability.

Effect of Over-cooling
 Thermal efficiency decreased due to more loss of heat carried by coolant.
 Vaporization of the fuel is less resulting in lower combustion efficiency.
 Low temp. increases the viscosity of lubricant causing more friction.

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Air Cooling (Direct Cooling)

• Air cooled engines depend on airflow across their external surfaces of

the engine cylinders to remove the necessary heat.

• The area of cooling surface is increased by forming thin fins, either

integrally by machining them on the outer walls of the engine cylinder
and cylinder head or by attaching separate fins to them.

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Liquid Cooling Systems

Direct or non-return system

• This is suitable for large installations and

where plenty of water is available.
• The water from a storage tank is directly
supplied to the engine cylinder.
• the hot water is not cooled for reuse but
simply discharges.

Thermo-syphon system

• In this system, a fan rotated by the crankshaft

draws cold air from outside through the radiator.
The radiator is connected to the engine block by
means of two pipes. The hot water passes through
some thin pipes built in the radiator, where it gets
cooled. Thus, the fluid circulates through the
system in the form of convective currents.

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Liquid Cooling Systems

Forced circulation cooling system

• The water or coolant is circulated through

jackets around the parts of the engine to
be cooled, and is kept in motion by a
centrifugal pump, driven from the engine.
A thermostat is used to control the water
temperature required for cooing.

Evaporative cooling system

• In this system, the engine will be cooled

because of the evaporation of the water in
the cylinder jackets into steams. This
system is used for cooling of many types
of industrial engines.

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Use of Anti-freezers
o During winter or when the engine is kept out of operation in cold places,
the cooling water in the cylinder jackets, radiator tanks and leading pipes
will freeze, expand and lead to their fracture. To prevent damage to the
engine and radiator during winter weather, suitable liquids or compound
substances (known as anti-freezers) which go into solution are added to
the water to lower the freezing temperature of the coolant.

o Ethylene glycol is the most widely used automotive cooling-system

antifreeze, although methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and propylene
glycol are also used.

Lubricating Oil as Coolant

• The lubricating oil used in an engine also helps to cool the engine. The
hotter parts like piston face and back surface of piston crown is subjected
to oil flow, usually done by spraying the oil by pressurized systems or by
splash in non-pressurized system. Other components like camshaft and
connecting rods are also cooled by oil circulation through oil passages.
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LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

Purpose of Lubrication
 Reduce the frictional resistance of the engine to a minimum to ensure
maximum mechanical efficiency.
 Protect the engine against wear.
 Serve as a cooling agent by picking up heat.
 Remove all impurities from the lubricated region.
 Form a seal between piston rings and the cylinder walls to prevent blow-by.

 Mist lubrication system Two Stroke Engines

 Wet sump lubrication system

Four Stroke Engines
 Dry sump lubrication system

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Mist Lubrication Systems

• In two-stroke engines, the charge is compressed in the

crankcase, and as such it is not suitable to have the lubricating
oil in the sump.

• Such engines are lubricated by adding 3 % to 6 % oil in the fuel

tank itself. The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the
carburetor. The fuel gets vaporized and the oil, in the form of
mist, goes into the cylinder through the crankcase. The oil that
impinges the crankcase walls lubricates the main and
connecting rod bearings, and the rest of the oil lubricates the
piston, piston rings and cylinder.

• The main advantage with this system lies in the simplicity and
low cost as the system does not require any oil pump, filter etc.

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Wet Sump Lubrication Systems

 In the wet sump system, the bottom of the crankcase contains an oil
sump (or pan) that serves as the oil supply reservoir.
 Oil dripping from the cylinders and bearings flows by gravity back into
the wet sump where it is picked up by a pump and re-circulated through
the engine lubricating system.

Splash & Circulating Pump System

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Splash & Pressure System

Full Force Feed System

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Dry Sump Lubrication Systems

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RATING OF LUBRICATING OIL

o Lubricating oil is generally rated using a viscosity

scale established by the SAE.
SAE 5 SAE 40
o The oil with lower viscosity grades is less viscous
and is used in cold-weather operation. Modern SAE 10 SAE 45
high temperature, high speed, close tolerance SAE 20 SAE 50
engines use high viscosity grades oil.
SAE 30

o When certain polymers are added to oil, the

temperature dependency of oil viscosity is
reduced. These oils have low viscosity grades
when they are cold and higher as they become hot.
SAE 5W-20 SAE 10W-40

o As for example, SAE 10W-30 means that the oil SAE 5W-30 SAE 10W-50
has a grade 10 when it is cold (W stands for SAE 5W-40 SAE 15W-40
winter) and 30 when it is hot.
SAE 5W-50 SAE 15W-50
SAE 10W-30 SAE 20W-50
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LUBRICANT ADDITIVES
 Corrosion and Rust Inhibitors
 Anti-foam Agents
 Detergent-Dispersants
 Pour Point Improvers
 Oiliness and Film-strength Agents

TYPES OF LUBRICANT

• Animal
• Vegetable
• Mineral
• Synthetic
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Emission Standards in India

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Catalytic Converter

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Engine Smokes

WHITE SMOKE
• Quite normal phenomenon when warming up of the cold engine.
• This is not smoke, it’s steam!
• Vapour is natural result of fuel combustion.

BLACK SMOKE
• Indicates the fullness of the air-fuel mixture i.e., fault fuel system.
• Smoke is clearly visible on a light background.
• Produces soot particles - products of incomplete combustion.

BLUE OR DOVE-COLORED SMOKE

• Produced when lubricating oil gets into the engine cylinders.
• "Oily" smoke may have blue or blue-white color.
• Oil can get to the CC through piston rings, valve stems etc.
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Supercharging & Turbocharging

Supercharging Turbocharging

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Methods to Improve Engine Performance

I. Increase in Energy Input
 Increasing mass of charge
 Supercharging
 Larger piston displacement
 Improvement in ηvol
 Higher N
 Improvement in fuels

II. Conversion Efficiency of Fuel Energy to Mechanical energy

 Higher compression ratio
 Higher anti-knock quality fuels
 Turbocharging
 Reducing the losses in actual cycle
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Thank You for Your Attention !

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